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THE 


PROGE ERIN GS 


OF THE 


LINNEAN SOCIETY 


OF 


New SoutH WALES 


FOR THE YEAR 


1931 


VOL! ENT. 


WITH THIRTY-FOUR PLATES, 
ONE COLOURED PLATE 
and 268 Text-figures. 


SYDNEY: 


PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY THE 
AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO., LTD., 
Seamer Street, Glebe, Sydney, 
and 
SOLD BY THE SOCIETY. 

1931-1932. 


CONTENTS OF PROCEEDINGS, 1931. 


PART I (No. 233). 
(Issued 15th April, 1931.) 


Pages. 
Presidential Address, delivered at the Fifty-sixth Annual Meeting, 
25th, Maren alo3is by. (Es @heell a wa oe coi eke Woe orate i-xxvii 
Hlections Ber) (ane (ee Gari mems A Stowe ASW AAD Ins SUR oamnE oe Game seer Geied M Gtp XXVii 
Balance-sheets for the year ended 31st December, 1930 .. .. .. .. xxviii-xxx 
PART II (No. 234). 
(Issued 15th May, 1931.) 
Gasteromycetes of ‘Australasia. x. The Phallales. Part i. By G. H. 
Gunnineham:. (Plates) 12iih)ies ten ue oie. a cet een Naeem 1— 15 
Petrology of the Hartley District. i. The Plutonic and Associated Rocks. 
By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc. (Seven Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. 16- 59 
Notes on Australian Diptera. xxvii. By J. R. Malloch. «Communicated 
by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) (Two Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. 60- 78 
Contributions to our Knowledge of the Actinomycetales. i. A Case of 
Hereditary Variation in the Genus Actinomyces. By H. L. Jensen, 
Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. (Plate iii and eleven Text- 
MPUTESS)) © soc akerecer ents eae. Lat ad (oie An edhe aarti etc eerste eo 79-— 98 
The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. i. Tallong—Bungonia. 
By Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in 
Geography. (Plates iv-vii and ten Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. 99-132 
Further Notes on the Orchids of the South Maitland Coalfields, with 
Description of a New Dendrobium from Bullahdelah. By Rey. 
H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. (Four Text-figures. ) AG Rt aca en nk eel oosltas 
PART III (No. 235). 
(Issued 15th July, 1931.) 
On Baridiinae (Curculionidae), mostly from New Guinea. By A. M. Lea, 
IDEs | (Cb abieavasenienal MMe qeSiSERASS)) bo oo 60.100) oo do on oo diet =al/al 
The Life-history of Calliphora ochracea Schiner (Diptera, Calliphoridae). 
By Mary E. Fuller, B.Sc. (Two Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. .. 172-181 


The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xi. The Phallales, Part ii. By 
(Gy Jal, (Corerpbieinarn, (Benes Wb) G62 66 oo 00 of oo oo co ABER) 


CONTENTS. 


A Note on the Systematic Position of Mycobacterium coeliacum. By H. L. 
Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. (One Text-figure.) 


Three new Bats of the Genera Pteropus, Nyctimene, and Chaerephon, from 
Melanesia. By Ellis Le G. Troughton 


Notes on the Biology and Morphology of the Eurymelinae (Cicadelloidea, 
Homoptera). By J. W. Evans, M.A., F.H.S. (Communicated by Dr. 
R. J. Tillyard.) (Plate xi and nineteen Text-figures.) .. 


Trichopterygidae of Australia and Adjacent Islands. Descriptions of five 
new Genera and twenty new Species. By Cedric Deane, A.M.1I.H.Aust. 
(Twenty-three Text-figures. ) 


The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. ii. Nerrimunga 
Creek. By Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the 
Society in Geography. (Plates xii—xiii and four Text-figures.) .. 


The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. iii. Bulee Ridge. By 
Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in 
Geography. (One Text-figure.) 


PART IV (No. 236). 
(Issued 15th October, 1931.) 


On a new Bopyrid Parasite from the Coast of New South Wales. By 
William J. Dakin, D.Sc., F.Z.S., F.L.S. (Plate xiv and nine Text- 
figures. ) 


Notes on Australian Diptera. xxviii. By J. R. Malloch. (Communicated 
by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 


The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xii. The Genus Scleroderma. By 
_ G. H. Cunningham. (Plates xv-xvi and six Text-figures.) 


The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xiii. The Genus Pisolithus. By 
G. H. Cunningham. (Plate xvii.) 


Notes on Australian Diptera. xxix. By J. R. Malloch. (Communicated 
by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) (Two Text-figures. ) 


On the Autecology of Stipa nitida: a Study of a Fodder Grass in Arid 
Australia. By T. G. B. Osborn, J. G. Wood and T. B. Paltridge. 
- (Plate Xviili and fourteen Text-figures. ) 


Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Supplementary. By A. Jefferis 
Turner, M.D., F.E:S. 


Contributions to our Knowledge of the Actinomycetales. ii. The 
Definition and Subdivision of the Genus Actinomyces, with a Pre- 
liminary Account of Australian Soil Actinomycetes. By H. L. Jensen, 
Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. (Plates xix—xx.) 


iii. 


Page. 


201-203 


204-209 


210-226 


227-242 


243-260 


261-265 


267-272 


273-276 


277-287 


288-291 


292-298 


299-324 


325-344 


345-370 


iv. CONTENTS. 


The Wing-Venation of the Order Isoptera. i. Introduction and the 
Family Mastotermitidae. By R. J. Tillyard, M.A., Sc.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 
(Plate xxi and eight Text-figures.) 


PART V (No. 237.) 
(Issued 15th December, 1931.) 


The Reaction of Viminaria denudata to increased Water Content of the 
Soil. By Lilian Fraser, B.Sc. (Plate xxii and eighteen Text-figures. ) 


Notes on Australian Marine Algae. vi. Descriptions of Six New Species. 
By A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Se. (Plates xxiii-xxvii.) 


The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. iv. Nerriga. By 
Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in 
Geography. (Plates xxviii-xxix and four Text-figures. ) 


A Classification of the Gall-making Coccids of the Genus Apiomorpha. By 
Walter W. Froggatt, F.L.S. (Thirty Text-figures.) 


A Note on the Leaf Buds of Angophoras. By Gladys Carey, B.Sc. (Four 
Text-figures. ) 


Notes on New South Wales Orchids. By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. 
(One Text-figure. ) 


The Stratigraphical and Structural Geology of the Devonian Rocks of the 
South Coast of New South Wales. By Ida A. Brown, B.Sc., Linnean 
Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology. (Plates xxx-xxxiv and 
seven Text-figures. ) 


An Investigation of Lobelia gibbosa and Lobelia dentata. i. Mycorrhiza, 
Latex System and General Biology. By Lilian Fraser, B.Sc. (¥Forty- 
four Text-figures. ) 


Fletcher Memorial Lecture, 1931. The Animal Mind and its Significance 
for Biology. By W. EH. Agar, F.R.S. 


PART VI (No. 238). 
(Issued 15th February, 1932.) 


Abstract of Proceedings .. .. .. 

Donations and Exchanges 

List of Members .. 

Index SUES RAS ae cycle althe 8 cae vaMe tay hay Ae a aE 
Family, Genera and Subgenus described as new 
Corrigenda 

List of Plates 


Pages. 


371-390 


391-406 


407-411 


412-430 


431-454 


455-457 


458-460 


461-496 


497-525 


526-534 


. xxxi-xli 


xli-liv 
Iv-lix 
lix-lxxi 
1xxi 
1xxi 
1xxii 


THE 


POG LNGS 


OF THE 


inven SOCIETY 


OF 


NEW “SOUTH a\\ratsEs 


ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING. 


WEDNESDAY, 25th Marcu, 1931. 


The Fifty-sixth Annual General Meeting was held in the Society’s Rooms 
at Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, on Wednesday, 25th March, 1931. 

Mr. E. Cheel, President, in the Chair. 

The minutes of the preceding Annual General Meeting (26th March, 1930) 
were read and confirmed. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 
Ladies and Gentlemen, 

We meet to-night for the first time in our new quarters in Science House, 
Sydney. The completion of this building, with its occupation by a number of the 
scientific and professional societies of Sydney, will for all time mark one of the 
significant dates in the advance of Science in Australia. The concentration of 
such Societies in the one building will help to bring to the public a greater 
appreciation of Australian Science and of Australian scientific workers than is 
possible when the Societies are scattered and carry on their work in different parts 
of the city. There are other advantages to which the members of the Societies 
may look forward, amongst which will be the ease of consulting the libraries 
housed in the building and also the ease of gathering information from the 
officers and members of the different Societies. There are still scientific and 
professional Societies in Sydney that have not found it possible or practicable 
to make Science House their headquarters, but it is our hope that, before many 
years have passed, all the present difficulties will have been overcome and that 
Science House will be the home of all kindred Societies. 

Science House represents the realization of the desire of many of our scientific 
workers, often expressed during past years. Perhaps the earliest record of the 
wish that we have is that voiced by the late Professor Archibald Liversidge (one 
of the original members of our Society) in his Presidential Address delivered 
to the Royal Society of New South Wales on 7th May, 1890. After expressing 

A 


il. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


his own desire that the Royal Society should have even better accommodation 
than it had then at 5 Elizabeth Street, he continued: “In fact what is wanted 
is a modest edition of Burlington House, Piccadilly, which was built by the 
Imperial Government, to lodge the Royal Society, the Astronomical, the Chemical, 
the Geological and certain other societies, together with the Royal Academy.” 
He then further detailed his ideas of what such a building might be, and con- 
cluded: ‘I believe that if the matter were carried out, even as a commercial 
undertaking, it would prove not only a very useful but also a fairly profitable 
investment.” We hope to be able to prove that Professor Liversidge’s belief was 
justified. 

It is a strange coincidence that your Council first resolved (21st September, 
1927) that a scheme for Science House was practicable and that it was prepared 
to join in such a scheme, only a few days before the death of Professor Liversidge 
in London (26th September, 1927). 

The stages in the development of the Science House scheme have been detailed 
by my predecessors and all I need add now is that after the Annual Meeting a 
year ago the building progressed steadily and satisfactorily. The foundation 
stone was set by His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Philip 
Game, on Tuesday, 24th June, 1930. The building was practically complete by the 
end of January, 1931, and most of the societies were able to enter into occupation 
of their new offices about that time. The question of an official opening function 
is under consideration by the three owner-bodies. I think you will all agree with 
me that the building itself reflects the greatest credit on the architects (Messrs. 
Peddle, Thorp and Walker) and the builders (Messrs. John Grant & Sons) and is 
a worthy addition to the notable buildings of Sydney. It is a matter for regret 
that Mr. Peddle, senior partner of the firm of architects responsible for the design, 
who was so keenly interested in the project, did not live to see it completed. 


We ourselves are becoming accustomed to the change and are beginning to 
reap some of the benefit of having the library once more close at hand. The task 
of removing the library from the Macleay Museum and rearranging it is no 
light one, and it will be some time before it is complete, but good progress has 
already been made and it is now possible to consult any reference in the library 
at comparatively short notice. The room in which we meet to-night is to be 
retained solely for our own meetings and as a reading room in which members 
may consult references from the library and where current additions to the 
library will always be available. It is hoped that members will avail themselves 
fully of those facilities. 

An additional attraction for members of the Societies lies in the proposal, 
put forward by the Australian Chemical Institute, that the Societies join together 
for the purpose of providing a common lounge and smoke room in the building. 
There seems to be every prospect that this proposal will be successful and that 
there will be a place where members of different Societies may meet one another 
informally and in comfort. 

During the present times of financial difficulty it is perhaps not surprising 
that government subsidies to scientific societies should be reduced. Our subsidy 
from the Government has been reduced by half, but we hope that with the return 
of normal conditions, our original grant will be restored. 

The coming year promises to cause your Honorary Treasurer and Council 
some measure of anxiety. The fact that Science House was completed at a time of 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. lil. 


financial stress has made it a difficult matter for the Council to dispose of Macleay 
House, 16 College Street. As the Council did not expect to encounter this difficulty, 
it will have to keep a close watch over finance during the year in the event of 
failure to dispose of Macleay House. 


The Australian Expedition to the Antarctic under the leadership of Sir Douglas 
Mawson returned to its work for a second season, departing from Hobart early 
in November last. After another successful voyage, during which much new 
ground was explored, the Discovery has now returned to Australia, and we offer 
our congratulations and a hearty welcome to the leader and his staff. 

The Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science held its 
twentieth meeting at Brisbane in May-June, 1930. The meeting was a highly 
successful one, being attended by a large number of members from the other States, 
and the visit of such a large gathering of scientists should provide inspiration 
and incentive to the scientific workers in Queensland. During the meeting the 
General Council of the Association resolved, on representations made from New 
Zealand, to alter the name to the Australian and New Zealand Association for the 
Advancement of Science. 

The first Fletcher Memorial Lecture was delivered by Mr. A. H. S. Lueas, 
M.A., B.Sc., who took as his subject “Joseph James Fletcher, an Idealist Secretary’, 
giving an intimate personal account of the late Mr. Fletcher and his work. The 
Council has invited Professor F. Wood Jones, of Melbourne, to deliver the Lecture 
in 1931. 

The J. H. Maiden Memorial Shelter Pavilion, erected in the Botanic Gardens 
by public subscription, was dedicated on 19th May, 1930, by His Excellency the 
Lieutenant-Governor, Sir W. P. Cullen, the ceremony being attended by a large 
gathering of members of the Linnean Society and kindred organizations. 

The third number of the Memorial Series containing an appreciation of the 
late J. H. Maiden, written by Mr. A. H. S. Lucas, has been issued. 


During the year, I attended, as your representative, a meeting called by the 
Town Planning Association of New South Wales for the purpose of taking steps 
to impress upon the Government the need for securing sufficient parks and playing 
grounds for the future—an object worthy of our support. 

The first of the Society’s coloured plates of Australian wild flowers was issued 
with Part 4 of the Procerpines for 1930. The subject of the plate was Hpacris 
longifiora and it is pleasing to be able to state that the demand for the postcards 
available for sale has been satisfactory. The blocks for the second of the Series 
(the Waratah, Telopea speciosissima) were practically ready for delivery in time 
for its issue with Part 5 of last year’s PROCEEDINGS in December, but unfortunately 
they were destroyed in a disastrous fire which completely gutted the premises of 
the Society’s block-makers, Messrs. A. A. Lawson, Ltd. Fresh blocks have been 
made and the plate will appear with Part 1 of the Procrrpines for 1931. 

Some progress was made during 1930 with the proposal to have set apart an 
area for the cultivation, preservation and exhibition of the native flora. The 
Committee appointed by your Council to further the project, discussed the matter 
with a Committee appointed by the National Park Trust. The representatives 
of the National Park Trust expressed themselves wholeheartedly in accord with 
the idea, and the Under Secretary for Lands also expressed sympathy with the 
project. Members of the two Committees paid a visit to National Park, accom- 
panied by a Surveyor from the Lands Department, with the object of reconnoitring 


iv. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


the Waterfall end of the Park to see if it might be possible to set apart an 
area there for more intensive cultivation of the native flora. The result of the 
visit was satisfactory, but in view of the fact that funds would be needed to 
carry out the idea it was finally decided that it would be wise to postpone further 
action until a more favourable time. 

In response to representations made last year by various Societies to the 
Department of Lands, the Minister has now approved of the proposal that a 
large area of land, comprising about 34,600 acres, on the watershed of the 
Bellingen, Nambucca and Macleay Rivers, and embracing Point Lookout, be set 
apart as a National Park, and action is now proceeding to have this area reserved 
from sale and from lease generally for Public Recreation. I take this opportunity 
of expressing our gratification at the result of this application and also of 
expressing our appreciation of the action of the Minister and the Under Secretary 
for Lands. 

The concluding part of Volume lv of the Society’s ProcrEEDINGS was issued in 
February. The complete volume (750 plus Ilxxx pages, forty plates, one portrait, 
one coloured plate and 268 text-figures) contains thirty-five papers from twenty- 
seven authors. In addition to the usual variety of papers the volume contains 
No. 3 of the Memorial Series and the Fletcher Memorial Lecture for 1930. 


Exchange relations with scientific societies and institutions were maintained at 
a satisfactory standard. The receipts for the year total 1,866, compared with 
2,540, 1,821 and 2,084 for previous sessions. During the year the following 
institutions have been added to the exchange list which now numbers 223: Société 
de Biologie de Lettonie, Riga; Imperial Agricultural Experiment Station in Japan, 
Tokyo; Geologisch Bureau, Heerlen, Holland; School of Public Health and Tropical 
Medicine, Sydney. 

Your Council discussed the small average attendance at the Society’s 
monthly meetings and it was suggested that perhaps some hour of meeting would 
be more convenient to members than the present one. <A questionnaire was 
circulated to members resident in the metropolitan district, and the replies showed 
that the present hour (7.30 p.m.) is the most convenient for the great majority 
of those members. 

We were delighted to receive a visit from Professor J. T. Wilson, Honorary 
Member and former President, who was present at the July meeting and brought 
to us a message of greeting from Professor J. P. Hill, also an Honorary Member. 


The vacancy on the Council caused by the resignation of Dr. A. J. Nicholson 
on account of his appointment to the Division of Economic Entomology at 
Canberra, was filled by the appointment of Dr. W. L. Waterhouse. 


On behalf of members I take the opportunity of expressing our congratulations 
to Professor J. P. Hill on the award to him of a Linnean Medal by the Linnean 
Society of London; to Dr. W. L. Waterhouse on being the first to attain the 
degree of D.Sc.Agr. in the University of Sydney; to Dr. H. Claire Weekes, former 
Linnean Macleay Fellow in Zoology, on being the first woman to receive the degree 
of Doctor of Science in the University of Sydney; and to Dr. P. D. F. Murray, 
also a former Linnean Macleay Fellow in Zoology, on being awarded a Smithson 
Research Fellowship in Natural Science at the University of Cambridge. 

Since the last Annual Meeting fifteen Ordinary Members have been added 
to the roll, nine have resigned, and the names of four have been removed on 
account of arrears of subscription. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vv. 


The year has passed without the Society losing a single member by death. I 
should refer, however, to the death of Mr. Duncan Carson, which took place on 
6th January, 1931, only a few days after his resignation from membership took 
effect. Mr. Carson, who was in his 71st year, was one of the oldest members 
of the Society, having been a member since 1890. He was one of the founders 
of the firm of Winchcombe, Carson, Ltd., and was a noted pastoralist, having 
been associated, during his lifetime, with almost every movement having as its 
object the benefit of the pastoral industry. . 

The year’s work of the Society’s research staff may be summarized thus: 

Mr. H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society, isolated about fifty 
strains of the genus Micromonospora and subjected them to a close study in order 
to obtain a basis for establishing definite species. The results of this study are 
embodied in a paper “The genus Micromonospora @Orskov, a little known Group of 
Soil Microorganisms” which appeared in Part 3 of the ProcrErpines for 1930. 
Further extensive studies have been made of a number of organisms which form 
an interesting transition between the genera Actinomyces and Mycobacterium. 
A group of soil actinomycetes has been studied with the object of deciding whether 
the sometimes suggested distinction between the genera Actinomyces and 
Cohnistreptothrix is justified. An old culture of an interesting cellulose- 
decomposing fungus brought from England was found to be alive and was subjected 
to fresh examination, the result of which was published as a note in Part 5 of the 
Proceepines for 1930. A preliminary study was also made of fungi forming 
mycorrhiza in Grevillea montana. 


Miss Ida A. Brown, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology, 
spent a considerable portion of the year in an extensive study of the Monzonitic 
Complex of the Mount Dromedary District. This igneous complex appears to be 
unique in New South Wales and contains an assemblage of rare rock-types. In 
the paper embodying the result of this work the petrogenesis has been discussed, 
but several other problems have arisen from the work on Mt. Dromedary and 
other parts of the South Coast. Such general problems as the genetic relationships 
of the alkaline, monzonitic and subalkaline igneous rocks, and the relation of 
their development and intrusion to the geological structure and tectonic history 
of the associated sedimentary rocks have been considered and will. form the 
subject of further papers. 

A considerable amount of additional field work has been carried out in the 
coastal district between Mt. Dromedary and the Victorian Border, and the 
information obtained has to be compared and correlated with that of the regions 
previously examined. 

Miss Brown proposes, during the coming year, to continue her investigation 
of the geology of the South Coast, dealing with problems of the geological age, 
conditions of sedimentation, mutual relationships and subsequent tectonic history 
of the sedimentary rocks, and the relationships, petrogenesis and correlation of 
the associated igneous rocks. 

Mr. Frank A. Craft, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography, 
has carried out a series of detailed physiographical surveys of portions of the 
Shoalhaven River valley. The first of these covered about 70 square miles of 
the Tallong district, where it was found possible to trace back the evolution of 
the modern topography into the period preceding the late Tertiary basalt flows. 
Then the Bungonia district was examined and later a detailed reconnaissance 

B 


vi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


undertaken of the Nerrimunga Creek drainage system, forming part of the western 
valley of the Shoalhaven River. 


Two short papers—‘“Goulburn—a vital Point on the New South Wales High- 
lands” and “The Topography and Water Supply of Cox’s River, N.S.W.’—were 
published in Part 4 of the Procrrpines for 1930, and a third paper ‘The 
Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. i. Tallong-Bungonia” will appear 
early in 1931. 


During the coming year Mr. Craft proposes to continue work on the 
Shoalhaven area and to make detailed surveys in the Nerriga district; also to 
work on either side of the Shoalhaven, to deal with Sassafras Range on the east 
and the Sandhills (Gourock) Range on the west in an endeavour to determine 
the origin of the valley between them. He also proposes to complete a piece of 
work commenced in 1926, on the “Geography of the Blue Mountain District”. 


Two valid applications for Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1931-32, were 
received in response to the Council’s invitation of 24th September, 1930. I have 
pleasure in reminding you that the Council reappointed Miss Ida Alison Brown, 
B.Sce., and Mr. Frank Alfred Craft, B.Sc., to Fellowships in Geology and Geography 
respectively for one year from 1st March, 1931, and in wishing them a successful 
year’s research. 


As this is my last meeting in office as President, it is my privilege to offer 
my very best thanks to the Secretary (Dr. A. B. Walkom) for the efficient way 
in which he has carried out the duties connected with the meetings of the 
Council, as well as the general business, and the financial interests (in conjunction 
with the Honorary Treasurer, Dr. G. A. Waterhouse) which have been more 
onerous than ordinarily on account of special requirements in connection with 
the building of Science House. I wish also to express my thanks to Dr. Walkom 
for his help to me personally. 


A REVIEW OF THE MyrtLE FAmMiILy (MYRTACEAE). 


For the main part of my Address, I propose to give a brief review of the 
plants commonly known as “Myrtles’, of which upwards of 3,000 species are now 
known to science, and, according to modern classification, are classified into 74 
genera in the family Myrtaceae. 

If we review the early history of the true “Myrtles’, which must not be 
confused with other forms of plant life such as “Tasmanian Myrtle’, “Tasmanian 
Mountain Myrtle’,? “Wild Myrtle’,® “Sand Myrtle’,* and the “Otahite Myrtle’’,® 
we shall find that as far back as 1735 the genus Myrtus was founded by Tourneforte 
(1770). This genus may, therefore, be regarded as the type of the family. The 
main characters of the family Myrtaceae are taken from the true Myrtles (Myrtus). 

In his “Systema Naturae’”’, Tome ii, 1770, Linnaeus classed the genus Myrtus, 
together with Hugenia, with the Icosandria Monogynia. Some modifications have 
been proposed, such as Myrti by Jussieu (1789), Myrtoideae by Ventenat (1794), 
Myrteae and Myrtineae by De Candolle (1826, 1828), and finally Myrtaceae by 


1 Nothofagus Cunninghamii (Fam. Fagaceae). 
2Phebalium montanwm (Kam. Rutaceae). 

% Ruscus aculeatus L. (Fam. Liliaceae). 

4 Leiophyllum buxifolium (Kam. HMricaceae). 

®> Securingea nitida Lindl. (Fam. Muphorbiaceae). 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vii. 


the celebrated Robert Brown (1866), who, in his “General Remarks Geographical 
and Systematical on the Botany of Terra Australis” (1866) says: “This is one of 
the most extensive tribes in Terra Australis; in which considerably above two 
hundred (200) species have already been observed, and where the order is also 
more strikingly modified than in any other part of the world.” We must remember 
that Robert Brown had been accustomed to those plants which belong to the 
species Myrtus communis, found in a wild state in Europe, and this, as already 
stated by Woolls (1867), is supposed to have been introduced from Persia. Woolls 
further suggests that “there is reason to believe that during the eocene period 
when the climate of that division of the globe was much warmer than it is 
now, Myrtaceous trees flourished there with other plants of an Australian aspect”. 

According to Bradley, the plants commonly known as ‘“Myrtles’”, which are 
small trees and shrubs, were introduced into Great Britain by Sir Francis Carew 
and Sir Walter Raleigh in 1585, when they resided in Spain and discovered the 
preparations for the Spanish Armada against Great Britain. 


These plants became very popular in Great Britain and other parts of Hurope 
on account of their ornamental appearance and for the aromatic oil which formed 
an important article of trade. It is interesting to note that as far back as 1597 
Gerarde remarks that “Myrtles never bear fruit in England”. Thirteen species 
of the genus Myrtus were enumerated by Linné in the third edition of the “Species 
Plantarum” published in 1764. Twenty-seven years later an accession of twenty- 
eight was made by Gmelin. Sir James Edward Smith observed (1819) “that few 
genera are more confused in the works of Linnaeus than that of Myrtus. All that 
properly belong to it are those that have a corolla of 5 petals with a 5-cleft calyx 
and a 2-celled or 3-celled berry. These characters distinguish it from Hwugenia, 
Psidium and Calyptranthes.’ Although Linnaeus enumerated thirteen species, 
several of these have been removed to other genera, and especially the last, 
Myrtus leucadendra L. (Sp. Pl. 676), which was subsequently made a distinct 
genus by Linnaeus himself. In the “Mantissa Plantarum Generum”’’, p. 74, is an 
additional Myrtus named M. angustifolia by Linné, for which see Metrosideros. 
Myrtus brasiliensis of Linné is Hugenia uniflora. In 1807 Miller and Martyn (1807) 
enumerated thirty-six forms of Myrtus, and stated that “the cultivation of the 
Myrtle in England is assigned in the Kew Catalogue to the year 1629, when 
Parkinson informs us that he had three sorts’. The geographical range given 
for the thirty-six forms in Miller and Martyn’s work is of special interest, as 
are also the descriptive names, such as “Broad-leaved Jew’s Myrtle’, “Gold-striped- 
leaved Orange Myrtle’, ‘‘Silver-striped Nutmeg Myrtle” and several others. These 
names were invented for trade purposes and were apparently developed from 
the “Common Myrtle” (Myrtus communis) as a result of intensive cultivation over 
a long period. It is quite clear also that some of the other forms, such as ‘Wild 
Clove” (Pimento acris) and “Jamaica Pepper” or “All Spice’ of the West Indies 
(Pimento officinalis and Pimento officinalis var. longifolia), the dried fruits of 
which were imported from the West Indian Islands, were not true species of the 
genus Myrtus, as recorded by the earlier botanists. These have since been 
transferred to the genera indicated above in brackets. 


Sixteen species of Myrtus have been recorded for Australia. Nine of these 
were retained by Bentham (1866), while the other seven have been found to 
belong to other genera and have accordingly been transferred. Two of the Aus- 
tralian species of Myrtus, viz., M. fragrantissima and M. acmenioides, have claimed 


viii. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


attention on account of the aromatic oil contained in the leaves, which have 
been used for flavouring tea. 


Next to the genus Myrtus we have Psidium (established by Linnaeus in 
1737), which, on account of the fruits, commonly known as “Guava’’, being edible, 
commanded considerable attention. The species P. guajava, together with two 
varieties, var. pomiferum and var. pyriferum, are natives of South America, but 
have spread fairly rapidly throughout the tropics. Upwards of one hundred species 
have since been recorded, chiefly from the warmer climates. In 1796 the genus 
Decaspermum was established by Forster (1796). Since that time ten species 
have been added to the flora of the Pacific Islands and the Indian Archipelago, 
one extending to Queensland. The latter species is included in the genus Wellitris 
of Gaertner by Bentham (1866) with the variety laxiflora which, so far as can be 
judged, is inseparable from Decaspermum. The variety laxiflora is found chiefly 
in the Rockingham Bay district, and was suggested as being sufficiently distinct 
to rank as a species by Bentham. It may be advisable to raise this to specific 
rank under the name Decaspermum lazxiflora. 

The characters of Australian Myrtles have been the subject of discussion 
by many botanists, who have remarked that they are widely different from 
those of other countries. Bentham has remarked (1866) that “the fleshy-fruited 
genera of the Order are widely spread over the tropical regions both of the new 
and the old world, including many of the largest forest trees, and are in Australia 
almost limited to the tropics, a very few species extending into New South Wales 
and only one into Victoria’. Woolls (1881) regarded the Myrtaceae as “‘the 
most important order, whether considered in reference to the value of its timber, 
the medicinal and industrial properties of the species, the general character of 
its inflorescence, or the utility of its berried fruits”. Dr. Phil. R. Schomburgh 
(1875) has also drawn attention to the Myrtaceae being one of the most pre- 
dominant families of the Australian flora, and remarks on the abundance of the 
genera and species, and diversity in soil conditions. 

One of the outstanding features of the Australian vegetation is the remarkable 
tribe Leptospermeae, which presents a uniformity that makes it easy of general 
recognition wherever seen, and yet the diversity is multitudinous. It is extremely 
adaptable, and one or more species are found in every plant community. Even in 
the rain-forest areas, different forms or species of the Leptospermeae are found 
associated with the plants of the marsh-lands as well as with those of the deep 
shady alluvial flats and guilies and on the top of the mountain ranges. There 
are very few plant communities that are not favourable to one or more species 
of the Leptospermeae section of the Myrtaceae. They attain to a considerable 
size, as pointed out by Mr. W. D. Francis (1922) as follows: “ ‘Scrub Box’ 
(Tristania conferta) and some species of Hucalyptus such as ‘Messmate’ (Hucalyptus 
Cloeziana) and the ‘Flooded Gum’ (Hucalyptus saligna), when growing in the 
luxuriant rain-forest sometimes exceed six feet in barrel diameter. The Hucalypts 
which sometimes grow in the rain-forests or on their margins often exceed the true 
rain-forest trees in height, but they do not grow beyond 200 feet in height, so far 
as the writer is aware.” 

Many of the species are extremely hardy, as they are capable of resisting the 
severest drought, as well as defying the bush-fires, and on the other hand certain 
species of the genera Hucalyptus, Melaleuca, Leptospermum, Callistemon, are 
quite happy with their feet, so to speak, constantly in water. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ix. 


W. J. Stephens at the Annual General Meeting in January, 1879 (PROCEEDINGS, 
iii, 1878 (1879), p. 425), stated that: “The Australian flora is, as a whole, 
endemic or indigenous, that is to say, it presents quite a peculiar and unmistakable 
Australian type. But it is subdivided into two, Hastern and Western, Provinces, 
which differ almost in every detail, though their general characters are the same. 
Secondly, the Australian flora has radiated to some extent into the neighbouring 
Malayan and Melanesian districts by various members (for example) of the 
Eucalypts, Epacrids and Leafless Acacias. Thirdly, Northern Australia from 
Arnheim’s Land eastwards has submitted to a certain degree to the influence of 
immigration from south-eastern Asia and India. Fourthly, the alpine flora oi 
south-eastern Australia and Tasmania may be traced through New Zealand 
to the southern extremity of the American Continent and so up the chain of the 
Andes, which seems to have served as a bridge by which a few species of plants 
from the North Temperate or Sub-Arctic Zone have been introduced into this 
region. Lastly, the relation with South Africa.” 

The genus Hugenia was founded by Micheli in 1735. The fruits of several 
species’ are large and edible, and, as a consequence, have attracted considerable 
attention, so much so that several species such as the “Brazilian Cherry” (£. 
uniflora), “Rose Apple’ (EH. jambos), “Star Apple’ or “Jamrool” (H. alba), 
“Kavika” or “Malay Apple” (H. malaccensis) and “Red Star Apple” (#. aquea) 
and many others have been cultivated fairly extensively in the tropics. In 
Australia we have the “Endeavour River Pear” (EH. eucalyptoides) and “Oloorgo” 
(#. suborbicularis) and “White Apple” (EH. grandis) which are said to be edible, 
and about fifteen other species, including the well-known “Brush Cherry” (ZH. 
myrtifolia) and “Lilli-pilli” (EH. Smithii), extending to the Victorian border. About 
thirteen hundred species of this genus have been described, most of which are 
spread throughout the rich fertile valleys of the tropical areas of Australia and 
Asia. 

Mr. HE. C. Andrews (1916) states that “the Hugenias and allied genera, such 
as Myrcia, Calyptranthes, Marlieria and other types, are widely spread and suggest 
former direct land connections between all the great land blocks, this older ~ 
interchange oi fertile types in regions of mild and moist climate, however, having 
ceased long since’. 


Myrtles in Commerce. 


I make no apology for introducing into this Address the part played by 
the Myrtle family in the world of commerce. The connection of the botanist with 
the industrial world, as well as in general commercial activities, is very far 
reaching, for we find that, although the mineralogist or geologist may be able 
to guide the commercial citizen in regard to the sources of supplies of coal and 
various kinds of minerals which enter so much into modern methods of industries, 
and that the zoologist may be able to aid citizens in regard to the supplies of 
hides and skins for fur clothing and boot-leather, the botanist is called upon for 
information concerning the plants which yield the best quality and highest per- 
centage of tanning materials, such as is obtained from our Wattles, Mangroves 
and Hucalypts, and even the source of supplies of Essential Oils, Fatty Oils, 
Rubber, Flax, Hemp and numerous other fibre materials, as well as drugs utilized 
in medicines, etc., and the numerous forms of fruit, vegetables and grain-producing 
plants which enter into our everyday food supplies. 


X. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


We cannot claim to have any historic gardens in the Commonwealth of 
Australia, such as the Physic Garden of John Gerard in Holborn and the 
Apotheearies Garden at Chelsea near London, but we have vast supplies of raw 
materials in nature, and valuable data concerning them published in the Proceedings 
of this and other scientific Societies during the past fifty-five (55) years, and the 
valuable collection of samples brought together by botanists and preserved in 
the various herbaria which are the standards of comparison for future genera- 
tions, and thus form a most valuable asset to the community. These collections 
are of special interest to economic biologists who are conducting an important 
work on behalf of the citizens of every State. 

We owe a deep debt of gratitude to the late Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, 
who, I think we can safely say, was the first to recognize the excellent qualities 
of the EHucalypts. He was instrumental in forwarding seeds all over the world 
and in initiating plantations, especially in swampy areas in Europe, Algeria, 
Transvaal, India, New Zealand, California, South America, Cape Colony, Mexico 
and many other countries, generally with the result, as at the Campagna at Rome, 
of considerably ameliorating climatic conditions, reclaiming unhealthy areas, or 
supplementing timber supplies. As a result of the Baron’s foresight, our Australian 
Hucalypts are playing a very prominent part for all time to come in the sylvan 
culture of vast tracts of land amounting to millions of acres of Hucalypts in 
various parts of the globe within the warmer zones. 


The exportation of Hucalyptus seeds, even in the ’sixties, assumed some 
magnitude. The monthly mails conveyed parcels of seeds to the value of over 
£100. In 1861 upwards of 51,000 packets of seeds and 31,455 plants of Australian 
trees and shrubs (chiefly Hucalyptus and Acacias) were distributed to settlers in 
South Africa. The interest in Australian plants is still keen, for the records 
of the Botanic Gardens and National Herbarium in Sydney show that during the 
past four years upwards of 460 lb. of seeds of Australian plants have been 
despatched to the Union of South Africa, to the value of £500. 


The most popular species in demand is Hucalyptus Maideni, of which 157 lb. 
of seeds were despatched; there follow in popularity Hucalyptus gigantea, with 
55 lb., several species with 50 1b., and others with 10 lb. It will thus be 
seen that the Myrtle family of Australia is intensely popular in other countries, 
which accounts for so many works being published upon the utility and industrial 
uses of the various species belonging to the great family of Myrtaceae, by such 
writers as Monsieur Prosper Ramel of Paris, Ricardo Platzech Coptonas of the 
Argentine Republic, and Professor Ellwood Cooper of California in years gone 
by, and more recently “A Reconnaissance of the Forest Trees of Australia from 
the Point of View of their Cultivation in South Africa’ (1926) by C. C. Robertson, 
and “EKucalypts in New Zealand” (1927) by J. H. Simmonds. 


Tannin Products. 


It has long been known that certain species of our Australian Wattles, notably 
Acacia pycnantha and Acacia mollissima, are rich in tannin, and during recent 
years the “Red Gum” (Hucalyptus rostrata) and “Mallet Bark” (Hucalyptus 
astringens) have received considerable attention. “Mallet Bark’’ was exported 
in 1906 to the extent of 155,000 tons per annum, but dropped to 5,000 tons in 1920. 
It occurs over a comparatively narrow strip of country on the west side of York- 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xi. 


Albany line in Western Australia. Whilst the value of the exports in 1905 
amounted to £154,087, there has been a further decline during recent years, 
for we find that in 1927-28 the exports amounted to £27,662, a drop of £126,425. 
The cause of the decline in the output of this bark was the indiscriminate 
destruction of the Mallet forests, which took place when the value of the bark 
became known. Other species of Eucalypts have been used as substitutes or 
mixtures, such as “White Mallet” (H. falcata var. ecostata), “Blue Mallet” 
(#. Gardneri), “Swamp Mallet” (HH. spathulata), “Karri” (#. diversifolia), 
“Gimlet” (#. salubris) and “Ridge Gum” or “Mountain Gum” of Queensland 
(E. alba) which extends to Java, where it is known as “River Gum”’. 

It is the province of scientists to explore the country and through the co- 
operative efforts of the botanists, geologists and chemists, a remarkable amount 
of magnificent research work has been achieved, with the result that we have on 
record in our scientific literature numerous articles by such eminent authorities 
as Dr. Joseph Lauterer (1896), who has remarked that “the tan-resin gums 
are entirely endemic to Australia, and that no plants of other countries yield 
an exudation similar to them in chemical composition”. The late Mr. J. H. Maiden, 
as well as H. G. Smith, has also repeatedly drawn attention to the usefulness 
of our Australian plants, such as the various species of Hucalyptus enumerated 
above, together with many other species of the same genus, and the Angophoras 
and Turpentine (Syncarpia) which yield kino and other resinoid substances which 
are of more or less commercial interest. Indeed, it has been suggested that 
“Peebeen” (Syncarpia Hillii of Bailey), a Queensland species of Myrtaceae, yields 
a resin-like substance which can be used for the same purpose as Strassburg 
turpentine. 

In view of the above, it must occur to us all that we have not made the best 
of our resources. Whilst the various scientific societies, with their limited 
membership and funds at their disposal, have done a noble work for the British 
Empire, the vast population have received the benefits of such research work, but 
have not risen to the occasion to see that the right class of citizen was engaged 
to raise seedlings and replace the millions of plants that have been destroyed 
in the exploitation of these raw products. Much of the wealth of Australia has 
been obtained by the exploitation of our Australian plants. The time for further 
exploitation is drawing to a close. It will then be necessary to establish an 
effective system of selecting parent plants for the purpose of collecting seeds 
for the re-establishment of sufficiently large areas for utilization in the various 
industries. Only the fringe of the possibilities of the Myrtaceous plants has been 
investigated. When the resources of the Commonwealth have been properly tapped 
and the innate virtues of the numerous species have been exploited on proper 
scientific lines, our wealth-producing abilities will have been immensely increased 
and depression lifted. It can only be achieved by working on broad scientific 
principles which, when properly applied to any branch of industry, must ultimately 
prove to be of immense value to the community. 


Myrtles in Bee-farming. 

Practically all of the species of the Myrtaceae are useful bee-plants. The 
flowers of each individual plant of the various species are produced in great 
profusion and yield nectar very freely. It is said that many species of the Myrtle 
family seem to be much favoured by the bees and that, so far as the vegetation 


xii. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


of Australia is concerned, we have nothing to fear in the way of poisonous honey, 
as is the case of honey produced from certain plants in the neighbourhood of 
Trebizand on the shores of the Black Sea, which was referred to by Rev. Dr. W. W. 
Woolls (1867). The term “Honey Myrtles” is applied to a large number of 
species of the genus Melalewca and other genera in Western Australia on account 
of the rich flow of honey obtained from the plants, and although the honey 
obtained from certain species of “Tea-tree’ (Leptospermum) is said to have a 
rank flavour, it can be utilized in the manufacture of certain grades of tobacco. 


Paper Pulp. 

Australian Hucalypts have been tested for their wood pulping qualities with 
fairly satisfactory results. The most promising species so far are the “Karri” 
(B£. diversicolor) and “Jarrah” (H. marginata) of Western Australia, and the 
“Red Mountain Ash” of Victoria (H. gigantea), together with “Red Stringybark” 
(#. macrorrhyncha), “White Ash” (#. fraxinoides), “Giant Gum” (E. regnans) 
and “Ribbon Gum” (£. oreades). 


Other Products. 


In the field of forest products we may look forward to other industries being 
established on much larger lines than they are at present, such as the production 
of charcoal, tar, wood vinegar, wood spirit and potash. Much has been written 
concerning the so-called “Manna” of Eucalypts, but this is in reality ‘“Mannite’’, 
which is produced by the aid of various species of insects. 

Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha, popularly known as “Red Stringybark”, although 
only yielding 2 lb. 12 oz. of oil per 1,000 lb. of leaves, was regarded as one of 
the gems of scientific research on account of the new yellow dye-material called 
Myrticolorin, which gives colours when mordanted resembling those obtained with 
the better qualities of flavin, and decidedly purer than those given by quercitron 
bark itself or with fustic. It has been tested by Prof. Hummell of Leeds College 
(England) and Mr. A. G. Perkins, and the results obtained by those gentlemen 
were highly satisfactory. As enormous quantities of North American flavin are 
used in the European markets, and as Myrticolorin is about the only other known 
substance which can seriously rival it, the value given to “Red Stringybark” 
becomes at once apparent. Hudesmol is also procurable from the leaves of EH. 
macrorrhyncha. 


Timber Resources. 


Although steel girders and a number of known metals are entering into keen 
competition with timber in the building of homes for our people, warehouses, 
factories, bridges and ships, timber is entering more and more into the service 
of man, and is therefore regarded as one of the most important commercial 
commodities in daily use. In years gone by we had vast supplies of beautiful 
Cedar, Hoop-pine, Coachwood and Maple. These are generally considered to be 
among the very best of our Australian light woods and can hold their own 
with any other light wood in any part of the world. Our hardwoods, such as 
Ironbarks, Tallowwood, Jarrah, Karri, Blackbutt, Forest Mahogany, Turpentine, 
and many other species of the Myrtle family, have been exploited because they are 
considered to be the finest and most durable timbers on the market. Some of our 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. xiii. 


Hucalypts are also regarded as par excellence in cabinet and joinery work, and 
such species as the “Southern Mountain Ash” (Hucalyptus delegatensis) and 
“Giant Gum” (Hucalyptus regnans), have been tested and proved to have superior 
qualities of strength, screw tests and weight resistance, and are but little 
heavier in cubic foot weight than the imported “Oregon”. It is for this reason 
that timber trees of Australia have been exploited so much that in the early days 
of settlement timber was practically the only export from Western Australia. 
Statistics showed that no less a sum than £31,000,000 has been realized in Western 
Australia alone from the exploitation of timber. Each year greater inroads 
are being made into the hearts of our forests for the purpose of supplying the 
wants of the timber trade. Nature has been lavish in the past, but she cannot 
stand man’s interference and wanton destruction indefinitely. The Forestry Com- 
missions of this and other States of the Commonwealth of Australia have admitted 
in their annual reports that they are faced with the fact that, after a long 
period of exploitation, the aspect of forestry is now showing the full effect of lack 
of forestry management in the past, in that many areas are almost unproductive 
and yield an extremely small revenue per acre. It is also admitted that “the 
standing value of timber has been reduced to a low level and even a well stocked 
forest yields a comparatively low return’. We know that forestry and the timber 
trade are more or less dependent on one another and must, in the end, stand 
or fall together. It is, therefore, our bounden duty to try and rescue this 
important industry so as to prevent it from drifting into obscurity. 


Our vision seems to have been rather obscured as to the necessity of pre- 
serving and improving our timber industries. The same thing seems to have 
happened throughout the world, and the people have cut down timber regardless 
of the future and without making provision for reafforestation or regeneration. 


The wholesale destruction of our forests, which are composed of Eucalypts and 
other Myrtaceous plants, which form four-fifths of the vegetation, arises from 
Many causes, such as the ravages of opossums, insects and fungi, as well as the 
menace of parasitic Mistletoes or the unusual prevalence of storms and floods. The 
most drastic destruction, however, is caused more frequently through the process 
of girdling or so-called ringbarking. This latter is done chiefly for the utilization 
of land for grazing purposes. In parts of this and other States, almost complete 
denudation of timber resources has occurred. Fortunately, it is not too late 
to urge the necessity of preserving those areas that are still left, and thus 
prevent further destruction of timber. 


What we really want is a forest conscience instilled into the mind of every 
citizen. The public should be taught, by every possible means, a proper realization 
of the value of many of our native trees and shrubs, and that one great advantage 
of our so-called “Gum Tree” is that in twenty-five years a tree will yield timber 
as large in bulk as that of a Huropean or American Oak 350 years old. In view 
of this statement, made by certain authorities who have an unbiased mind con- 
cerning our timber products, we should make a special effort to preserve the 
parent-trees of our future forests. We should also encourage the use of our 
native timbers for our own requirements, which are admitted to be amongst 
the finest timbers procurable. This would not only create more work for our 
unemployed, but, in addition, would assist in re-establishing our forest areas, 
beautify the landscape, prevent erosion, protect our water supplies, and otherwise 


Xiv. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


improve the whole countryside from its present-day appearance of hillsides with 
bare rocks and alluvial valleys filled with gravel and littered with waste. 

Just as forests have been created by Nature, so can forests be built up by 
man. It is rank fallacy to think that Nature, if left to herself, will do all that 
is required. Nature is certainly our best guide, and she will rebuild forests in 
the course of time, but it will be a long time. She will cover vast areas with 
some sort of vegetation, but probably not the kind we require. We cannot afford 
to leave the rehabilitation of our forests to the slow processes of Nature. The 
planting of specimen trees is one thing, the laying-out of avenues or grounds or 
public parks for aesthetic purposes is another—each of these has a value of its own. 

We must never forget, however, the example set by those far-seeing scientists 
in other lands, who have not only visualized the beauties of our Australian 
Myrtles, but, in addition, have recognized the importance of the various species 
of Hucalyptus from a utilitarian point of view. At the present day, perhaps, no 
trees are grown more freely or to a greater extent over the globe for re-afforestation 
purposes on bare and denuded tracts of land than the different species of 
Hucalyptus. Dr. Sutherland, Surveyor-General, in his report of the Natal Govern- 
ment, dated 28th May, 1883, among other matters, stated that in 1834 there were 
but three individual trees of Hucalyptus at the Cape of Good Hope. At the British 
Empire Conference held in 1928 a statement was made that in South Africa a 
certain amount of Hucalyptus timber (largely from old trees scattered on farms) 
is sawn up on the gold mines to give rough planking, tram sleepers, etc., while 
moderate quantities of wood of Acacia mollissima (Family Leguminosae) and of 
immature Hucalyptus (especially H. saligna or HE. grandis) are sawn up to give 
wood for boxes, crates, etc. To a limited extent Acacia mollissima and some 
Hucalyptus (especially H. diversicolor) are split into billets for turning into pick- 
handles, yokes, ete. Several other species, including E. maculata, EH. paniculata, 
HE. resinifera, HE. Maideni, EL. globulus, E. sideroxylon, E. rostrata, and E. viminalis 
are also referred to and reported on favourably by more recent authors. 

From time to time International Exhibitions have been held and magnificent 
collections of Australian hardwood timbers have been displayed, with the result 
that the hardness of some of the woods has been favourably commented upon, and 
several metropolitan districts in Great Britain have selected the Western Aus- 
tralian “Jarrah” (H. marginata) as a suitable material for wood paving roadways. 

The “Tasmanian Blue Gum” (E. globulus), together with “Maiden’s Gum” 
(H. Maideni), E. bicostata, E. St. Johnii and E. Mortoniana, all of which are 
mere derivatives from one species, have been cultivated fairly extensively in 
California, as well as in South Africa and the Nilgiri Mountains in South India. 
This appears to be the fastest growing tree that can be planted, and is preferred 
when a large bulk of coarse timber is sought. It is reported that in good growth 
it has grown up to ten feet per year during the early years of development. When 
we read such statements as that published by Mr. Eric Walther (1924): “Of 
Californian cultivated trees the most striking are easily the species of Eucalyptus. 
Their towering serried ranks dominate the landscape and lend it an unique exotic 
flavour totally lacking in other parts of the United States of America’, we can 
feel quite proud of our Australian Eucalypts. 


Ornamental Characters of Myrtles. 


No country can produce a greater number of endemic trees and shrubs belong- 
ing to one family with such wonderful coloration as is seen in the trunks, branches, 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XV. 


foliage and floral structure of the various species of Hucalyptus, Hugenia, Melaleuca, 
Leptospermum, Callistemon, Darwinia, Chamaelaucium, Metrosideros, Verticordia, 
Calythriz, Regelia, Agonis, and numerous other genera of the Australian Myrtaceae. 
The splendid shades of milky-white, bluish-white, ashy-grey, slaty-grey, blue, 
browns, pink and vinous-reds of the trunks and branches of So many species 
mingled with the atro-cyaneous and blue-green foliage of certain species are a 
great contrast to the light and dark shades of green in others. Then again, we 
have the unique markings of a mottled character with various shades of distinctive 
colour effects when the shedding of the bark occurs, which gives a characteristic 
tone and charm to the Australian vegetation. 


Many species are gorgeous in the coloration of the flowers, while others have 
a sweet, delicate array of blossoms which lends a charm and makes them eminently 
suitable for floricultural purposes. Some of the EKucalypts and Hugenias, as well as 
several species of Melaleuca, Tristania, Syncarpia, Metrosideros and others, pro- 
duce a wealth of foliage which affords a grateful shade to man and beast. 


It is because of the beautiful coloration and form of the floral characters, as 
well as the ornamental characters of the branches and foliage, that so many 
writers have endeavoured to show the need for tree-planting and tree-preservation 
in various parts of the Commonwealth. It has been strongly urged that the 
natural flora of any country is the most suitable to the natural conditions of that 
country, that is, conditions under which little or no artificial means of culture, 
such as an abundance of water and manure, are available. The drought conditions 
do not affect the native plants in the same way as they do those of other 
countries. It is for this reason that we should encourage the plant breeders to 
apply their skill to the possible plasticity of the floral characters of the Australian 
Myrtles, as well as the possibilities of some species as stocks for budding and 
grafting those species of commercial importance. We know, for example, that 
it is difficult to obtain viable seeds of Backhousia citriodora, which is recognized 
as one of the world’s best lemon-scented oil plants. In view of this, it is difficult 
to obtain large supplies of plants for extensive cultivation. It has been found, 
however, that Backhousia myrtifolia is a suitable stock for grafting and as this 
species sets an abundance of seeds, there is a demand for the seed supply by 
certain firms in the New Hebrides, who hope to be able to increase their stocks 
of supply by propagating B. citriodora by this method. There is no doubt that 
many of our Australian plants could be used as stocks for closely related species 
used in commerce. Some could be used for drought conditions, others could be 
used as frost resisters in the colder districts, while still others could be used as 
disease-resistant stocks. 


Australia, like other countries, is subjected to strong winds, sometimes of a 
hurricane nature, and as a result fruit-crops suffer on account of the lack of pro- 
tection. A careful selection of Australian plants could be made which may be 
eminently suitable for this purpose. Already one or more species of the Myrtle 
family has been successfully grown as a hedge-plant, viz., Leptospermum laevigata, 
which is commonly known as “Australian Myrtle” in South Africa, where it is 
regarded as the most favoured hedge for garden purposes. It is said that ‘“‘None 
other is so neat or so graceful when kept closely clipped, though it never forms 
an impenetrable fence like certain other plants used for live fences or hedges. It 
seeds profusely and is completely naturalised in the Government Plantations in 
the Cape Colony Flats” (Hutchins, 1899). 


XVi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


Taxonomic Problems and Stability of Nomenclature. 


Dr. A. W. Hill, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, in his 
Presidential Address to Section K—Botany, at the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science, 1930, has pointed out that the taxonomist of the present 
day is faced by many problems connected with the nature of his units and how 
they are bounded. He realizes that the making of many species “is a weariness 
to the flesh’ and that, especially when it is done with a narrow outlook, it is a 
“hindrance rather than a help to progress”. 

Many botanists are in accord with the above. Some may also agree with 
Dr. Hill’s further statement “that the taxonomic millstone around the necks of 
systematists is weighing heavy”. Just how we can overcome this difficulty is 
another matter. Many of the former systematists have made the same complaints. 
Even as far back as 1864, Mueller, in a letter to Bentham, complained of too many 
species. Bentham in his reply to Mueller wrote: “. . . botanists of as great or 
greater experience than myself, and on whose judgment I place the greatest 
reliance, think that I unite too many species, and they may be right, too. All I 
ean do is to act to the best of my judgment, fully admitting its great fallibility.” 

The phenomenon termed “Variation” is one which for a considerable time has 
engaged the attention of very eminent scientists, as well as professional gardeners. 
Botanists are guided by the principles, rules and recommendations laid down at 
the International Botanical Congress of Vienna in 1905, and extended at Brussels 
in 1910, and more recently at London in 1930. Some of the rules laid down have 
very far-reaching effects, especially when new biological facts become known 
which necessitate the names of certain plants being corrected. In such cases, 
through the changing of taxonomic systems, the stability of nomenclature is 
affected, and although such changes in names may be of merely academic 
importance in the case of floras, they may be of direct and far-reaching significance 
when they pertain to species which may be the source of important drugs and 
other forms of products in which large financial interests are concerned. 

In the realm of systematic botany, which, in its widest sense, is of paramount 
importance, since it provides a ready nomenclature, without which the science of 
botany cannot advance, an attempt is made to arrange the members or units of 
the vegetable kingdom in strict botanical sequence, and thus make known the 
richness of our botanical resources. Differences of opinions and of practice among 
botanists in regard to plant-names, as well as personal judgment as to what 
constitutes a sufficient difference between two groups of related plants, are some 
of the causes of confusion in botanical nomenclature. A very considerable amount 
of confusion and indecision still exists in regard to many species. There are very 
few students of Nature who would venture to specify the absolute differences 
between a species, a race, and a variety or form. It is, in each case, a question 
of nice. appreciation, which must vary with the constitution of every mind, and 
one must have a strong conviction to set up one’s own opinion against that of 
the majority of experienced taxonomists. 

Actually, a species should comprise all individual plants that resemble each 
other sufficiently to make us conclude that they have all descended from a common 
parent. A variety, however, is merely “a modification of a species’. 

It is generally recognized by students of the Australian flora that the genus 
Hucalyptus presents interminable difficulties in connection with the classification 
of its innumerable forms into anything like a natural system. Even as far back 
as 1866 there was difficulty in distinguishing one species from another, as will be 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XVii. 


seen from the following remarks made by Robert Brown (1866): “Mr. Caley has 
observed within the limits of the colony of Port Jackson nearly 50 species of 
HLucalyptus, most of which are distinguished, and have proper names applied to 
them by the native inhabitants who, from differences in the colour, texture and 
sealing of the bark, and in the ramification and general appearance of these trees, 
more readily distinguish them than botanists have as yet been able to do.” 


It is interesting to note that in the same year in which the above statement 
was published the third volume of “Flora Australiensis’” was completed by George 
Bentham, in which all the known forms of Eucalyptus were enumerated, which 
had reached to the total of 300 species. Of this number 135 were accepted by 
Bentham (who was ably assisted by Baron Ferdinand von Mueller) as valid 
species. Since that time there has been a great impetus in the study of this 
important genus. Scarcely a year passes which does not witness the publication 
of new “species” or “varieties” which are considered by their authors as deserving 
distinctive names because the plants show a few slight differences, very often only 
minor ones, from allied forms, so that to-day there are no less than 1,095 species 
and varieties described in various scattered publications. 


Botanists are greatly indebted to the late J. H. Maiden for his life’s work 
in trying to unravel the tangle in connection with the synonymy of many of the 
supposed species, the results of which he has compiled in his “Critical Revision of 
the Genus Eucalyptus”. Whether we can accept the results of the decisions 
arrived at is entirely another matter. There are probably no plants more variable 
than Eucalypts, and it is perhaps not too much to say that no two trees 
of the same “species” are quite alike in all the technical characters relied upon 
by Eucalyptologists for making their diagnosis. In the case of many micro- 
species, it is found on investigation that authentic specimens collected or named 
by the authors themselves neither agree with the original descriptions nor with 
one another. If the creation of the new names continues at the present rate and 
according to the present system, the time will soon arrive when it will be 
impossible to say of any member of the genus that it is a Hucalypt. To make 
a determination and to give a binomial will become the work of a few specialists, 
and there need be little hesitation in predicting that no two specialists will 
agree. 


Differences are, in many instances, artificial. In such circumstances it is 
necessary to decide what are really important and what are unimportant differ- 
ences. The external morphological characters, and particularly the size and 
shape of the buds and fruits, are frequently inadequate to enable one to arrive 
at a definite decision, because of the uncertainty of maturity. The collectors 
in many instances give no particulars as to whether the material has been col- 
lected from a sapling or a fully developed tree. As a consequence of this, many 
of the descriptions of species of the Leptospermoideae, in which are included 
Hucalyptus, Leptospermum, Callistemon, Melaleuca and other genera, have been 
drawn up when the buds and fruits were only half developed. When it is 
realized that the fruits in which the seeds are contained vary from seven months 
after the flowering period in certain species to two and a half years in other 
species of the same genus, before they are fully developed so as to yield viable 
seeds, it will at once be seen how discrepancies have crept in, and difficulties 
thus created in working out the species from faulty descriptions. 


XVili. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


During the past decade much has been written and published concerning the 
genetic relation of plants. Only by culture combined with cytological studies 
will it become possible to determine the genetic relation of the numerous micro- 
species. Darwin’s theory of the origin of species presupposes the occurrence of 
occasional varieties from the parent stock, o£ which some are preserved and 
fostered by natural selection. The cause of this variation has been sought in 
various quarters, and, indeed, it is to be presumed that it is due not to one cause 
but to many. It has been suggested that hybridization is one of the chief causes 
of variation. There must be abundant opportunities for natural crossing. In 
view of this, we may expect to find in nature what are termed polymorphic species, 
with their segregates, complicated with re-hybridization, and thus we have what 
have recently been termed “highly polymorphic swarms of hybrids”. 


When we consider the general prevalence of Hucalyptus, the frequent associa- 
tion of numerous species and forms or varieties in the same locality, the large 
number of flowers produced by an individual tree, each of these flowers on the 
same tree showing variable characters, and, most important of all, the millions 
of individual pollen-grains which are the units or sires of future generations, 
we may expect that certain characters will be transmitted to their offspring. It 
is for this reason that species, as well as varieties, have been regarded as 
abstractions, in other words, that which is taken or derived from something else. 
Nature consists of individuals; similar (not identical) individuals are raised from 
syngameums (the cell which arises from the fusion of two gametes) and these, 
I am afraid, have been frequently mistaken for species. Formerly these were 
all included in the Linnaean system of grouping, which has served a very useful 
purpose in the classification of plants. We must be very careful in adopting 
new systems which tend to split the Linnaean species into innumerable forms 
of microspecies. 


Dr. A. B. Droogleever Fortuyn in a paper entitled “A Recent Modification of 
the Species-Idea” (‘“Nature’’, 1927, p. 933) states: 


“We cannot define a species as a group of organisms having the same 
genotype, for it is known that often the male and female of one species differ 
in the number of their chromosomes and in the number of their genes. . . The 
Hagedoorns urge us to remember that a species is a natural phenomenon and 
not a theoretical species. Species as found in nature are mixtures of genotypes, 
so if we follow Johannsen and term such a mixture of genotype as a population, 
for a species is a population, but not every population is a species. .In order to 
be a species the individuals of a group must interbreed. Therefore a species is a 
mixture of genotypes freely interbreeding and containing some types of 
homozygotes as well as several types of heterozygotes or hybrids.” 


EH. S. Goodrich (“Living Organisms”, Clarendon Press, 1924, p. 15) called a 
species “An assemblage of closely allied interbreeding races differing from one 
another by small factorial differences and representing as a whole its present phase 
of evolution.” 


The great plasticity of such a definition is obvious. Although a species is 
inconstant and genetically impure (that is, composed of many genotypes and their 
hybrids) it always tends to become more constant and more pure because 
in the struggle for existence an elimination of ill-adapted genotypes takes place 
and because new genotypes may only be introduced through rare cases of mutation 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XSLKG 


or of crossing with other species. Variation is found everywhere, for the reason 
that a species is a population of many genotypes. 


It is suggested that the more obvious botanical changes have been mainly 
due to slow evolutionary development under the influence of environment, soil 
and climate. Altitude, climate and soil seem to be the chief controlling factors 
governing the geographical range of most species. The adaptation of the various 
species is traceable, largely, to influences of chemical constituents, which, under 
natural conditions, where the struggle for existence is exerted to the fullest, 
govern the establishment of a species in its earliest stages. It does not seem 
possible for a certain species to grow satisfactorily in soil not congenial to its 
requirements. This may account for the extreme variation which we see in the 
material in various herbaria of Leptospermum scoparium, which has been gathered 
together from a wide range of localities very different climatically and geologically. 
Some of these assume forms as discrepant as those of the “Stringybark” forms of 
Eucalyptus and several other highly variable and extensively distributed species 
of the same genus. Nature is infinitely complex and is everywhere instinctive 
with life: attractive and repulsive chemical forces are exerted over atoms and 
bodies and equally over the physical or physiological conditions of plant life. 
Therefore, we have only to push our experiences far enough to find that our 
physical laws are imperfectly stated and our physical models inadequate. 


Ecological Factors in Relation to the Distribution of Myrtaceae. 


Until comparatively recent times, what is now conceived as ecology was 
included under biology. Biology is a general term including botany and zoology, 
and ecology is a part of each. Ecology as a science is a branch of botany which 
is concerned with the relations of the individual plant, the species and the com- 
munity to the site. As already stated by Cockayne (1917, p. 162) “Botanical 
ecologists endeavour to define and classify the physiological requirements of the 
species which, although they fit fairly well into one or other of the recognised 
aggregate species, differ so greatly in their ecological requirements from other 
members of the species to which they are referred, that to call them by the same 
name is most misleading, and in no few instances will cause incorrect ecological 
deductions.” 


We know that climatic conditions affect certain plant species very considerably 
—so much so that we find a given species with apparently well defined characters 
at certain altitudes, but when the species is grown under different climatic 
conditions, those characters are considerably changed. Trees, of course, are the 
dominant members of a plant community of which they form a part, so that 
we may regard the distribution of trees as of very great ecological and economic 
importance in that they control the distribution of other species. 


What may be regarded as a very logical statement in regard to the cause 
of change of flora under the same climatic conditions is that made by the late 
Mr. R. H. Camhbage, as follows: “As climatic conditions, rainfall and aspect are 
similar over a great part of the Western Plains, the various changes in the flora 
may be regarded as due to the variations in the geological formations, or to 
the difference between rocky and alluvial situations; and some of these changes 
are very marked.” It has also been pointed out by Cambage that “Generally speak- 
ing, the flora of the red and black soil plains are distinct, and in several instances 


FOX. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


certain genera may be represented by species which are peculiar to the one or 
other class of soil.” 


The deductions we may draw from this latter statement are that every 
species of plant depends for its existence upon a certain class of soil, that is 
to say, the plant may, from its peculiar individual organization, demand peculiar 
soil formation. If the conditions of existence are special, the plant cannot be 
widely diffused, if general, the diffusion will be proportionately extensive. Hence 
we find, for example, that the conditions are special in the case of Melaleuca 
coriacea and other closely related forms or subspecies, as well as in Leptospermum 
scoparium and several of its forms or subspecies, which are distributed over a 
wide range of climatically and geologically very different localities. 


The term “plant association” does not imply a harmonious concurrence of 
diverse activities working towards a common end, as in every society founded 
on division of labour. It is applied to the coexistence of forms which, specifically 
and morphologically, are foreign to one another, each having as its object its own 
exclusive profit. They live side by side according to the similarity or the 
diversity of their requirements, which find their satisfaction either in the same 
conditions of environment or in conditions determined by the presence of the 
other organisms. Plant association is the final expression of the struggle for 
existence and of adaptation to the environment in the grouping of species. The 
inhabitants of the same station are connected not only by the bonds of co- 
existence, but also by a bond of reciprocal interest, some at least finding advantage 
and profit in the conditions determined by the presence of others. When the 
leaves of a tree or any kind of plant fall to the ground, they begin to decay 
and ultimately they are disintegrated and their substance becomes incorporated 
with other elements of the soil. The same thing happens with the stems and 
roots of herbaceous plants, as well as the smaller twigs or branches of shrubs 
and trees. Such organic matter, which is usually termed “leaf-mould” or humus, 
is one of the chief sources of food for plants, and its presence in the soil is 
therefore of fundamental importance in the maintenance of all kinds of vegetable 
growth of the earth. When the vegetable matter is in the process of decomposition 
it is said to produce, under certain circumstances, a condition of soil acidity, 
and under other circumstances a condition of alkalinity. 


It will be seen from this that the acidity or alkalinity of the soil must have 
an important bearing on plant ecology, and that a knowledge of this phenomenon 
is essential to a correct understanding of the distribution of plants. We often 
wonder why a plant taken from its natural surroundings will not thrive under 
cultivation. The “Blueberry Plant” (Vaccinium spp.) for instance, and certain 
other associated species, require a condition of acidity and will only grow suc- 
cessfully in certain acid soils, composed chiefly of partially rotted Oak leaves. 
When Oak leaves had been rotting for a period of about five years, and had 
become a black, mellow, vegetable mould, however, the “Blueberry Plants” 
did not grow so luxuriantly, but, on the contrary, their leaves turned purple 
and afterwards yellowish, and then dwindled away. The same set of circum- 
stances seems to me to apply to many species of our Australian flora. If we 
were to study the distribution of larger natural units (groups of species and 
genera) rather than individual species, we might perhaps arrive at a better 
solution of the problem of plant distribution. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. ZO 


Plant association would appear to be the final expression of the struggle for 
existence and adaptation to the environment in the grouping of species. Adaptation 
may imply, broadly, any means by which a plant is enabled to survive in its 
surroundings, not as an individual, but as a species. The term so understood 
Means not merely the ability to survive, but the ability to survive without 
alteration of certain characters. To all these considerations must be added the 
early migrations which the different families or tribes of plants passed through 
under the changing conditions imposed upon them by geographical and climatic 
necessities, and thus a systematic arrangement of facts is finally indicated. 


Plants of closely allied species often grow in quite different communities 
and this has been found to apply often to varieties of the same species. As 
examples we may cite the various species of Melaleuca and Leptospermum. pre- 
viously alluded to, as well as Hucalyptus haemastoma, which is found in sand- 
stone country along the coastal belts of New South Wales and Queensland, 
usually associated with such plants as Dillwynia ericifolia and Tetratheca ericifolia, 
while, on the other hand, Hucalyptus micrantha, which by many botanists is 
regarded as a variety of EH. haemastoma (having practically the same general 
appearance in the colour of the bark, markings, etc., for which reason both 
forms or subspecies are commonly known as “Scribbly Gum’), is chiefly found 
on sandstone slopes of the Tableland from Hill Top to Mittagong and on the 
Blue Mountains, associated with Dillwynia glabra and D. spinescens, Tetratheca 
thymifolia, all of which have been at one time or another regarded as belonging 
to one species, viz., Hucalyptus micrantha—E. haemastoma; Dillwynia glabra and 
D. spinescens—D. ericifolia; and Tetratheca thymifolia—T. ericifolia. 


Essential Oils from Australian Leptospermoideae (Myrtles). 


Attention has frequently been drawn to the pioneer work in connection with 
certain essential oils obtained from Myrtaceous plants in Australia by John White, 
Surgeon-General to the First Fleet, which arrived in Port Jackson in 1788, and 
also Surgeon D. Considen. Whilst a definite species of Hucalyptus, viz., H. piperita, 
is mentioned by White (1790), Considen (1892) refers to five or six species of 
wild Myrtles, without giving specific details. We can readily assume, however, 
that the Myrtles referred to belong to the Leptospermoideae group of Myrtaceae, 
which are so common in the Port Jackson district. As a medicinal remedy, the 
“Oleum Hucalypti” of the British Pharmacopoeia, which is the oil distilled from 
the fresh leaves of several species of Hucalyptus, has gained world-wide fame. 
In view of this, there seems to be no valid reason why hundreds of thousands 
of pounds should have been sent away annually to Hurope to bring us medicines, 
drugs and other useful chemical substances, when they could have been produced 
here. Through the researches of Messrs. R. T. Baker and H. G. Smith, who have 
made history in their elaborate work on Australian plants yielding essential oils, 
as well as those researches in a similar connection conducted more recently by 
Messrs. A. R. Penfold and F. R. Morrison at the Technological Museum, new essential 
oils, new sources of dyes and other chemical substances have been brought vividly 
under our notice through their various publications. 


Botanists are, on the whole, perhaps more usually concerned with the morpho- 
logical aspects of plant life than with the chemical substances or other products 
yielded by plants, which may or may not be of some commercial or economic 
importance. During comparatively recent years scientists have turned their 

Cc 


XXil. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


attention to the natural chemical resources of Australia and commercial possi- 
bilities of various species of Australian plant-life, and as a result of extensive 
botanical research, combined with chemical investigations, great numbers of 
species of the Myrtaceae have been exploited for their potential wealth. There is 
no unworked field of original research so attractive and which promises to be so 
productive as does the question of odorous leaves. The presence of a fragrant 
aromatic or pungent volatile oil is indicated by the pellucid dots of the leaves of 
practically the whole of the species of the Myrtle family. These transparent 
glands, which in reality are tiny cells containing essential oils, are easily seen 
by the naked eye if held up to the sunlight, more especially by the aid of an 
ordinary pocket lens. 

Careful observation of the botanical features of many of the Australian 
Myrtles, especially those species classed in the subfamily Leptospermoideae, has 
revealed to us that when the whole of the species have been tested for the various 
products likely to be of some use to man and beast, the Myrtle products will form 
a most valuable asset to the Empire. 

The problem of conducting further experiments and chemical researches is 
essentially a national undertaking and can only be exploited by the aid and co- 
operation of the botanical and forestry departments of the various States and co- 
ordinated by the Federal authorities. 

When we compare the numerous chemical substances obtained during the 
past decade or two from our Australian Myrtles with those from other countries, 
it will be found that Australia has been very fortunate in haying so many 
distinguished workers in the domain of chemistry and therapeutics of our native 
plants. We have only to examine the pioneer work of those earlier explorers to 
find out what yeoman service has been rendered to the whole human race. The 
statement of Captain William Dampier, who anchored in Shark’s Bay on the 
5th January, 1688, is of special interest, as it will be seen that he was the first 
to land on the shores of Australia, and also the first to note that certain trees 
yielded “gum out of the knots or cracks”. The following is a copy of his state- 
ment (1699): 

“The land was of a dry sandy soil, destitute of water, except you make wells: 
yet producing divers sorts of trees: but the woods are not thick, nor the trees 
very big. Most of the trees that we saw are Dragon-trees as we supposed, and these 
too are the largest trees of any there. They are about the bigness of our large 
Apple trees and about the same height, and the rind is blackish and somewhat 
rough. The leaves are of a dark colour. The gum distils out of the knots or 
cracks that are in the bodies of the trees. We compared it with some Gum Dragon 
or Dragon’s Blood that was aboard, and it was of the same colour and taste. The 
other sorts of trees were not known by any of us. There was pretty long grass 
growing under the trees, but it was very thin. We saw no trees that bore fruits 
or berries.” 

In a further statement Dampier states (Vol. iii, p. 84, 3rd Ed.): “Farther in, 
the mould is reddish, a sort of sand producing some grass plants and shrubs. Of 
trees and shrubs here are divers sorts, but none above 10 foot high, their bodies 
about 3 foot about, and 5 or 6 foot high, before you come to the branches, which 
are bushy and composed of small twigs there spreading abroad, tho’ thick set and 
full of leaves, which were mostly long and narrow. The colour of the leaves was 
on one side whitish and on the other green, and the bark of the trees was 
generally of the same colour with the leaves of a pale green. Some of these trees 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXiii. 


were sweet-scented and reddish within the bark, like Sassafras, but redder. Most 
of the trees and shrubs had at this time either blossoms or berries on them. The 
blossoms of the different sort of trees were of several colours, as red, white, yellow, 
etc., but mostly blue. And these generally smelt very sweet and fragrant, as did 
some also of the rest. There were also besides some plants, herbs and tall flowers, 
some very small flowers growing on the ground that were sweet and beautiful, 
and for the most part unlike any I had seen elsewhere.” 


It will be seen from the above that the economic resources of the Australian 
vegetation were under review by the great buccaneer and navigator Dampier as 
far back as 1688, and was followed up by John White, Surgeon-General to the First 
Fleet which arrived in Port Jackson in 1788. 


During Captain Cook’s second voyage to these regions a plant commonly known 
as “Tea Tree’ (Leptospermum scoparium) found on the coast of New Zealand, 
where it was discovered by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander, was thought by 
Captain Cook to have been serviceable to the health of the crew. “Its infusion or 
tea is pleasantly aromatic and fragrant, if not suffered to stand too long, in which 
case it becomes bitter. Mixed with an equal quantity of the New Zealand Spruce 
(Dacrydium) it was found to make excellent and highly palatable beer of the most 
salutary quality, the Dacrydium being too astringent alone.” 


The essential oil obtained from the leaves of various species of the 
Leptospermoideae group of Australian Myrtaceae is extremely variable, both in 
yield and quality, and although some of them may not be of any economic value, 
the results of the investigations are certainly of scientific interest. Some of the 
trees yielding these oils, such as Hucalyptus, Melaleuca and Syncarpia, are large 
and the collection of the foliage would involve a considerable amount of labour, 
while of others, such as Leptospermum, Darwinia, Homoranthus, Backhousia, 
Kunzea, Baeckea, Calycothrix and the “Mallee” forms of Hucalyptus, the foliage is 
easy to collect. 


The prospective value of some of these oils seems to indicate that there is 
a bright future before us if we can overcome the labour difficulties. It is claimed, 
for example, that the essential oil from Melaleuca alternifolia is superior in many 
respects to those previously on the market, such as carbolic acid, and used as a 
germicidal disinfectant. In other words, it has been found that the oil from 
Melaleuca is from eleven to thirteen times more powerful or effective in destroying 
typhoid germs than carbolic acid under similar conditions. It is also stated to 
be extremely valuable in dentistry. During recent years a marked impetus has 
been given to the disinfectant industry, owing to the discovery that in the 
rectification of crude Hucalyptus oils for pharmaceutical use, about 10 to 15 per 
cent. left behind in the distilling vessel possesses very pronounced germicidal 
and insecticidal properties. These uses apply more especially to the phellandrene 
oils, which during the war period were also used extensively for industrial 
purposes in the separation of certain useful minerals in the flotation process. 
Quite recently Mr. A. R. Penfold has also drawn attention to the use of this type 
of oil in the boot-polish trade and as a useful solvent for paints and varnishes. 
It is also interesting to note that some of the preparations made from these oils 
are already ousting some of the old-established coal-tar preparations from the 
Australian trade. Besides the above, there are many other uses to which the 
Eucalypts can be applied with more or less beneficial results—the latest being 
Eucalypt-leaf cigarettes known as “Hucarettes”’. 


XXiv. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


The use of essential or volatile oil for commercial purposes, especially in the 
manufacture of perfumes and scented soaps and as primary materials in various 
kinds of synthetic products, is increasing each year, as will be seen from the 
reports in connection with the lemon-scented oils from Grasses (Chrysopogon 
and Vetiveria) which form an important industry in Ceylon and Singapore, 
amounting to thousands of pounds annually in their trade with Great Britain. 
There seems to be no valid reason why Australia should not be able to capture 
some of this trade, as it has been clearly demonstrated that our Australian plants 
such as the ‘‘Lemon-scented Ironbark” (Hucalyptus Staigeriana), “Lemon-scented 
Gum” (Hucalyptus citriodora) and the “Lemon-scented Tea Trees” (Leptospermum 
citratum and L. Liversidgei (L. flavescens var. citriodora of Bailey), as well as 
Backhousia citriodora) are superior in certain respects, particularly in regard to 
yield, and should be able to hold their own in their natural soil if they were 
extensively cultivated. Many other species of the Australian Myrtaceae have been 
shown to possess valuable products, such as Geranyl-acetate, Piperitone, Thymol, 
Cajuput and such-like chemical substances, which are valued in the older countries 
to such an extent that vast quantities of seeds have been obtained with a view to 
extensive cultivation in Asia, Africa and America for the products alone. 


Colloquial or Vernacular Names. 


The subject of giving plants a vernacular or colloquial name is one that has 
frequently been discussed in recent years. 'The popular idea is to adopt short 
names in the vernacular and give up the scientific names altogether. This may 
seem feasible to some persons who have not considered the subject in its wider 
aspects, for they forget that the popular names of plants of one district are not 
those of another. 

We have only to scrutinize the list of 1500 colloquial names that have already 
been applied to various species of Eucalyptus and published in works dealing with 
this genus, to be able to realize the difficulties that are involved in trying to cope 
with the bushman’s idea of naming plants. 


The term “Gum Tree” is usually applied to those species of Eucalyptus that 
shed their bark and ultimately have a clean, smooth-barked bole or trunk. The 
names “Blue”, “White”, “Grey” and “Spotted” are applied indifferently to several 
species. The best known member of the “Blue Gums” is Hucalyptus globulus, but 
it is most difficult to separate the New South Wales form of “Blue Gum’’, recently 
described as a new species under the name Eucalyptus bicostata, from the 
“Tasmanian Blue Gum” (Eucalyptus globulus). In fact, several forms, such as 
E. St. Johnii, EH. Mortoniana, E. Cordieri, E. antipolitensis, E. Bourlieri and 
E. pseudo-globulus have very similar juvenile leaves, and the young stems of the 
seedlings and reversionary shoots are glaucous or blue-green and quadrangular. 
Without flowers or fruits it is very difficult to distinguish one from the other, 
and for many years H. bicostata was regarded as being identical with Z. globulus 
and cultivated extensively under the latter name. The buds and fruits of certain 
forms of the above-mentioned species vary considerably from the original 
“Tasmanian Blue Gum” (E£. globulus) and it is by these characters that the 
authors of the species have been prompted to give distinctive specific names. 
Whether the offspring of these will breed true remains to be seen. We do know, 
however, that a great number of people who are interested in these trees have 
very little knowledge concerning the structure of the floral or carpological charac- 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXYV. 


ters, and even if they had, it not infrequently happens that several years elapse 
before seedlings reach the flowering stage. 


It is therefore extremely difficult for those interested in our plants, either 
from a floricultural or arboricultural point of view, or on account of the 
economic importance of the essential oils or other products, to keep a correct 
standardized catalogue of nomenclature. 


The term “Mallee” is applied to certain species of Eucalypts which form the 
Mallee Scrub typical of hundreds of square miles of country in the western 
parts of New South Wales and in the Mildura and Swan Hill districts of Victoria, 
extending through South Australia and Nullarbor Plains to Western Australia and 
Yorke Peninsula. The most important species are Hucalyptus dumosa, E. oleosa, 
E. gracilis and E. fruticetorum (E. polybractea). Since the above were described, 
many years ago, upwards of one hundred additional species have been described, 
which are more local in their habitat and are known as Mallees. To be able 
to become familiar with this formidable list of Mallees is quite a task, so that 
an effort has been made to classify the various species as nearly as possible into 
their strict botanical sequence and allot each a definite numeral. By this numerical 
system non-botanists, who do not understand botanical technique, can at once 
have access to the different forms of Mallees or Gums or Boxes or Ironbarks, as 
each of the species has a definite number, and colloquial or vernacular names 
applied to the respective species have a numeral corresponding with the species. 


Conclusion. 


In conclusion may I say that in an address of this kind one can only give a 
cursory glance at the vegetation as a whole, and even this imperfect collection of 
data is taken from a very limited number of species, chiefly from one family, with 
a view of trying to awaken new sources of enquiry among thoughtful people, 
which may ultimately lead to further investigations being made in other channels. 
A large mass of additional evidence bearing upon the subject requires more labour 
than I have found time to bestow, and would also unreasonably swell this already 
lengthy address. 


The objective of this Society is the advancement of natural history by original 
investigation. As a result of such investigation much scientific knowledge has 
been acquired and recorded in the Procrrprnes of this Society during the past 
fifty-five years. It is our duty to educate the public by all possible means to a 
realization of the value of many of our native trees and shrubs, and the evils 
resulting from their destruction. It is a matter of national importance, and is a 
subject for capable statesmen to handle, who should make the knowledge of our 
research workers available. Research workers are imbued with the spirit of 
enquiry, and, as a rule, are quite indifferent to applied science. Science is one 
thing, the application of it is another. 


In view of this, it is all the more important that we should ponder over the 
teachings of such eminent scientists as Professor Huxley, who once remarked that 
“Educated publicity agents were a valuable asset to any community because they 
made knowledge available’. If we were able to obtain the services of the right 
kind of publicity agents we should then be able to bring together minds occupied 
with similar tasks, thus create a clearing house of scientific knowledge, and so 
save a certain amount of waste expenditure of thought and research, which comes 
of a too rigidly independent habit of investigation. We require not merely the 


XXvVi. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


development of a theory, but a system of principles and the results attained in 
practice. 

At the present time it takes us half our lives to unlearn and eradicate errors 
honestly taught us in youth with perfect good faith and intention, which per- 
sistently cling to us until displaced by the sound reasoning powers of maturer 
years. To overcome this we require a periodical system of ‘“‘stock-taking in science’, 
so as to be able to keep in touch with what has already been achieved, and thus 
follow on the lines of Macaulay who remarked “That which was in the distance 
yesterday is its goal to-day and will be its starting place to-morrow”. 


I am indebted to Mr. A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.I., F.C.S., Curator and Hconomic 
Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney, who has very kindly prepared samples 
of the following essential oil constituents which I exhibit for your examination: 

Citral.—Principal constituent of Backhousia citriodora and occurs to extent 
of 50% in Leptospermum citratum. Present in some Hucalyptus oils. 

Citronellal—Principal constituent of Hucalyptus citriodora and occurs to 
extent of about 40% in Leptospermum citratum. 

Geraniol.—Combined with acetic acid is present as ester in Hucalyptus 
Macarthuri and Darwinia fascicularis. 

Geranyl-Acetate.—See under Geraniol. 

Darwinol.—Combined with acetic acid as ester is present in Darwinia grandi- 
flora and Leptospermum lanigerum. 

Pinene.—The principal terpene of most essential oils of the Myrtaceae; 
]-a-pinene abundant in H. phlebophylla. 

Phellandrene.—The principal terpene of many Hucalyptus oils, such as #. 
dives, H. numerosa, ete. 

Methyl-EHugenol.—Principal constituent oil of Melaleuca bracteata. 

Piperitone.—The peppermint constituent of Hucalyptus dives, etc. Occurs to 
the extent of 50%. 

Limonene.—Principal constituent of Eucalyptus Staigeriana. 

Angustione.—Principal constituent of Backhousia angustifolia (occurs to the 
extent of 75%). Chemically is a 6-diketone. 

Elemicin.—Principal constituent of Backhousia myrtifolia. 

Terpinenol-4——The alcoholic constituent of Melaleuca alternifolia and M. 
linariifolia. 

Ocimene.—Principal constituent of Homoranthus flavescens. 

Australol—tThe principal phenolic constituent of the ‘Mallee’ Eucalyptus oils. 

Cryptal—An aldehyde occurring in the “Mallee” Eucalyptus oils. 

Piperitol—The alcohol corresponding to Piperitone. Present in greatest 
quantity in Hucalyptus numerosa. 

Eudesmol.—The white solid sesquiterpene alcohol present in many Eucalyptus 
oils and in Leptospermum odoratum, L. flavescens, etc. 

Cineol.—The principal constituent of medicinal Eucalyptus oils. Present also 
in many Myrtaceae. 


: List of Works Consulted. 
ANDREWS, E. C., 1916.—Amer. Journ. Sci., 1916, 198. 
Baksr, R. T., and SmitH, H. G., 1920.—‘‘A Research on the Eucalypts”’, 2nd Edn. 
BENTHAM, GEORGE, 1866.—‘Flora Australiensis”’, Vol. iii. 
Brown, R., 1866.—In Ray Society, 1866, 18. 
CONSIDEN, D., 1892.—Historical Records of N.S.W., Vol. I, Part 2, p. 220. (See Maiden, 
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1904, 477.) 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. XXVii. 


CocKAYNE, L., 1917.—Trans. New Zealand Institute, 1917, 162. 
CoopmR, ELLwoop, 1876.—‘‘Forest Culture’’. 
DAMPIER, CAPT. WILLIAM, 1699.—“A Voyage to New Holland’’, 3rd Edn., Vol. iii, 84. 
Dr CANDOLLE, A. P., 1826.—Dict. Class vii. 

, 1828.—Prodromus Systematus Naturalis. 
Forster, J., and Forster G., 1796.—Characteres Generum Plantarum. 
FRANCIS, W. D., 1922.—Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 1922, 212. 
HutcHins, D. E., 1899.—Tree Planting in Capetown, 41-58. 
Jussieu, A. L., 1789.—Gen. Plantarum, 1789, 322. 
LAUTERER, Dr. J., 1896.—Queensland Botany Bulletin, xiii, 35. 
MAIDEN, J. H.—Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus. 
Miuuer, P., and Martyn, T., 1807.—Gardeners’ and Botanists’ Dictionary. 
MUELLER, BARON FERD. VON., 1876.—Lectures in Cooper’s Forest Culture. 
PENFOLD, A. R., 1923.—Some Valuable Hssential Oil-yielding Plants of Australia Worthy 

of Attention, Bulletin No. 5, Technological Museum. 
ScHOMBURGH, R., 1875.—The flora of South Australia. 
SMITH, Sir J. E., 1819.—Rees’ Cyclopaedia, xiv. 
TOURNEFORT, J. P., 1770.—Inst., 1770, 640. 
VENTENAT, FE. P., 1794.—Tableau Batsch, tab. 13. 
WALTHER, HERIc, 1924.—Key to the Eucalypts grown in California. Files of California 
Academy of Science, San Francisco. 

Wuite, J.. 1790.—Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales. 
Woouts, REV. Dr. W., 1867.—Flora of Australia, 1867, 3. 

, 1881-2.—PrRoc, LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1881-82. 


Dr. G. A. Waterhouse, Honorary Treasurer, presented the balance sheets for 
the year 1930, duly signed by the Auditor, Mr. F. H. Rayment, F.C.P.A., Chartered 
Accountant (Aust.); and he moved that they be received and adopted, which was 
carried unanimously. 

No nominations of other Candidates having been received, the Chairman 
declared the following elections for the ensuing Session to be duly made:— 


President: Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. 


Members of Council: W. R. Browne, D.Sc., Sir T. W. EH. David, K.B.E., C.M.G., 
M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., W. W. Froggatt, F.L.S., A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. G. A. 
Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.E.S., W. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc.Agr. 


Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.P.A. 


A cordial vote of thanks to the retiring President was carried by acclamation. 


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Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


LINNEAN SOCIETY OF N.S.W.—Wildflower Series, No. 2.—Telopea speciosissima. The Waratah. 
(About half normal size.) 
(Reproduced by kind permission of the Government Printer, Sydney.) 


THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA. X. 
THE PHALLALES, PART I. 


By G. H. CUNNINGHAM, 
Mycologist, Plant Research Station, Palmerston North, N.Z. 


(Plates i-ii.) 
[Read 25th March, 1931.] 


This. Order comprises a group of fungi characterized as a rule by the bizarre 
shape, bright colour and fetid odour of the spore-bearing receptacle. Two essential 
groups of tissues are common to all of them: (1) the peridium, a membrane 
enclosing the receptacle until maturity is reached; and (2) the receptacle, a 
pseudoparenchymatous structure upon which is borne the gleba or spore-mass. 
The fact that the hymenium is enclosed until maturity has led to the Order being 
placed in the Gasteromycetes. 


Morphology of the Mature Plant. 


Peridium.—In immature plants this structure appears as a globose or obovate 
structure of three layers (two in Claustula): an outer, furfuraceous or smooth, 
usually white membrane (the exoperidium); a middle, thick and gelatinous layer 
(the mesoperidium); and an inner, thin and tough white membrane (the endo- 
peridium). Collectively these layers form in the unexpanded plant the outer 
layer of the “egg”’, and enclose the receptacle and gleba. At maturity the peridium 
ruptures from the apex downwards, splitting into several lobes, exposing the 
receptacle, and remains at the base of the latter, forming a stellate supporting 
cup or ‘‘volva’”. The receptacle is always free within the volva (save in Claustula, 
where it is at first attached by a fine basal strand), being held in position in 
expanded plants by lateral pressure of the receptacle against the cupulate base 
and edges of the lobes. The peridium is practically identical in all genera, 
consequently it is upon the diversity of structure exhibited by the receptacle that 
the numerous genera and species have been erected. 

Receptacle.—In essentials this structure consists of a pseudoparenchymatous, 
usually coarsely chambered tissue, upon some modified portion of which is carried 
the gleba. It develops within the peridium, and as it approaches maturity, the 
receptacle is thrown into folds, the cells become strongly turgescent, and pressure 
is exerted upon the apex of the peridium, causing its rupture. The receptacle 
continues to expand, until finally it assumes a size considerably in excess of the 
peridium. Expansion is rapid, for in Aseroe rubra the plant is fully developed 
within one or two hours after rupture of the peridium. The gleba, borne on 
some portion of the receptacle, appears as a mucilaginous, olivaceous, fetid mass 
containing countless numbers of exceedingly minute, smooth, elliptical spores. 

A 


bo 


GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


The most primitive type of receptacle occurs in the genus Claustula, and 
consists of a cellular, hollow, apparently indehiscent structure, not unlike an 
inverted hen’s egg, bearing the gleba on its inner surface. As it is a somewhat 
anomalous genus (being apparently indehiscent), discussion concerning it will 
be deferred until the systematic portion of this work. The next most primitive 
type of receptacle occurs in the genus Mutinus, and consists of a cylindrical hollow 
stem, upon the modified apical portion of which is borne the gleba. In the 
related genus Floccomutinus, the gleba is carried upon a loose network (the fore- 
runner of the pileus) at the apex of a similar stem; and in Jthyphallus and 
Dictyophora it is borne upon an additional structure, the pileus. This is a 
campanulate, pseudoparenchymatous tissue attached to the apex of a stem similar 
to that of Mutinus, and may be rugulose or reticulated. Dictyophora possesses 
an additional structure in the form of a pendent, pseudoparenchymatous membrane 
termed an indusium, which hangs beneath the pileus around the stem; and its 
presence would show that this is the most highly developed genus of those 
present in the family Phallaceae, to which these genera (save Claustula) belong. 

In many genera of a second family included in the Order (the Clathraceae) 
a stem is present as in Mutinus, but the apex is modified to form various arms, 
which may be organically united apically, as in Anthurus; united by a membrane, 
as in Mycopharus; apically free but connivent, as in Lysurus; or horizontally 
expanded, as in Aseroe.* In other genera the stem may be modified apically to 
support a small spherical latticed structure, as in Simblum; reduced to a small 
basal cylinder supporting several columns, in turn supporting a latticed structure, 
as in Colus; suppressed altogether, the receptacle then appearing clathrate, as 
in Clathrus, or as several simple columns apically united, but basally free, as 
in Linderia, Blumenavia and Laternea. 

The receptacle is usually coloured in some conspicuous manner. Thus in 
Mutinus the stem-like receptacle may be yellow, orange, or red; in Clathrus the 
latticed receptacle may be red or white; and in Dictyophora multicolor the stem 
is lemon-yellow, the pileus orange, indusium and volva pink, and mycelium purple. 


The bright colours, bizarre shape of the receptacle, strongly fetid odours and 
mucilaginous nature of the gleba are obviously developed to attract insects and 
thus secure rapid dispersal of the spores. This is supported by the fact that flies 
and other insects are readily attracted to expanded plants, and that the faeces of 
insects fed on the gleba contain numerous spores which germinate readily (Fulton, 
1889). 

The economic importance of the Order is slight. Cobb (1906) reported that 
Ithyphallus rubicundus was the cause of a root-rot of sugar-cane in Hawaii; and 
Carne (1922) recorded Aseroe rubra upon roots of Cynodon Dactylon L. Occasional 
records have been published showing that certain species possess poisonous pro- 
perties. Thus Farlow (1890) recorded that Linderia columnata killed pigs within 
12 or 15 hours after eating; and Colenso (1883) claimed that Aseroe rubra 
destroyed cats in the Woodville (N.Z.) district. But one species, Clathrus cibarius, 
has been claimed to be edible. But this is open to doubt, as I have shown 
elsewhere (1922). 

i The Order is usually divided into two families, the Phallaceae and the 
Clathraceae, differing in details of development and in the structure of the 
Teceptacle. Opinions are divided as to which is the more primitive family. 
Lohwag (1924) and others considered that the Phallaceae were derived from the 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 3 


Clathraceae. This is supported by the fact that in the Phallaceae there are 
present in certain genera additional structures (as the pileus in Ithyphallus and 
Dictyophora; indusium in Dictyophora) not found in the Clathraceae; but is 
negatived by the fact that genera such as Mutinus are obviously more primitive 
than any occurring in the Clathraceae, and by the more complex nature of the 
receptacle of many genera of the latter family. It is probable that each has had 
a separate origin in time from some Mutinus-like ancestor, and that development 
has proceeded on the one hand to considerable alteration of the receptacle, leading 
to the evolution of the higher genera of the Clathraceae (as represented by 
Laternea, Aseroe and Clathrus of the tribes Columnateae, Stellateae and Clathrateae 
respectively) ; and on the other to the production of the characteristic pileus (and 
indusium) of the Phallaceae. 

To these two families, I would add a third, the Claustulaceae, to contain the 
interesting genus Claustula. 

The following diagram illustrates my views on the probable origin of the 
known genera, and shows, too, the possible evolution of the three tribes of the 
Clathraceae. 


CLATHRACEAR 


COLUMNATEAE 


CLATHRATEAE STELLATEAE 


Cleautravia 


Dictyopnora Clathrus Aseroe 


Laternea 


Aporophallus 


Ithyphallus Kalchbrennera 


*Clathrella" 


Lindéria 
Simblum 


Lysurus 


Mycopharus 


Floccomutinus 


Staheltomyces | 
—————EEEES. 


Anthurus 


Mutinus 


Claustula 


PRINITIVE 
PHALLALES 


Diagram showing the probable evolution of the Phallales. 


Order PHALLALES. 

Plant at first consisting of a 2- or 3-layered peridium enclosing the receptacle 
and gleba. Peridium rupturing apically, remaining at the base of the receptacle 
as the volva. Receptacle pseudoparenchymatous, bearing the gleba on some portion 
of its surface. Gleba at maturity mucilaginous, olivaceous and usually fetid. 


4. GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


I have emended the Order to contain the three following families: 

I. Family PHALLACEAE: Receptacle stipitate; cylindrical or fusoid, with or 
without an apical campanulate pileus and an indusium; gleba borne on 
the exterior of the pileus, or directly upon the modified apical portion 
of the stem. 

II. Family CLaATHRACEAE: Receptacle stipitate or sessile; clathrate, of simple 
columns united at their apices but basally free, or stipitate and divided 
apically into several arms which may be apically united or free; gleba 
borne on the interior, exterior of or between the arms. 

Ill. Family CLAUSTULACEAE: Receptacle sessile; an obovate or spherical, 
apparently indehiscent hollow sphere; gleba lining the inner surface. 

There would appear to be twenty genera in the Order, containing in all some 

sixty species; but the number is uncertain owing to differences of opinion held 
by different workers as to the generic and specific value of many characters. 


Family I. PHALLACEAE. 

Peridium of three layers, obovate or subglobose, at first submerged, becoming 
superficial, or almost so; rupturing from the apex downwards to form several 
lobes, exposing the receptacle and persisting as a volva supporting this structure; 
gelatinous layer continuous, not broken into plates by intermediate tissue. 
Receptacle completely free within the volva; stipitate; cylindrical or fusoid, stem 
hollow, of one or several layers of chambers; bearing the gleba on its modified 
upper surface, or upon a campanulate pileus attached to its apex. Indusium 
present in Dictyophora and Clautravia. Basidia bearing 4-8, sessile, elliptical, 
smooth spores. 

The family contains eight genera, which may be recognized by the following 
characters: 


Key to the Genera. 

_Gleba borne directly upon the apical portion of the receptacle. 

Gleba covering the apical portion of the receptacle .................... 1. Mutinus 

Gleba forming a collar-like constriction below the inflated apex of the receptacle 

A ss GRC AS oe Bh EVEN ONO ORE Coil iC G TS SIEM OF ER ET SORTA OOS a Ren Tm Hud *(2. Staheliomyces) 

Gleba covering a net-like pileus loosely attached to the apical portion of the receptacle 

FRC ARO ner eet Aca re S EERE SMe Cine Nera RRC eh oh ERT Ut Oe ah becom aRM Ea ome. Oc eae Leen eS OI (3. Floccomutinus) 
Gleba borne on a campanulate pileus. 

Indusium absent or rudimentary only. 


LEAUIOIS, 1HOMPaaGl Gye ACHES WINES Gubscacdocescbotesoaobbucoos (4. Aporophallus) 

Pileusptormedvofalamellatenplacesmrni eine neti nein een noneieeeiene (5. Itajahya) 

Pileus even; exteriorly rugulose, papillate or reticulate ........ 6. Ithyphallus 
Indusium present and well developed. 

IPMS: Sioa shy Oormhvollonceol ~scoovncsodccaccsoveodouonconouneed (7. Clautravia) 

PILCUS TOLICUTA Ce ee ee cr eke cere caer Te Tare Re ROLE Ite ee ante eee eon eer ite ete 8. Dictyophora 


Of these, only Mutinus, Ithyphallus and Dictyophora are known to occur in 
Australia; and none has been recorded from New Zealand. Of the genera placed 
under the Phallaceae, Staheliomyces (Fischer, 1921) has been found in British 
Guiana and Surinam (Malay Archipelago); Floccomutinus is confined to West 
Africa; Aporophallus is confined to Brazil; Itajahya is not uncommon in South 
America; and Clautravia has a distribution through Java, Ceylon, Hast Indies 
and probably New Guinea. Aporophallus and Itajahya resemble I[thyphallus, and 


* Genera not occurring in Australia are in brackets. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 5 


Clautravia resembles Dictyophora, but these are separated principally on account of 
the different structure of the pileus. 


Development. 


The development of species of the genera Mutinus, Ithyphallus and Dictyophora 
has been investigated by Burt (1896, with Mutinus caninus), Fischer (1886; 1890, 
with [thyphallus impudicus), and Atkinson (1911, with J. impudicus, I. Ravenelii 
and Dictyophora duplicata); and from their accounts the following particulars 
have been derived. ‘ 

The primordium of the fructification arises as a terminal inflation on the 
end of the rhizomorph. Hach is seen to consist of a cortical layer of loosely-woven 
hyphae enclosing a central medullary layer of hyphae arranged more or less 
parallel with the long axis of the primordium. The hyphae of this central tissue 
are expanded apically into a sheaf-like head, and at a very early stage exhibit 
between them a quantity of gelatinized tissue. The cortical layer at maturity 
becomes the outer layer of the peridium, and the medullary layer gives rise 
to all other tissues. The primordium at this stage is shown in section in fig. 1, 
Plate i. 

Gelatinization of the hyphae of the upper portion of the medullary layer 
follows, and this progresses centrifugally and downward until a campanulate 
gelatinous tissue (which is thicker above) is produced, which later becomes the 
gelatinous layer of the peridium (Plate i, fig. 2, f). While this tissue is developing, 
and soon after its development commences, the fundaments of the other tissues 
begin to appear. Thus the fundament of the stem of the receptacle becomes notice- 
able first as a delicate columnar structure (Plate i, fig. 2, a), its apex extending 
nearly to the apex of the dome of tissue enclosed within the gelatinous layer of 
the peridium. The tissue lying next this later forms the inner wall of the peridium. 
And between it and the fundament of the stem of the receptacle lies the fundament 
of the gleba. Within this again is another bell-shaped zone, the fundament of 
the pileus (in Ithyphallus and Dictyophora, but not in Mutinus). Thus about 
the time the stem of the receptacle becomes differentiated, commences likewise 
development of the inner wall of the peridium (or rather the zone at which 
separation takes place, Plate i, fig. 2, d@), the gleba and the pileus (Plate i, fig. 2, p). 


The fundament of the gleba now produces upon its inner face a palisade layer 
of slender clavate cells. By growth of the tissues in this region, numerous plates 
develop which fold and branch freely as they extend inwards towards the 
receptacle; until finally the whole of the primordial tissue (save a narrow zone 
contiguous to the receptacle) becomes converted into the tramal plates of the 
gleba (Plate i, fig. 3, g). These plates become more freely branched and shortly 
form a labyrinth of plates and cavities. On the surfaces lining the cavities 
basidia appear, and profuse spore production then takes place. During this period, 
formation of the stem of the receptacle is progressing. Opinions differ as to the 
manner in which it is formed. Fischer (1890) considered the wall was formed 
from the outer portion of the medullary strand (which passes up from the 
rhizomorph as a slender cylinder and expands apically to form the capitate head 
of the medullary layer); whereas Burt (1896) believed that this strand played 
no part in the formation of the receptacle, but that all tissues (save the outer 
layer of the peridium) are derived from the capitate apex of the medulla. Atkinson 
(1911) was inclined to support Burt’s interpretation. 


6 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


The wall of the receptacle finally becomes pseudoparenchymatous and strongly 
folded. The central portion is filled with undifferentiated tissue which later 
becomes gelatinized and ultimately disappears (being utilized in giving the neces- 
sary turgescence to the expanding receptacle) to leave the mature and expanded 
receptacle hollow. 

In Mutinus the apex of the receptacle becomes modified, according to the 
species, appearing as a Smooth surface, covered with loosely arranged pseudo- 
parenchymatous cells, or of digitate processes. As the tissue of the gleba 
continues to develop, the tramal plates press against the remaining primordial 
(undifferentiated) tissue lying between it and the receptacle apex, causing the 
gleba to become adnate at maturity. The stem of the receptacle during this 
later stage of development is only slightly compressed where in contact with the 
gleba, but much convoluted basally. Finally the tramal plates become gelatinized 
and the gleba becomes attached to the apical portion of the receptacle as a viscid 
mass. Owing to increased turgidity of the cells of the receptacle (partly due to 
enlargement of the whole through growth, but principally due to the pressure 
exerted through increased turgescence owing to absorption of the gelatinous matrix 
of the central core of the receptacle), pressure is exerted upon the apex of the 
peridium. This ruptures and remains as a cup (the volva) at the base of the 
receptacle. The convolutions in the latter flatten out, causing the receptacle to — 
elongate, when it appears as a mature plant, the apex coated with the viscid, now 
fetid, gleba, the base held loosely within the volva. 

In Ithyphallus and Dictyophora, however, development proceeds further, for 
the gleba, instead of being carried on the apex of the stem of the receptacle, is 
borne upon a well-developed pileus. This additional structure is formed in the 
primordial tissue situated between the fundaments of the gleba and receptacle, 
being separated from the latter by undifferentiated tissue. As development 
progresses it becomes converted to pseudoparenchyma and assumes a form 
characteristic of the species. The pileus is bell-shaped, and occupies a con- 
siderable portion of the area of the unexpanded plant, extending from near the 
apex (within the gelatinous layer of the peridium) to the base. Throughout 
its whole surface it is in intimate contact with the gleba, and serves effectively 
to prevent the gleba from coming in contact with the stem of the receptacle, 
which until rupture of the peridium is compressed within the pileus. The section 
(Plate i, fig. 4) of Ithyphallus impudicus shows the manner in which the gleba 
comes in contact with the reticulated pileus of this species. Between pileus 
and receptacle persists a residuum of fundamental tissue, to form at maturity the 
evanescent veil (and basal “collar’’) which may be noted in many species 
immediately following rupture of the peridium. 

In Dictyophora (and Clautravia) there is an additional tissue, the indusium. 
This develops within the primordial tissue lying between pileus and receptacle, 
utilizing the residuum which, in I[thyphallus, forms the veil. The indusium is 
composed of chambered pseudoparenchyma of a similar nature to that of the 
receptacle, and, like the latter, is much convoluted during development, and 
remains in this condition until the peridium is ruptured, when the folds flatten 
out, causing it to appear from beneath the pileus as a delicate, pendent, 
campanulate, latticed tissue. 


In Ithyphallus impudicus, Atkinson (1911) recorded a rudimentary indusium 
which had not advanced beyond the condition of a more densely compacted 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 7 


primordium. This rudiment occupied the position in which the indusium develops 
in Dictyophora, and was composed of the same fundamental tissue which, 
undifferentiated, gives rise to the veil of [thyphallus; differentiated, produces the 
-indusium of Dictyophora. 


1. MurTinus Fries. 


Syst. Veg. Scand., ii, 1849, p. 434——Phallus§SCynophallus Fr., Syst. Myc., ii, 
1822, p. 284—Cynophallus (Fr.) Cda., Icon. Fung., vi, 1854, p. 19.—Corynites 
Berk. et Curt., Trans. Linn. Soc., xxi, 1855, p. 149—Jansia Penz., Ann. Jard. bot. 
Buit., xvi, 1899, p. 1389.—Phallus Auctt. 

Receptacle a hollow, simple, cylindrical or fusiform, coloured stem, closed 
below, pervious or impervious above; wall chambered, cavities usually opening 
to the exterior below, to the interior in the glebiferous region. Gleba mucilaginous, 
olivaceous, fetid, borne upon the apical portion of the receptacle, which may be 
externally smooth or covered with pseudoparenchymatous pulvinate or digitate 
processes. 

Habitat. Growing upon the ground, or on decayed wood. 

Type Species, Mutinus caninus (Huds. ex Pers.) Fr. 

Distribution.—Hurope; Asia; North and South America; Africa; India; 
Ceylon; Java; Australia. 

The genus is the most primitive of those in the family, consisting as it does 
of plants with a receptacle in the form of a simple hollow stem with the apical 
portion modified to carry the gleba. There would appear to be nine valid species 
in the genus, the numerous others which have been described being synonyms 
or forms of these. Of the generic synonyms Jansia alone is used by certain recent 
workers in a valid sense. Fischer (1900, p. 556) reduced it to a subgenus of 
Mutinus, characterized by the hollow digitate processes developed upon the wall 
of the apical part of the receptacle. Petch (1908, p. 143) has shown that the 
Ceylon Mutinus proximus is intermediate between UM. borneensis (‘“‘Jansia rugosa”) 
and M. Penzigii Fisch. (“Jansia elegans’), as it has the blunt anastomosing ridges 
of the former mixed with the appendages of the latter. It is evident therefore 
that Jansia cannot be maintained. 

Mutinus may be divided into three sections upon the nature of the glebiferous 
region of the receptacle, thus: 

I. Section Glabrosi: apical portion of the receptacle glabrous, either tuberculate or 
regularly reticulated with raised bands. (WW. caninus; M. curtus; M. elegans; 
M. Fleischeri; M. xylogenus.) 

II. Section Granulosi: apical portion of the receptacle covered with irregular pseudo- 
parenchymatous processes, appearing granular or pseudo-reticulate. (M. bambu- 
sinus; M. borneensis.) 

Ill. Section Tuberculosi: apical part of the receptacle covered with digitate processes. 
(M. Penzigii; M. proximus.) 

Apparently but two species are known to occur with certainty in Australia, 
the numerous other records being based upon synonyms or misdeterminations of 
these. 


1. MutTinus currus (Berkeley) Fischer. Plate i, fig. 6. 


Sacc., Syll. Fung., vii, 1888, p. 13—Phallus curtus Berk., in Hook. Lond. Jour. 
Bot., iv, 1845, p. 69—Mutinus papuasius Kalchbr., Grev., iv, 1875, p. 74.—Phallus 
(Cynophallus) papuasius Kalchbr., Ber. Nat. Akad. Wiss., x, 1880, p. 19.— 
P. annulatus Bailey ex Lloyd, Phall. Aus., 1907, p. 13.—Jansia annulata (Bailey) 


g GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


Lloyd, Syn. Phall., 1909, p. 34.—Mutinus annulatus Bailey, Comp. Cat. Queensland 
Pl., 1910, p. 745. 

Peridium subglobose, white, to 15 mm. diameter. Receptacle to 3 cm. tall, 
5-8 mm. diameter, hollow, fusiform, white below, pallid-red beneath the gleba, 
yellowish towards the sterile and pervious apex, finely but obscurely transversely 
rugulose throughout its length. Gleba sage-green in mass, arranged in an irregular 
zone around the upper portion of the receptacle, but not on the prominent sterile 
apex, fetid. Spores smooth, tinted, elliptical, 3-5 x 1°8 wu. 

Type locality—Swan River, Western Australia. 

Distribution.—Australia: W. Aust.: Swan River (Berkeley, I.c.). Queensland: 
Rockhampton (as M. papuasius, Kalchbr., l.c.); Brisbane (as M. annulatus, Bailey, 
l.c.). N.S.W.: Mt. Wilson; Kurrajong Heights (Cleland and Cheel, 1915). 

Cleland and Cheel (1915) have suggested that Mutinus curtus as illustrated by 
Corda (Icon. Fung., vi, 1854, Pl. 3, f. 47) and M. papuasius as illustrated by 
Kalchbrenner (l.c., 1880, Pl. 3, f. 1) are the same species, and that both figures 
refer to the species here considered as M. curtus. The illustrations show totally 
different plants, but as Berkeley’s original description agrees very closely with 
the Mt. Wilson plant, it is evident Corda’s drawing is largely diagrammatic, and, 
as Cleland and Cheel have suggested, constructed from an unexpanded plant. 
According to the same workers, Kalchbrenner’s figure, if the greatly elongated 
stem were considerably shortened, resembles closely the two collections they 
recorded. From the particulars they have given, there can be little doubt but 
that such is the case, and that M. papuasius is a synonym of M. curtus. As an 
additional synonym I would add Mutinus annulatus, as it appears from the illus- 
tration to possess the same transversely-rugose receptacle, although the attenuate 
apex appears to be considerably exaggerated, and to suggest it to be a plant 
Fischer named as M. boninensis (which in turn is a synonym of M. bambusinus). 

The minute size and transversely-rugose nature of the receptacle appear to 
characterize the species, and to separate it from the four other species which 
occur in the tropic or subtropic regions. 


2. MUTINUS BORNEENSIS Cesati. Plate ii, fig. 7. 


Atti. Acc. d. Sci. Napoli, viii, 1879, Pl. 1, fig. 1—Phallus Watsoni Berk., 
Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., xviii, 1881, p. 387—Mutinus? Watsoni (Berk.) Fisch., in 
Sacc. Syll. Fung., vii, 1888, p. 13.—Floccomutinus nymenianus P. Henn., Monsunia, 
i, 1899, p. 22—Jansia nymeniana (P. Henn.) Penz., Ann. Jard. bot. Buit., xvi, 
1899, p. 189.—J. rugosa Penz., l.c., p. 142.—J. truncata McAlp., in Lloyd’s Myc. 
Notes, 1910, p. 484. 

Peridium white, obovate, to 2 x 1:5 em., splitting into 3-4 blunt and irregular 
lobes. Receptacle to 8 x 3 cm., fusiform, hollow, acuminate above and below, 
pervious at the apex, white at the base, becoming salmon-pink at the glebiferous 
region. Gleba borne on an irregular, fragile, raised network of variable meshes, 
olivaceous, fetid. Spores elliptical, hyaline, smooth, 3-3-5 x 1-1°8 uy. 

Type locality.—Matang, Borneo. 

Distribution.—EKast Indies. Australia: Queensland: Burnett River (Berkeley, 
l.c., as Phallus Watsoni) ; Victoria: Melbourne (McAlpine, J.c., as Jansia truncata) ; 
N.S.W.: Rookwood, Sydney, Mosman Bay (Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 203), 
Bradley’s Head, North Dorrigo (Cleland and Cheel, 1923, p. 72). 

This is separated from the preceding species by the larger size, and especially 
by the delicate structure bearing the gleba, which appears in the form of a raised 


. BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 9 


network corresponding to the polygonal depressions of the chambers of the 
receptacle. 

Lloyd (Myc. Notes, 1923, p. 1215) examined the type specimen and drawing 
of M. borneensis in the herbarium of Cesati and found it to be identical with 
Jansia rugosa Penz. Fischer, as a result of examination of the type at Berlin, 
considered Floccomutinus nymenianus was also identical with J. rugosa. I have 
examined part of the type collection of Jansia truncata, and agree with Lloyd 
(Myc. Notes, 1910, p. 485) that it, too, is the same as J. rugosa, differing only in 
the somewhat larger size. And the description of Phallus Watsoni given by 
Berkeley shows it to belong to the same species. From this it becomes evident 
that the prior name for the species is M. borneensis, and that Phallus Watsoni, 
Floccomutinus nymenianus, Jansia rugosa and J. truncata are synonyms. 


In a recent paper Petch (1926) described the microscopic structure of the 
pseudoparenchymatous processes upon the glebiferous portion of the receptacle 
of M. bambusinus. From this it would appear that M. borneensis in this particular 
closely resembles M. bambusinus, differing in that these processes are more 
strongly developed and arranged in an irregular network. His account and 
illustrations show M. bambusinus to differ in this and in the pervious chambers 
of the non-glebiferous portion of the receptacle (closed and polygonal in 
M. borneensis), and for this reason I consider M. borneensis a valid species. 
Petch has shown that M. boninensis and M. Muelleri are synonyms of M. bamobdu- 
Sinus; that the apex may or may not be sterile, pervious or truncate, and that 
plants vary considerably in size. The odour of this species has been described by 
McAlpine (J.c.) as resembling scorched linen; by Cleland and Cheel (1923, p. 72) 
as musty but not fetid. 


2. IrHYPHALLUS (Fries) Fischer. 


Ann. Jard. bot. Buit., vi, 1886, p. 4—Hymenophallus Nees, Syst. Pilz. u. Schw., 
1817, p. 251.—Phallus§Ithyphallus Fr., Syst. Myc., ii, 1822, p. 283.—Phallus 
§Leiophallus Fr., l.c., p. 284.—Dictyophallus Cda., Icon. Fung., vi, 1854, p. 19.— 
Kirchbaumia Schulzer, Verh. k. Wien. Zool.Bot. Gesell., xvi, 1866, p. 798.— 
Omphalophallus Kalchbr., Flora, xlvi, 1883, p. 95.—Phallus Auctt. 


Receptacle a hollow, cylindrical or fusoid stem bearing an apically attached 
campanulate pileus, which may be smooth, rugulose or reticulate; apex usually 
pervious; indusium absent, but an evanescent veil often present. Gleba olivaceous, 
mucilaginous, usually fetid, covering the exterior of the pileus. 

Type species, Ithyphallus impudicus (L. ex Fr.) Fisch. 

Distribution.—Hurope; Asia; North and South America; Africa; Australia; 
East and West Indies. 


The presence of an additional structure, the pileus, borne apically on the 
receptacle, separates this genus from Mutinus; and from Dictyophora it is 
separated by the absence of an indusium. In several species is present a veil 
which has by many workers been confused with the indusium. But, as Atkinson 
(1911) has shown, the veil consists of a membranous, delicate layer of funda- 
mental tissue lying between pileus and apex of the receptacle in unexpanded 
plants. As the stem of the receptacle elongates this is torn and fragments are 
left as a veil on the surface of the stem of the receptacle and the inner surface 
of the pileus, and as a collar at the base of the receptacle. It is seen as a rule 
only in freshly expanded plants, for it quickly disappears after exposure. It 


10 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


is evident, therefore, that the veil is merely undifferentiated tissue, structurally 
different from the pseudoparenchymatous indusium of Dictyophora. 


There are about eight valid species in the genus, which may be separated into 
two sections on the surface markings of the pileus: 
I. Section Reticulati: pileus with raised reticulations. 
(I. costatus; I. impudicus; I. paucinervis; I. tenuis.) 
II. Section Rugulosi: pileus finely rugulose or smooth. 
(I. glutinolens; I. Ravenelii; I. rugulosus; I. rwbicundus.) 

Ithyphallus impudicus is the common Huropean species, and extends to North 
America (as I. imperialis). It has a white receptacle and pileus. (Jl. imperialis 
is a colour form with a pink volva and base of the receptacle.) J. costatus is a 
Javan form with more strongly developed reticulations; and J. paucinervis a form 
from Surinam (Malay Archipelago) with scantily developed irregular reticulations. 
I. tenuis is a distinct tropic species, found in Java, Ceylon and Japan, characterized 
by its small size, yellow pileus and receptacle, and reticulated pileus. The rugulose 
section contains three well defined species. J. Ravenelii possesses a white 
receptacle and is confined to North America; J. ruwbicundus has a red receptacle 
and pileus and is common in India, southern North America, West Indies, Africa 
and Australia; and J. glutinolens, characterized by the depressed globose shape of 
the pileus, is confined to Brazil. JI. rugulosus, confined to Japan, is a torm of 
I. rubicundus differing only in the colour of the pileus. The many others which 
have been described are but synonyms of these, or of species of Dictyophora. 


The genus is represented in Australia by the following solitary species, though 
many others have been recorded. 


1. ITHYPHALLUS RUBICUNDUS (Bosc.) Fischer. Plate ii, fig. 8. 


Jahrb. bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin, iv, 1886, p. 50.—Satyrus rubicundus Bosc., 
Mag. Ges. nat. Freunde Berlin, v, 1811, p. 86.—Phallus§Leiophallus rubicundus Fr., 
Syst. Myc., ii, 1822, p. 284.—Phallus canariensis Mont., Phyto. Canariensis, 1840, p. 
84—P. aurantiacus Mont., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 2, xvi, 1841, p. 277.—Dictyophallus 
aurantiacus Cda., Icon. Fung., vi, 1854, p. 19—Phallus aurantiacus var. discolor 
Kalch., Grev., ix, 1880, p. 2—Cynophallus Cayleyi Berk., ex F.v.M., Fragm. Phyto., 
xi, 1880, p. 119.—Omphalophallus Muellerianus Kalch., Flora, xlvi, 1883, p. 95.— 
Phallus libidinosus Cayley ex Cke., Grev., xi, 1883, p. 57—Omphalophallus retusus 
Kalch., Ungar. Akad. Wiss. Budapest, xiii, 1884, p. 6—Ithyphallus retusus (Kalch.) 
Fisch., Jahrb. bot. Gart. wu. Mus. Berlin, iv, 1886, p. 49.—I. aurantiacus (Mont.) 
Fisch., l.c., p. 51—I. ? canariensis (Mont.) Fisch., in Sace. Syll. Fung., vii, 1888, 
p. 10.—T. retusus (Kalch.) Fisch., J.c., p. 11—Phallus novae-hollandiae Cda. ex 
Fisch., Denks. Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxii, 1890, p. 88 —Mutinus ? discolor (Kalch.) 
Fisch., J.c., p. 983—Omphalophallus calvescens Kalch. ex Fisch., Denks. Schweiz. 
nat. Gesell., xxxiii, 1898, p. 34.—Ithyphallus Muellerianus (Kalch.) Fisch., l.c., 
p. 34.—Phallus celebicus P. Henn., Monsunia, i, 1899, p. 21.—P. sanguineus P. Henn., 
Engl. Bot. Jahrb., xxx, 1901;-p. 57.—Ithyphallus celebicus (P. Henn.) Sacc. et Syd., 
in Sace. Syll. Fung., xvi, 1902, p. 225.—I. sanguineus (P. Henn.) Sacc., Syll. Fung., 
xvii, 1905, p. 212.—I. coralloides Cobb, Exp. Stn. Hawaii Bull. 5, 1906, p. 208.— 
Phallus discolor (Kalch.) Lloyd, Phall. Aws., 1907, p. 10.—P. gracilis (Fisch.) 
Lloyd, Syn. Phall., 1909, p. 14—Ithyphallus discolor (Kalch.) Sacc. et Trav., in 
Sace. Syll. Fung., xix, 1910, p. 987.—I. atrominiatus Bailey, Comp. Cat. Queensland 
Pl., 1910, p. 746.—I. operculatus Bailey, I.c. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 11 


Peridium ovate or subglobose, to 3 cm. diameter, solitary or in small groups 
of 2-6. Receptacle variable in size and shape, fusiform or cylindrical, to 18 x 3 cm., 
scarlet, wall several chambers in thickness; pileus conical, slightly rugulose, 
scarlet, apex perforate. Gleba covering the exterior of the pileus, mucilaginous, 
fetid, olivaceous. Spores smooth, elliptical, tinted, 3-5-5 x 1-5-2 wu. 

Type locality.—South Carolina, North America. 

Distribution.—Southern North America; West Indies; Africa; India; Hawaii; 
Australia. 

Queensland: Burnett District (Herb. Brit. Mus., Fischer, 1893, p. 37); Brisbane 
(Bailey, L.c., as I. atrominiatus and I. operculatus); Toowoomba; Darling Downs 
(Herb. Kew, Fischer, 1893, p. 37).—N.S.W.: Mosgiel (Herb. Berol., Fisch., 1893, 
p. 35, as J. Muellerianus); Wlawarra (Kalchbrenner, l.c., as Omphalophallus 
Muellerianus); Mudgee (Herb. Berlin, Fischer, 1890, p. 88 as I. aurantiacus f. 
gracilis); Campbelltown; Richmond River; Grafton (Nat. herb., Sydney, Cleland 
and Cheel, 1915, p. 200).—Victoria: Melbourne; Yarra Yarra.—S. Aust.: Kingston 
(Cleland, 1924, p. 251, in herb. Cleland).—Tasmania: No locality (herb. Delessert, 
Fischer, 1890, p. 88). 

This species appears to be common in the tropic and subtropic regions. In 
Australia it has been collected fairly frequently, as the records show, and recorded 
under Ithyphallus aurantiacus f. gracilis, I. Muellerianus, I. retusus, I. novae- 
hollandiae, I. atrominiatus, I. operculatus, Mutinus discolor, Phallus rubicundus 
var. gracilis and P. gracilis, all of which are synonyms of the same species, for 
there is no character (other than size) by which one form may be separated from 
another; and size in a variable species where so many intermediate forms are 
known, has no specific value. The scarlet colour of the pileus and receptacle, and 
finely rugulose pileus, characterize the species. 


3. DicryopHorRA Desvaux. 


Jour. de Bot., ii, 1809, p. 88.—Hymenophallus Nees, Syst. Pilz. wu. Schw., 1817, 
p. 251.—Phallus§SHymenophallus Fr., Syst. Myc., ii, 1822, p. 282.—Sophronia Gaud., 
Voy. aut. Monde, 1826, p. 178.—Phallus Auctt. 

With the characters of [thyphallus and in addition a definite indusium. This 
is a campanulate, latticed, pseudoparenchymatous, pendent membrane, apically 
attached to the apex of the receptacle beneath the pileus, and basally free, extend- 
ing to a position midway between volva and pileus. 

Type species, Dictyophora indusiata (Vent. ex Pers.) Fisch. 

Distribution.—Africa: North and South America; East and West Indies; 
India; Ceylon; China; Cook Islands; Australia. 

As has been shown, the indusium characterizes the genus, and is a very 
different structure from the veil. The function of this distinctive membrane is 
unknown, but it possibly aids in attracting insects to the plant to assist in spore 
dispersal. 

There would appear to be but four valid species in the genus, the many 
others described being synonyms of this or Clautravia, or at most colour forms. 
D. indusiata apparently has a wide distribution through the tropic and subtropic 
regions, and is characterized by the white indusium and receptacle, and by the 
rugulose-reticulate nature of the pileus. D. duplicata, confined to North America, 
closely resembles the preceding (and by many workers is considered to be 
identical), but is separated by the more definite nature of the reticulations of 
the pileus. D. Farlowii, which is confined to Brazil, differs in the structure of the 


12 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


indusium and reticulations of the pileus. D. multicolor is similar to D. indusiata 
in form, but differs considerably in colour. It has a limited distribution in 
Australia and Java. 


1. DicryoPHORA INDUSIATA (Vent. ex Pers.) Fischer. Plate ii, fig. 9. 

Unter. Phall. Surinam, 1928, p. 28.—Phallus indusiatus Vent. ex Pers., Syn. 
Meth. Fung., 1801; p. 244-—Dictyophora phalloidea Desv., Jour. de Bot., ii, 1809, 
p. 88.—Hymenophallus indusiatus (Vent.) Nees, Syst. Pilz. u. Schw., 1817, p. 252.— 
Sophronia braziliensis Gaud., Voy. aut. Monde, 1826, p. 178.—Dictyophora 
campanulata Nees ex Ley., Mem. Soc. Linn. Paris, v, 1827, p. 499.—D. speciosa 
Meyen, Nov. Acad., xix, 18438, p. 239.—D. bicampanulata Mont., Ann. Sci. Nat. 
ser. 3, x, 1848, p. 120.—D. radicata Mont., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, iii, 1855, p. 187.— 
Phallus speciosus Schlecht., Linnaea, xxxi, 1862, p. 121.—P. braziliensis Schlecht., 
l.c., p. 124.—P. tahitiensis Schlecht., U.c., p. 126——P. radicatus (Mont.) Schlecht., 
l.c., p. 129—Dictyophora nana Berk. ex Cke., Grev., xi, 1882, p. 39.—Phallus 
collaris Cragin, Bull. Washborn Coll., i, 1885, p. 33.—Dictyophora braziliensis 
(Schlecht.) Fisch., Jahrb. bot. Gart. wu. Mus. Berlin, iv, 1886, p. 32.—D. tahitiensis 
(Schlecht.) Fisch., 7.c., p. 37—Hymenophallus alboindusiatus Loth. ex Fisch., in 
Sace. Syll. Fung., vii, 1888, p. 469.—Phallus diplopora Mont. ex Fisch., Denks. 
Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxii, 1890, p. 81.—Dictyophora callichroa A. Moell., Braz. 
Pilz., 1899, p. 129.—D. Lilloi Speg., An. Mus. Nac. Buenos Aires, xvi, 1906, p. 30.— 
Phallus callichrous (A. Moell.) Lloyd, Phall. Aus., 1907, p. 6—P. rochesterensis 
Lloyd, Syn. Phall., 1909, p. 20—P. Moelleri Lloyd, 1.c. 

Peridium ovate or subglobose, to 4 cm. diameter, white. Receptacle fusiform 
or cylindrical, to 20 x 3:5 ecm., white, hollow; pileus campanulate, dingy-yellow 
when the gleba is removed, reticulate-rugulose, the reticulations being even and 
with rounded edges, apex perforate, collar raised and distinct. Indusium coarsely 
net-like, white, pendent, campanulate, apertures large, bars elliptical. Gleba 
olivaceous, spread between the reticulations over the pileus, fetid, mucilaginous. 
Spores elliptical, smooth, tinted, 3-5-4:5 x 1:5-2 u. 

Type locality—Dutch Guiana. 

Distribution.—Africa; North and South America; Asia; East and West Indies; 
India; Ceylon; Australia. 

Queensland: Daintree River (Fischer, 1890, p. 81); Brisbane (Herb. Kew, 
Fischer, 1893, p. 31); Endeavour River (Herb. Kew, Fischer, 1893, p. 31).—N.S.W.: 
Neutral Bay; Booyong (Nat. Herb., Sydney, Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 200).— 
Cook Islands: Samoa (Lloyd, 1909, p. 18). 

This species varies considerably in size, structure of the indusium, and 
especially in the sculpturing of the pileus. Shortly after a plant has emerged 
from the peridium the pileus appears rugulose, but as it ages the pileus becomes 
more clearly reticulated, the reticulations becoming thinner and more sharply 
defined. 


2. DICTYOPHORA MULTICOLOR Berkeley and Broome. Plate ii, fig. 10. 


Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond., ser. 2, ii, 1883, p. 66.—Phallus quadricolor Berk. et 
Br., 1.¢.—P. calyptratus B. et Br., l.c—Ithyphallus quadricolor (B. et Br.) Fisch., 
Jahrb. bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin, iv, 1886, p. 45.—I. calyptratus (B. et Br.) Fisch., 
l.c., p. 46.—Phallus multicolor (B. et Br.) Lloyd, Phall. Aus., 1907, p. 6. 

Receptacle fusiform, to 16 x 3 ecm., white below, pink above, hollow, of three 
layers of fine chambers; pileus conical, irregularly reticulate, orange, pervious, 


‘BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 13 


thin and tough. Indusium pendent, to 4 cm. below the pileus, salmon-pink, with 
fine meshes. Gleba olive-brown, spread between the reticulations of the pileus. 
Spores tinted, elliptical, smooth, 3-5 x 1°8 uw. 

Type locality.—Brisbane, Queensland. 

Distribution.—Australia; Java. 


Queensland: Brisbane (Herb. Brit. Mus., Fisch., 1893, p. 33).—N.S.W.: Ballina 
(Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 200); National Park (Cleland and Cheel, 1923, p. 72). 


This is a strongly marked colour form of D. indusiata. The colour is not 
always constant, for in the type collection the receptacle was stated to be pallid- 
yellow (or cream coloured), the indusium bright lemon-yellow and the pileus 
orange. The type of “Phallus quadricolor’ was stated to possess a lemon-yellow 
stipe, orange pileus, white volva and purple mycelium. Cleland and Cheel (1923, 
p. 72) have described a specimen from National Park (N.S.W.) in which the 
receptacle was white below, shading from orange to pink above, pileus orange, 
indusium salmon-pink, and volva tinted lilac. As D. rosea (Ces.) Fisch. (Fisch., 
1886, p. 35), which was described from Borneo, possessed a pink indusium it is 
possible it may be the same species; if so this name has priority, the species 
being described in 1879 (Hymenophallus roseus Ces. Atti Reale Acc. sci. nat. 
Napoli, viii, p. 12). But as it is not possible from Cesati’s description to deter- 
mine to what plant he was referring, and as no type exists, I prefer to use a 
name which is associated with a known plant. 


D. multicolor, Phallus quadricolor and P. calyptratus were based on specimens 
collected near Brisbane by Bailey, now in the herbarium of the British Museum 
(South Kensington). All three possess a reticulated pileus, which suggests that 
they are collections of the same species. And this belief is strengthened by the 
fact that the two former agree in all particulars (even to the unusual colouring) 
save that “Phallus quadricolor” has no indusium, and P. calyptratus lacks an 
indusium and possesses a portion of the volva accidentally attached to the apex 
of the pileus (Lloyd, 1909, p. 22, stated that this was a mass of dried gleba). 
As all three possess the reticulated pileus and colouring of no other known species, 
it is evident all are collections of the same species (particularly as they were 
taken from the same locality), the absence of an indusium being accounted for 
by loss, since this membrane is delicate and readily detached. 


Doubtful and Excluded Species. 


a. Dictyophora merulina Berk.—This was recorded in error from Australia 
by Cooke (1892, p. 212), the plant he has illustrated being D. indusiata, collected 
at Brisbane by F.. M. Bailey, and the one which Lloyd (1907, p. 6) named Phallus 
rochesterensis. 


6. Ithyphallus impudicus (lL. ex Fr.) Fisch.—At Kew is a specimen labelled 
I. impudicus, collected by Bailey from Fringiburra Creek, Queensland. As it 
possesses a white receptacle and reticulated pileus, and as no other specimen has 
been found in this region, it is probable that this is a specimen of D. indusiata 
which had lost its indusium. 


c. Phallus vitellinus Muell., Phyt. Aust., 1880, p. 122—This was listed, but 
not described, among a collection of fungi recorded by von Mueller. Consequently 


as it is a nomen nudum, it should be deleted from our records. Lloyd (1907, 
p. 8) suggested it was a synonym of I. rubicundus. 


14 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, X, 


Acknowledgements. 


I am indebted to Dr. J. B. Cleland, The University, Adelaide, for the loan 
of specimens and water colours in his possession; and to Mr. H. Drake, of this 
Station, for photographic reproductions of drawings reproduced herein. 


Literature Cited. 


ATKINSON, G. F., 1911.—The origin and taxonomic value of the veil in Dictyophora and 
Ithyphallus. Botanical Gazette, li, pp. 1-20. 

Burt, E. A., 1896.—The development of Mutinus caninus (Huds.) Fr. Annals of Botany, 
x, pp. 343-372. 

CARNE, W. M., 1922.—In Lloyd’s Mycological Notes, 1922, p. 1117. 

CLELAND, J. B., 1924.—Australian fungi: Notes and descriptions, No. 5. Trans. Roy. Soc. 
S. Aust., xlviii, pp. 236-252. 

CLELAND, J. B., and CHEEL, E., 1915.—Notes on Australian Fungi, No. 2. Phalloids and 
Geasters. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlix, pp. 199-232. 

————,, 1923.— Australian Fungi: Notes and descriptions, No. 4. Trans. Roy. Soe. 
South Aust., xlvii, pp. 58-78. 

Cops, N. A., 1906.—Fungus maladies of the sugar cane with notes on associated insects 
and nematodes. Rept. Hap. Sin. Hawaii Sugar Pl. Assn., Bull. 5, 134 pp. 

COLENSO, W., 1883.—Aseroe corrugata, n. sp. Trans. N.Z. Inst., xvi, p. 362. 

Cookk, M. C., 1892.—Handbook of Australian Fungi, 458 pp. 

CUNNINGHAM, G. H., 1922.—Clathrus cibarius, or “Bird-cage’ fungus. N.Z. Jour. Sci. 
Tech., v, pp. 247-250. 

FARLOW, W. G., 1890.—Poisonous action of Clathrus columnatus. Botanical Gazette, xv, 
pp. 45-46. 

FIscHER, Ep., 1886.—Versuch einer systematischen Uebersicht ueber die bischer 
bekannten Phalloideen. Jahrbuch bot. Gartens wu. botan. Museums Berlin, iv, pp. 
1-92. 

, 1890.—Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte und 
Systematik der Phalloideen. Denks. Schweiz. naturf. Gesellschaft, xxxii, pp. 1-103. 

, 1893.—IT bid, xxxiii, pp. 1-51. 

, 1900.—Phalloideen, in Engler and Prantl, Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, i, 
pp. 276-296; 555-556. 

, 1921.—_Staheliomyces cinctus, ein neuer Typus aus der Gruppe der Phalloideen. 
Mitteil. Naturf. Gesell. Bern im Jahre 1920, pp. 1-6 (Separate). 

Luoyp, C. G., 1907.—The Phalloids of Australasia, 26 pp. 

, 1909.—Synopsis of the known Phalloids, 94 pp. 

LoHwaG, H., 1924.—Der Uebergang von Clathrus zu Phallus. Archiv. f. Protistenk., 
xlix, pp. 237-259. 

PetcH, T., 1908—The Phalloideae of Ceylon. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya, iv, 
139-184. 

, 1926.—Mutinus bambusinus (Zoll.) Ed. Fischer. Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc., x, 
pp. 272-282. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES I-III. 
Plate i. 


1.—Development of Ithyphallus impudicus. Young plant shortly after commence- 
ment of development. Commencement of gelatinization of tissue to form the middle 
layer of the peridium (mesoperidium); the dark area is the fundament of the fruit 
body. x 17:5. (After Atkinson, 1911.) 

2.—Older stage of the same species. a, rudiment of the stem of the receptacle; 
p, of the pileus; d, the endoperidium; f, gelatinous layer of the peridium (mesoperidium) ; 
a, exoperidium. x 7. (After Atkinson, 1911.) 

3.—Later stage showing development of the gleba, g; pileus, »; and stem, a. x 7. 
(After Atkinson, 1911.) 

4.—Plant shortly before the rupture of the peridium. a, strongly convoluted stem 
of the receptacle; b, fundamental tissue lying between stem and pileus which gives rise 
to the veil (the dark line marked i is the rudimentary indusium of this species) ; 
p, reticulated pileus; g, chambered gleba before deliquescence; d, endoperidium. x 7. 
(After Atkinson, 1911.) 


PLATE TI. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


asteromycetes of Australasia—Phallales. 


G 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 15 


5.—Development of Dictyophora duplicata. Plant shortly before the rupture of the 
peridium. a, strongly convoluted stem of the receptacle; b, fundamental tissue which 
remains as the “collar” at the base of the stem; i, convoluted indusium; p, pileus; 
g, gleba; d, endoperidium; f, gelatinous mesoperidium. x 7. (After Atkinson, 1911.) 


Plate ii. 


6.—WMutinus curtus. x 0:7. Photograph from a water-colour by Miss Phyllis Clarke. 
7.—_Mutinus borneensis. x 2. (After Cleland and Cheel, 1923.) 

8.—Ithyphallus rubicundus. x %. (Photograph by Long, after Lloyd, 1909.) 
9.—Dictyophora indusiata. x 4%. (After Lloyd, 1909.) 

10.—Dictyophora multicolor. x 4. (After Cleland and Cheel, 19238.) 


PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT. I. 
THE PLUTONIC AND ASSOCIATED ROCKS. 


By GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, B.Sc. 
Deas-Thomson Scholar and Science Research Scholar 
of the University of Sydney. 


(Seven Text-figures.) 
[Read 25th March, 1931.] 


Introduction. 
General Geology: A. Sedimentary Series; B. Igneous Rocks. 


The Bathylith Rocks: A. Field Relations; B. Structures; C. Petrography (Plutonic 
Types; Hypabyssal Types; Inclusions and Segregations); D. Petrogeny (The 
Reaction Principle; Evidence of Deuteric Action; Chemical Discussion; 
Possible Differentiation of the Bathylithic Rocks; Occurrence of Porphyritic 
Types); EH. Age of the Intrusion. 


Summary. 
INTRODUCTION AND PREVIOUS LITERATURE. 


The area examined lies in the Cox Valley in the neighbourhood of Hartley 
and Little Hartley. It is situated some 70 miles to the west of Sydney, and its 
furthest westerly limit is about 7 miles west-north-west of Mount Victoria. 

A small part only of the Kanimbla bathylith is exposed within this area, so 
the consideration of the Hartley outcrops alone must necessarily be somewhat 
incomplete, and great caution must be exercised in coming to any very definite 
conclusions regarding the intrusion as a whole. 

Little previous work has been done on this part of the bathylith, the most 
important and helpful being a geological sketch map made by Messrs. Ball, 
Curran and Rienits (1898). 

Various isolated parts of the intrusion have received attention in connection 
with the economic minerals, which are associated with the igneous and meta- 
morphic rocks along their contacts. 

In his report on the molybdenite deposits at Yetholme, H. C. Andrews (1916, 
1917) gives some account of the igneous rocks, and Jones (1924) refers to the 
granites at Mount Werong in connection with the silver-lead deposits. W. J. 
Clunies Ross (1894) records a porphyritic granite, a biotite-granite and a quartz- 
mica-diorite from Bathurst, but reference will be made to these later. W. R. 
Browne (1929) reports that aplites and pegmatites, porphyritic biotite-granites, 
hornblende-biotite-granite, quartz-monzonite, granodiorite, quartz-mica-diorite and 
more basic types have been recorded from various parts of the mass. No systematic 
petrological investigations, however, appear to have been undertaken. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 17 


GENERAL GEOLOGY. 
A. SEDIMENTARY SERIES. 


The sedimentary series consists of altered and tilted Upper Devonian rocks, 
and unaltered horizontally bedded Permo-Carboniferous and Triassic strata, with 
occasional patches of alluvium along the creeks. The plutonic rocks are intrusive 
into the Devonian Series, and are overlain by an Upper Marine conglomerate, 
which often contains pebbles of the plutonic rock. 

The Devonian strata include arenaceous, argillaceous and calcareous types, all 
of which show contact metamorphism. 

A series of Upper Coal Measure Beds overlie the Upper Marine conglomerate 
but, owing to extensive denudation, these outcrop only to a limited extent— 
notably in Hartley Vale and on the Victoria Pass. A small outlier of chert occurs 
on Mr. Cripps’ property in the north-east corner of Portion 169, Parish of Hartley. 

Triassic sediments belonging to the Narrabeen and Hawkesbury stages cap the 
higher levels. These form the upper part of the walls of the Cox Valley, and 
outcrop on a few isolated hills within the valley itself, as on Camel’s Back. 

Numerous patches of recent alluvium and small bogs occur along the creeks, 
which are making their way into the entrenched river, and in places clearing of 
timber has caused gullying and the creeks have begun to cut through their own 
silts. 


B. IGNEOUS ROCKS. 


Though several types of igneous occurrences are met with in the district, the 
present work is confined to an examination of the bathylithic rocks, so that several 
interesting problems can receive but brief mention. 

Besides the plutonic rocks, hypabyssal and possibly volcanic types occur, but 
the relations between these and the bathylith are not as yet known. 


Flows (?).—Two outcrops of felsite are met with in the area—a small occur- 
rence on Moyne Farm, and a larger one on Liddleton. Cox’s River has cut a 
deep gorge in the latter. 

At Yetholme, quartz-felsites have been found as pre-granite flows (Andrews, 
1916) and, as the Liddleton outcrop shows some evidence of having preceded 
the granite, it is likely that it may represent a Devonian flow. 

A contact-altered andesite with fluidal fabric occurs in a small outcrop on the 
ridge above Yorkey’s Creek, about 30 chains due west of the felsite on Liddleton. 

Sills (?).—Several sill-like outcrops of contact-altered porphyrites, closely 
resembling the andesite, occur along Hughes Creek, and some of these occur with 
other altered basic igneous rocks among the Devonian beds on Moyne Creek in 
Portion 124, Parish of Hartley. 

Dykes.—A great many alkaline dykes intrude the plutonic rocks and Devonian 
sediments. These consist of keratophyres and quartz-keratophyres. Some of the 
dykes follow prominent lines of jointing in the igneous rock, and appear to be of 
post-granite origin. 

Bathylith.—Since the study of a portion of this intrusion is the subject of the 
present paper, little need be said about it in this section on the general geology. 

The bathylith possibly extends to the west of Hartley beyond Bathurst, and 
to the south-west as far as Mount Werong, so only a very small part of the great 
intrusion is represented within the arbitrary limits to which this work has been 
confined. 

B 


18 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP 


OF THE 


HARTLEY: DISTRICT: 


Mainly based on map hy 
F J. Milne Gurran,L.C. Ball and 
+ A.G. Rienits. (1998). 


9 
So, 
© 

> 


FARISH 


+ z ie vs 
os : Se 
AS + + 44 eeu eiviny wees Lon 
COACH HUES ctN AO EING7 Ga Sav itage, chiede cael. iS rC Bono 
+ +44 gs a ig) NOG a lf 
TOW Rett ts 8 PARISH OF AARTL EY | 
Moen Ma ce opine ios ou y Ol OP OLY 50 aii 0/2 Ui C TONOE pray, Orad 
+ FEEL + PHH He EWN. FO Nee Sa ap SD Nec, Sie 
SN BETES | Al ey eee) Fes Sar as wg pisibhe oye Tsiehows On) 
qQ ee oe Re ae eC) OBL ROME LAIR” otc 
+ ++ tFtteet¢¢tret +++ 
vg Pe Rarer ia) cence 
a7 + tt t te yp te tet t+ Ck 
4 Ae + tte tee t+ s 
ie + La dea as ai a Le ur uta ay CEE PONCE One PE Senin e OD 
eight tt F.4d tt. Seas eee ZN to 
aban t ies LX? Ox) os veleceliys 
i Sat ROMANO REN 
fo oy y Bos 
= MK 
mis : SARA K MY Wales 
+ Liddlelon's 4 AA 7 C (i Aloe WR 
* * CRRA =e Se “He 
OO) "33 : 
PARISH BKK SMT ERK Hoe oe RS RS 
KK OI Sy) XY ms LIX? ; 
Sy SAG ies ee 
APD Ny, vo. C) PaO 
Ws a 
Wie xe. 
ie 


) RAY 
VON G: 
UNS: 


XY BERR 
is ARO I) 
SOR alas LUN 
y SEY) XK A h 


B 


IGNEOUS. | 
see High level 
cee Basie Dykes. 


~~ + + 
[ea een ate peal tana ; 
Upper Gall 
Fermo - SSS ie Chentls. Dior. 
; : U; Maru 
mike Carboniferous.| [mon |r anne CARAT 
1. 


Recent 


) t/2 3fy 
a CL Ce ‘ To yArenacesus argilaceows 
RM = - = 
Chains Bevonian..... wand calcareous beds. Relsile . 


Text-fig. 1. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 19 


BATHYLITHIC TYPES. 
A. FIELD RELATIONS. 


The plutonic rocks are intrusive into sediments of Upper Devonian age. 
Reference to the sketch map (Text-fig. 1) shows granite in the north-west and 
south-east portions of the area. These two masses are undoubtedly continuous, 
and represent outcrops of a large bathylith which extends westwards to Bathurst 
and south-east to Mount Werong. 


A large mass of contact-altered Devonian sedimentary rock appears to be 
included in the granite on Cox’s River to the east of Campbell’s Creek. This 
seems to be too large for an inclusion, and may represent a portion of the roof of 
the bathylith. Furthermore, small inclusions of Devonian rock are very numerous 
in various parts of the mass, and this also points to the proximity of the roof. 


Upper Gael Measure cherls 
i] 


~| Diucecle De vamecerre: 
Upper Marine a Bay teu nt ee oes lls, 
a a ar si i 3 8 LO joie 
! rg il el & I yes 
1 an Devonian SI | Grancle # ay jill He Grane 
es : erie a hl ce 
v | Ly | Gee th SS ies 
Se SAREE Be eis 
20 oes os, FIKK YK XKY NOXOX. YYY XY WY ER »» 
~ 
++ t ap ae IER + + 
aon’ F RR RR Fat oe 


SECTION ALONG A-B. 


Cherl. y 
Cong lomerale Conglomerate “S 
Upper Marine, Conglomerale cS ie ’ Ss ie ¢ 
: j ee | AS 
v te | Granile wy ; “'Granile 2 
he a ata Se Pen Saat a Gene eae ew 
\ ! \ AS fQ ' \ ny Devon var “al A) 
\ Rx } | aS of \ \ iS) - 1 Qy a +2 
\ S | ‘y Se eens 1) eS 
ESS eS em ey amt atl SS 
2000 \ < R ; £ oy \ \ iS eal A), = af 
pS v 8 R i = 
or ; S RK a 9 UV Y 
2500 S& ~ 4 Oe: a 
cae + YN +t AY 
+ + PRT a NOS 
2000’ x Xs 
D. 
SECTION ALONG CD. 


Devonian Sedimenls 


| 

: ~ Quarh,~ mica - diorile | Upper rs u Quar® mica -déor: Te 
EDR OORT I ing eco Sd Seale id tiniest 
pate sees 1S Gabbre. SAM HMR al) uy AU 
~ 1 ) nw) | pe | ' a, & Of ; wel 
eee wee an Se since eee ol 

“he te | fs Wns a a 

| Qe AAKK) Pass J, eS y ee 4 
@ RUE VOTER Rr MORRO OIA > 
2000 RY) a4 iL YAS Sy \, Wy, Say. Y% A BOON OY 


SECTION ALONG E£-F. 


Text-fig. 2. 


20 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


It will be seen on the sketch map that two masses of basic and intermediate- 
basic rock occur. The larger of these outcrops on the Cox’s River on the properties 
of Messrs. Chris. Commens and Mitchell. This mass is surrounded: by, and is 
intrusive into, rocks of Devonian age, and in a few instances the beds are seen 
to dip away from the intrusive rock. The occurrence is probably a stock, and 
is about one mile by one and a half miles across. 


The second smaller intrusion, which also appears to be a stock, is slightly more 
acid, and occurs on Moyne Farm, the property of Mr. G. Harvey. Though intrusive 
into Devonian strata, the stock is largely surrounded by overlying beds of Permian 
age. The intrusion is about one mile in diameter. 


The plutonic rocks consist of a series ranging from ultra-basic to acid, and 
form a complete calcic suite. The series passes from hornblendite and gabbros, 
through intermediate quartz-mica-diorites, tonalites and granodiorites, into biotite- 
granites, and there appears to be a gradual transition from one type into another. 
It will be shown later that the petrography supports this view. 


With the exception of most of the aplite dykes and veins, which intersect acid 
and intermediate types, only one definite junction among the bathylith rocks has 
been observed. This occurs between a fine and coarse phase of the quartz-mica- 
diorite, and may be seen in a loose biock of the rock on the northern bank of 
Moyne Creek, just below the farm house. 


The biotite-granite, together with a porphyritic phase, is confined to the 
northern portion of the area. The porphyritic granite outcrops on the Bathurst 
Road near the Royal Hotel and behind the village of Hartley in the valley of the 
River Lett. It also occurs on the hillside to the south of the road, and appears 
to be surrounded by the even-grained acid granite which occurs on the sharp bend 
of the road just to the east of the Lett Bridge, and on the other side of the 
road at the junction of the Bathurst and Jenolan Roads. 


Several traverses across the granites indicate an increasing basicity away 
from the margin. 

Along the Lett between the bridges the even-grained biotite-granite rapidly 
passes into a hornblende-biotite-granite, and finally into a rock which stands very 
close to a granodiorite. 

Down Campbell’s Creek the same succession is observed, though the most acid 
phase is not represented in this part of the area. 


Another portion of the granite has been examined to the south-east on the 
properties of Messrs. Hughes, Harvey (Kanimbla Station) and J. S. Commens. 


A traverse from the contact of the granite with the Devonian strata down 
Kanimbla Creek partly reveals the nature of this portion of the intrusion, and 
a gradual transition from one type into another is apparent here also. A good 
deal of alluvium and the very deep weathering of the granite, however, prevent 
the establishment of some of the relations. 


On Moyne Creek, apophyses of the granite are fine-grained, and sometimes 
aplitic, in character. At the junction of this creek with Grant’s Creek, a horn- 
blende-biotite-granite occurs, and this rapidly passes into a granodiorite. A few 
chains above the junction of Kanimbla Creek and Grant’s Creek there is a 
small mass of quartz-mica-diorite, with veins of micropegmatite. 


On Kanimbla Station, near the head of the creek, an outcrop of coarse grano- 
diorite, having monzonitic affinities, is met with, but owing to deep weathering 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 


GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP 


OF THE 
‘ Be Tae een a . re ak 
meet 1 OC era in Loam Le Cale USA RS Fl 
. . . Oe a . . . . Cio 6 ware 
ee fs one - 3 Wi dite ah oc. wl! Datlic 
a een ee REso], PEE Scie Ck Ce 
ECPM ease </hike. ch MeL AN Mme Mme ue cet OSS (Peer re 
sient wu te, . = - oo <pachay - . 5 
SES Gate ar so etintete eee a oe ENE yy eligis 
. ° At a3 giee “(5 es hile 0 So 
ie Set iets 
. co ONE WEA Y ems (oo 
septs et gy iel LOANS Za aN : 
AAA hou GN Ne REASON GNC 
a | We Se} + +s * gq oO 
5 20 EAR No a Tilo URN S/S Nic 3 
oat Pol d) PARES Ele ASO: Wo c 
_ INL a) 8 Ko Wo CON AN SS 
o WLI Ne 7 2A IR5gol) ~7\. ~- 
a e oa Wa 625]! CESS SES es 
. Eo als 
ey WSN INRA CAR RS 
COA Ieee ZAI + + + (R605! 
SPA i \ \1B600]< ' amie 
SNS ae AS ne a CO A 
OP OSS WAL Oe a LeatS>S 
ca aa aN Nae <r ' ping 
PLAT AIRS Poy J A Ss Leth 
= . \ ‘ 
. . a 7 Pia ae ne ey 
amarant VMN al’ ~ 
. rare peep ae\We gd Gab Gk ZZ 
ot \ 
soe ah al aot tye t+ te et 4 
“iW 5751 
7 eee eee Li Sante Pr, + + ++ +e + + 
| o nue " xp fae Rola Ge ap cS GS ge . 
a ens V7 +i) + re Lap usm oe ey ae Nees PEE Sa 
| Ae Nae pe: NNO NGOS 
o {| WW YRS ie a 22 IP Be Non 
/4, . Dw; “ih SYS + @ N 
a WSIS IRR GREE NRE foe & © Ro o 
1s POG I ORM fede URINE Sy he Se 
| Oo ® SY NONI NNN \ x mp Se Yee 
Oe ae aN ‘ NRL RU RRR <A VLE ce es GRO 
| a oN oy RA OI SIO UR Le a 
~ ras ENON es WAY NS ies Beis 
. THis ZA Oa MORRIS K ARG AL OG, ° 9 
Oe OF RONG Sew SS + G0. 0. 0 
Sivas ; <i V7 NY NIRA 4. Z + GOS ee erie 
. NE 6 - ‘ez 7 VA VRE O. CL OD 
“KS . BIE GGA \ WW 0707 2S 9) ai) LORE NEES WSa 7 0 foo 
ne Cor ae AN 2 NAA: 1 5254-4 Cie sb Cae 
. cee eas Ae. ‘ N S . . 
Wes! > 1 Net AON Vs) NG c 
othe te 0 oD rN Ra s NNN NR Tre e 
SAENZ Nia cinoma 7 NO G— 7444S A 0 
7 #\ON ao cmcre “NS \ Wk CN < x7 NNN Uy <= FO hg Seda 
Sef ORNS BROAN RSE ea 
ool alive, “ramirs Waste y Y SSS 
«0 “Ke Seat om G0 Lo WN ae on 5 ==" 1] Old. Tennis Gurl 
a GV 9 0 CeO" SUZ ARTEL OLE Se =—FGiioo0.0 0 0 4 0 
6a BOS III AN oT OOS NIN, SOV NS RENN ATC ONC RecnG 
--= uw ON . ME RURG = TUE PY OF OO FO FC 
IGS N \ SEES INN NIN NS 
Y tt aorpyugurgr 
NUS SUS UN OS NN NUSOUNV Os 
GU 44 4 1 4G A 
SS WSN FS VS VY VV Vee 
OULU Ul SMA LA UI CARI O 
SYS SNOWY VV yy Ss. 
De EE ORE LEON OE 
SESE NEUS SSS NT [DO 0 
Ue UE 4p, OO 
ELSES Pr ae 
GU FIM Ri, 


I ELT ae : 
Css oundaries doubtful 


wd S Y OF account of 
LL ihe MAM 
eas YN Wash dewn from 


Reaver ative Upper Marine. 


SEDIMENTARY. IGNEOUS. 


“BEGUM oc ace eS Alluvium Grancle Porphyry. === Ris tle. 
FERMO- 5 Mo) 
pee ak Reade le See Marine | ‘x > if Tonake. Baste dykes. 


Conglomerale. 


ee enti alleredl AG Quarl3- mica -diorile. 
sedimentary beds. A 
iC Quarls- pyroxene - dworile 
ONT Diorile -gahbro. 


Text-fig. 3. 


21 


22 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


and alluvium, the relations between this rock and the normal granodiorite have 
not been established. 


Several small, apparently isolated, acid masses occur on the properties of 
Messrs. Harvey (Moyne Farm), Baaner (Bonnie Blink) and Cripps (Cranbrook), 
and these undoubtedly represent apophyses of the main mass. 


GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP 
OF THE 


COX’S RIVER INTRUSION.—~ 


_——_____ 


Geoo) 4, 
i ee 
: SI Ae R NA 3 r, 
gi, 

Ha wr i ly ee sani Aue Ne va 
777 v7 as << ¢ 


4 > 
Levy) fits ARRAN 


Jo *o* APN woe eo 
ashe SSS eee eillh os 
te LY 


WW V NEVO VVLINVSEVW NV Ve vs 
NOGA RON ALOE ANE 7 
~ s NY vy 
2G Op of, naownas 
aN sf yw 
REE a V C4 
Sy s 

VOC o4 4 PoE SS 
NSA WO arn 
COAAZE RAZ 
PSD DI. . 
SESS A INIA 
Wins RS Set I IY 

WN AL EPS |JE Ir NN oi 


Nh 


4 


Ny ‘ 

MSE NT 
YRS o> = 

iiss GOLE ~ 


See Wee om yy 
x SSNS Sa See 4 a 
rca BRI a Wine Geese al) | \ RNA ey “os ny) 
pes aN Hk i i i) Ri Wx, ee 4 A 
a Nine ae Qi uh ae We ih 
BEN Ny OD ‘al LN 
ak EN BAN Hi Ae) NN si a 
+ Maes We Yee ne i a re 


Hon 
oo 


ual - mca. ies Boreilene 
trrahs seee {Eee Aevum, Soe ae 
r+ + 4rF 
+ 
has, Seen + nfael Diorele - (fit 
M cle 
t Pe ey +++ = 4 + RR eect MMM 725-0 Easeloee = 
a he ; ++ es < Devonran RA] Pyroxene g Anales cles 
TH Re wae + x m1 +e tett sedimenk & RAZZ gabhro dg Bephyrcles 
+ eH Ft + pt + + they ooh hagas oP sane ated 2 ; 
: is + tee ttt +eer tet te + F ae 
EEES tee rt ter Co aaa 
FM o Og 
2 af aE) =) \Basie dykes 
Rina y 
Text-fig. 4. 


The Cox’s River stock consists of an outer margin of quartz-mica-diorite, 
about 20 chains in width, and often slightly porphyritic in felspar near the contact. 
It gradually passes. into a diorite-gabbro, which seems to represent a reaction- 
border about a large central mass of gabbro almost a mile in diameter. The 
gabbro is mainly a pyroxene-bearing variety, but there are scattered patches of 
hornblende-gabbro and hornblendite throughout the central mass. 


The felspar of the gabbros shows clearing, which would suggest a certain 
amount of contact metamorphism (Harker, 1904; Browne, 1928). 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 23 


The Moyne Farm stock consists mainly of a quartz-mica-diorite which increases 
in acidity and passes into a tonalite towards the centre, where it is cut by a dyke 
or apophysis of granite-porphyry. This latter intrusion must have been con- 
temporaneous, for no sharp contacts between this type and the intruded tonalites 
have been observed. Sporadically distributed outcrops of quartz-pyroxene-diorite 
and diorite-gabbro occur among both the quartz-mica-diorite and tonalite, and 
there seems little doubt that these represent cognate xenoliths. Nevertheless, no 
contacts between these and the enclosing rock have been observed. This matter, 
however, will be discussed more fully under the heading of magmatic 
differentiation. 


B. STRUCTURES IN THE PLUTONIC ROCKS. 
The plutonic rocks are all massive, and the only evidences of strain are 
occasional slight bending in the biotites and the well developed jointing throughout 
the mass. 


A number of measurements have been taken on these directions of jointing, 
and three strikes appear to predominate, namely, N 10° H, N 65° H, and N 2° W. 


It is probable that these directions bear some relation to the elongation of the 
bathylith, but unfortunately the intrusion cannot be viewed as a whole, and such 
relationships ascertained. 


C. PETROGRAPHY. 
I. Plutonic Types. 


It has been indicated previously that a gradual transition from one type into 
another has been noted in the field, and this has necessitated the sectioning of a 
great many specimens in order to confirm the field impressions. 


Twelve plutonic types have been identified, and their consanguinity shown by 
a series of chemical analyses. On account of the passage from one group into 
another, however, it has been difficult in some cases to select the most suitable 
specimen, representative of the type, for analysis. 


The chemical analyses show a range of more than 35% of SiO.,, and it is 
proposed to describe the rocks under the headings granite, diorite, and gabbro 
groups. On account of the gradation from one type into another, the grano- 
diorite marks the transition from the granite group into the diorite and the diorite- 
gabbro stands between the diorite and gabbro groups. The subdivision is, of 
course, purely one of convenience. 


(a) Granite Group. 
(i) Hven-grained Biotite-granite. 

This rock represents the most acid plutonic type. It appears to surround the 
porphyritic biotite-granite which is confined to the region about the village of 
Hartley, and outcrops on the Bathurst Road and in the valley of the River Lett. 

An outcrop of deep pink even-grained granite occurs near McGarry’s duck- 
pond immediately behind the Hotel. This is medium-grained and consists chiefly 
of quartz and orthoclase with scattered flakes of biotite. 

Further down the Lett on the northern side of the sharp bend behind the 
Court House, a very slightly porphyritic biotite-granite occurs and, on account of 
the absence of junctions, this would suggest the possibility of a transitional phase. 


24 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


At the junction of the Bathurst and Jenolan Roads, and on the road to the 
east of the Lett Bridge, Portion 4, Parish of Hartley, a very coarse, even-grained 
type is met with. This is reddish in colour, and consists of quartz, orthoclase 
and biotite, the latter being a little more prominent in this rock. 


Under the microscope, it is allotriomorphic granular and coarse to medium. 
The average grainsize of the rock outcropping on the Lett is 2-3 mm., whilst the 
type occurring on the road averages 4 mm. The constituent minerals are quartz, 
orthoclase, plagioclase, and biotite, with accessory sphene, apatite, magnetite 
and a little pyrites and topaz. Chlorite, kaolin, sericite, haematite, and a little 
myrmekite indicate both magmatic alteration and decomposition, and it has not 
been possible to find any specimen that does not show a certain amount of 
alteration. This, of course, is to be expected in so acid a type, for it represents 
one of the end-phases in the consolidation of the magma, in which magmatic 
solutions must have been very concentrated. 


Orthoclase comprises about 39% of the rock and is developed in large allotrio- 
morphic grains, which enclose or partly wrap all the other minerals. The surface 
is powdered with kaolin and sericite. Quartz forms about 33% of the rock. It 
occurs in large allotriomorphic grains with sometimes a slight suggestion of 
graphic intergrowth with orthoclase. Plagioclase (about 21%) forms  sub- 
idiomorphic tabular crystals, and in the type behind the hotel a slightly porphyritic 
fabric is suggested by the occurrence of this mineral. The crystals measure up to 
2 mm., and are oligoclase (Ab,,An.,). Biotite (roughly 6%) forms tabular flakes 
measuring up to 3-5 mm., though smaller flakes are more numerous. In one slide 
a large, partly chloritized biotite appears to be intergrown with smaller, fresher 
ones. Lenses of chlorite are very numerous, inclusions of apatite, sphene and 
iron ores are fairly numerous, and topaz has been noted in a few slides. 


Though not so fresh as could be desired, the rock on the road occurs in a fairly 


recent cutting, and it seems likely that this represents the freshest obtainable. 
On this account it has been analysed, with the following results: 


ie Ta. II. IIa. Vi Illa. IV. IVa. 
SiO, as Gono 225 74-00 1-233 73:98 1-233 (Goro 1-225 
Al,O3 14-03 0-137 14-49 0-142 13-47 0-132 15-53 0-152 
Fe,03 0:79 0-005 1:10 0-007 0-72 0-005 ZO 0-013 
FeO 0-91 0-013 0:45 0-007 0:97 0-014 n.d. (0-026) 
MgO 0:38 0-009 0-44 0-011 0-36 0-009 0-39 0-010 
CaO 1-69 0-030 0-92 0-016 0-90 0-016 isi) 0-020 
Na,O 3°03 0-048 3:29 0-053 3°39 0-055 3-01 0-048 
K,0 4-58 0-049 4°85 0-052 4-88 0-052 4-93 0-052 
H,O+ 0-20 — 0-56 — 0-32 — 0:29 — 
H,O0— 0-18 — 0-18 — 0-12 — — — 
TiO. 0:45 0-006 0-14 0-002 0-54 0-007 —_— — 
PZO: 0-05 — 0:05 — 0:05 — — a 
MnO ats 0-01 — 0-08 0-001 0-03 — —_ —_ 
Other Const. — — 0:06 — 0-10 — _— — 
Total a 99-81 100-61 99-83 100-85 


SpaGree. 2-658 


bo 
for) 
ow 
oS 
to 
(or) 
(Sy) 
Ve) 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 25 


The norms have been calculated as follows: 


te nie II. IV. 
Quartz .. a Be at ef Ae ee 34-68 33-60 32:88 32°94 
Orthoclase Ae oe ys Bie af ae 27-24 28-91 28-91 28-91 
Albite j ee ok es oe aN 25-15 a tal 28-82 25-15 
Anorthite ee oe te a Pe Ae 8-34 4-45 4-45 5:56 
Corundum 16333) 2-14 0-92 3°26 
Hypersthene Es be a Bes AG 1-16 1:10 1-16 4°43 
Magnetite fe ets te Bs one Fe MSNG 1-39 1-16 = 
Imenite Pa ae iG ahs os 0-91 0-30 1:06 = 
Haematite Be Ws se a Ae a — 0-16 = = 


I. Even-grained Biotite-granite. Bathurst Road, Hartley. [Toscanose, I, (3)4, 2, 3]. 
Anal. G. A. Joplin. 

II. Aplitic Granite. Tenterfield, New England, N.S.W. [Toscanose, I, (3)4, (1)2, 
3]. Anal. J. C. H. Mingaye, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., viii, 1907, p. 225. In Washington’s 
Tables, p. 212, No. 360. 

Ill. Granite. Bolivia, New England, N.S.W. [Toscanose, I, (3)4, (1)2, 3]. Anal. 
J. C. H. Mingaye, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., viii, p. 220, 1907. In W.T., p. 212, No. 361. 


uy 


IV. Granite. Serrerhof, n. Wolfach-Schwarzwald. Roscanosewslaa(@o)) 4..eoeaoule 
Anal. H. Schwenkel, in Diss. Ttib., p. 146, 1912. In W.T., p. 199, No. 241. 


(ii). Porphyritic Biotite-granite. 
This occurs along the Bathurst Road in the village of Hartley, and is met 


with on the hillside above the road to the south, and in the bed of the River 
Lett to the north. 


The rock is of a greyish colour, with large, tabular, pale pink phenocrysts 
of orthoclase up to an inch in length. Simple twinning is often well developed. 
The groundmass is fairly coarse, and in the handspecimen can be seen to consist 
of quartz, plagioclase, biotite and a little orthoclase. Sphene may also be frequently 
detected macroscopically, and iron pyrites is abundant along joint planes. 


Under the microscope the groundmass is seen to be allotriomorphic granular, 
and to be composed of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, and biotite, with accessory 
sphene, magnetite, and a little muscovite and myrmekite. Small quantities of 
chlorite, haematite and kaolin occur as alteration products. 


The large orthoclase crystals measure up to 20 mm., and show slight micro- 
perthitic intergrowth with albite. These phenocrysts contain inclusions of quartz, 
plagioclase, sphene, biotite, and apatite, and there appears to be a kind of marginal 
parallel intergrowth with plagioclase. Orthoclase forms about 41% of the rock. 


In the groundmass orthoclase is subordinate to quartz and plagioclase, and 
allotriomorphic grains measure about 1:55 mm. Microperthitic intergrowth is 
apparent, and where orthoclase is in contact with plagioclase there is an occasional 
slight development of myrmekite. 


Quartz forms about 25% of the rock, and a few irregular grains, measuring 
up to 8 mm., occur as phenocrysts, but this mineral is most commonly developed 
in the groundmass, where grains average 1:5 mm. Some of these sections show 
a subidiomorphic “arrow-shape’’, which characterizes graphic intergrowth, though 


fo 


s ~ a* 
“ ’ 


26 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


this structure cannot be said to be present. One large rounded equidimensional 
grain 3 mm. across was noticed, containing radial inclusions of orthoclase, and 
biotite occasionally forms inclusions in the smaller grains. 


Plagioclase (Ab,,An.,) forms subidiomorphic tabular crystals up to 3 mm., 
and comprises about 20% of the rock. Crystals are often zoned, and sometimes 
show poorly developed pericline twinning in addition to the well developed albite 
lamellae. 


Biotite is moderately abundant in the groundmass (13%), and small flakes 
averaging 0-3 mm. are often segregated into masses which measure 2 mm. across. 
The flakes are mostly idiomorphic and often show cracks and slight bending, whilst 
the smaller flakes are often much chloritized. Apatite inclusions are very 
numerous, and are usually oriented in such a way that their longer axes are 
parallel to the cleavage of the biotite. Inclusions of felspar, magnetite and sphene 
are also fairly common in the biotite. Sphene is very well developed as an 
accessory mineral, and is idiomorphic to subidiomorphie. The average grainsize 
is about 1 mm., though larger crystals have been detected in the handspecimens. 
A few perfect lozenge-shaped crystals measuring 0:6 mm. are included in an 
orthoclase phenocryst. Magnetite forms irregular grains, and is included in the 
felspars and biotites. This usually forms a kind of intergrowth with sphene, 
but as the latter appears to be primary, there is no justification for assuming 
the iron ore to be ilmenite, and the appearance is probably due to a simultaneous 
crystallization of magnetite and sphene. Apatite forms large crystals up to 1 mm., 
but quite small inclusions in biotite are more common. Primary epidote and 
allanite have also been found in a slide of this rock. 


A chemical analysis has been made of this type, but it has not been possible 
to compare it with the Bathurst porphyritic biotite-granite, as a complete analysis 
of this rock has not been obtainable. W. J. Clunies Ross (1894) quotes 68% for 
SiO. and specific gravity 2:75-2:79 for the Bathurst rock. 


Ik Ta. WE lla. Til. IIIa. IV. IVa. 
SiO, ap 68-60 1:143 68-25 1-138 69-01 1-150 68-20 1-136 
Al,0; 15°33 0-150 14-41 0-141 15-44 0-151 15-99 0-157 
Fe,03 iLofgys 0-012 2-00 0-013 1-28 0-008 0-89 0-006 
FeO 1°85 0-026 2-07 0-029 1-28 0-018 2:58 0-036 
MgO 0-81 0-020 1:08 0-027 0-62 0-016 0-80 0-020 
CaO 2-78 0-050 3°06 0-055 2°54 0-045 2°61 0-046 
Na.O 3°38 0-055 3°19 0-052 3°85 0-062 2-85 0-045 
K,0 4°52 0-048 4°74 0-050 4°52 0-048 4-60 0-049 
H.0+ 0-50 = 0-35 = 0-56 = 0:64 a 
H.O — 0-11 0-19 = 0°33 0:21 = 
TiO, 0-51 0-006 0-36 0-005 0:49 0-006 0:58 0-008 
P20; 0-22 0-001 0-15 0-001 0-24 0-002 0-14 0-001 
MnO 0:04 - 0-16 0-002 0-01 = 0-04 = 
Other Const. = — 0:09 = a = 0-15 a 
Total oe 100-57 100-10 | 100-17 100-28 
SHOo Gir ag 2-703 2-698 2-664 2-673 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, 27 


I II IGT IV 
Quartz .. % on Be ss Ns a 24-18 23/00 23-64 26-64 
Orthoclase oy bes oe at a aia 26-69 27-80 26-69 27:80 
Albite .. =e ats a ie aa ae 28-82 27-25 32-49 23-58 
Anorthite me ae oe Bid a in 13-07 10-84 10-56 11-95 
Corundum ae a6 oe af as a = — 0-31 2-04 
Diopside ae oc ag he ais ate = 2-94 2-13 —_ 
Hypersthene 3-06 2-99 — 4-90 
Magnetite aM oe rien Fe We bas 2-78 3°02 1:86 1:39 
Ilmenite te Se 3 a4 us BE 0-91 0-76 0-91 iow) 
Apatite... 0-34 0-34 0-67 0:34 


Ji Porphyritic Biotite-granite. Bathurst Road, Por. 14, Parish of Hartley. 
[Toscanose, I”, 4, 2”, 3]. Anal. G. A. Joplin. 

II. Granite. Herding Yard Creek, N.S.W. [Tosecanose, I(II), 4, 2, 3]. Anal. 
W. A. Greig, Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Res., No. 14, 1911, p. 90. 

Iii. Quartz-monzonite. Lone Pine Creek, Mount Whitney Quadrangle, California. 
[Toscanose, I, 4, 2, 37]. Anal. R. C. Wells, U.S.G.S. Rec. Lab. In W.T., p. 186, No. 146. 

IV. Porphyritic Granite. Granite Island, Encounter Bay, South Australia. 
[Toscanose, I”, 4, 2”, 3]. Anal. W. R. Browne, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1920. 


(iii). Hornblende-biotite-granite. 

This type is, perhaps, the most abundantly developed in the area examined. 
It is met with on the River Lett between the bridges, where it grades into a 
granodiorite to the south, and into a biotite-granite to the north. This rock is a 
massive, coarse-grained, pinkish-grey type in which quartz, orthoclase, biotite, 
hornblende and plagioclase may be distinguished in the handspecimen. An almost 
identical type occurs on Campbell’s Creek, and this gradually becomes more basic 
and passes into a granodiorite at the junction of the creek with Cox’s River. 


A hornblende-biotite-granite, of slightly finer texture and lighter colour, is 
met with at the junction of Moyne Creek and Grant’s Creek, and this passes into a 
darker and coarser type towards the south. This latter outcrops near the mouth 
of Kanimbla Creek, and is found to be very similar to, though slightly darker than, 
the rock occurring on the River Lett. In this type, the plagioclase is of a yellowish- 
green colour and, on account of its abundance, and of the darker colour of the 
rock, it seems that the rock stands very close to a granodiorite. 

Under the microscope, the hornblende-biotite-granites are seen to be allotrio- 
morphic-granular with a medium grainsize, averaging 2-3 mm. The minerais 
present are quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, hornblende and biotite, with accessory 
magnetite, sphene and apatite. In addition, the Lett River rock contains a small 
quantity of epidote, rutile and chlorite. 

The quartz forms about 26:5% of the rock and occurs in allotriomorphic 
grains varying from 1 mm. to 3 mm. in size. Slight granulation and minute 
inclusions, some of which appear to be liquid, occur in the quartz of the Grant’s 
Creek type; and in the Lett type quartz is both included in, and includes, ortho- 
clase, whilst a parallel development of the hornblende is evinced by a slight 
graphic intergrowth between that mineral and quartz. Orthoclase forms allotrio- 
morphic grains up to 3 mm., and usually shows microperthitic intergrowth with 
albite. Orthoclase apparently started to crystallize at the same time as quartz, 


28 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


and continued to grow after the quartz had finished, since some of the larger 
grains are interstitial. About 35% of the rock is composed of this mineral. The 
plagioclase is oligoclase (Ab,An,,). It forms subidiomorphic sections averaging 
1-3 mm., and is much less abundant than orthoclase, forming about 25% of the 
rock. Zoning is often developed, albite twinning is well marked, and some sections 
show pericline twinning. Rutile needles form schiller inclusions in the Lett type 
and epidote is present in decomposition zones. Hornblende is well developed 
(about 10% of the rock). In the Kanimbla type, columnar crystals measure up 
to 3:25 mm. The average size of hornblende crystals, however, is from 1 to 2 mm., 
and the mineral usually forms subidiomorphic prisms. Inclusions of apatite, 
sphene, biotite. felspar and iron ores are numerous and, as has been pointed out, 
a kind of graphic intergrowth of hornblende with quartz occurs in the Lett type. 
Some of the hornblende in this rock is rather pale, and may be secondary. Biotite 
is well developed (some 4:5%) as subidiomorphic flakes, which measure up to 
2 mm., and sometimes form aggregates of small shreds averaging about 0-5 mm. 
Inclusions of iron ore, apatite and sphene are fairly numerous, and chlorite often 
occurs in lenses parallel to the cleavage. The mineral is strongly pleochroic, and 
in the more acid type on Grant’s Creek, pleochroic haloes are fairly abundant. It 
is probable that the nuclei are zircons, but this mineral has not been identified. 

Magnetite is moderately abundant as an accessory and often forms the centre 
of a phenocryst, which is bordered by a fringe of biotite, and measures 0-5 mm. 
across. This is a common feature of the Grant’s Creek type. Magnetite forms 
irregular grains and sometimes is intergrown with sphene, hence some of the iron 
ore is, perhaps, ilmenite. Sphene occurs both as idiomorphiec crystals measuring 
up to 0:25 mm., and more frequently as allotriomorphic grains wrapping round, 
and intergrown with, hornblende and iron ores. Occasionally iron ore is included 
in sphene. Apatite forms small, stumpy prisms and is included in all the other 
minerals. Topaz has been detected in one slide of the Lett type. 


(iv). Granodiorite. 

This type occurs at the junction of Campbell’s Creek and Cox’s River, where 
it has been shown to merge into the hornblende-biotite-granite to the north. Grano- 
diorites are also met with along Kanimbla Creek and Spring Creek. The grano- 
diorite on Campbell’s Creek is very similar to the hornblende-biotite-granite to 
the north, that is, it is a massive, fairly coarse, pinkish-grey rock, consisting of 
quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, hornblende and biotite. Though the general body- 
colour of the rock is almost identical with the more acid type to the north, a 
close examination reveals the fact that hornblende and plagioclase are a little 
more plentiful in the granodiorite. This rock is characterized by an abundance of 
basic segregations averaging about one and a half inches across. One of these 
has been sectioned and is described later. 

Under the microscope, the granodiorite from Campbell’s Creek is seen to 
consist of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, hornblende and biotite, with accessory 
magnetite, sphene, apatite and a little chlorite and kaolin as alteration products. 

The rock is hypidiomorphic to allotriomorphic granular with a fairly even 
grainsize of about 2 mm. Quartz forms about 29% of the rock and occurs in 
allotriomorphic grains from 1:5 mm. to 3 mm. It contains inclusions of felspar. 
The plagioclase comprises about 36% of the rock and is andesine (Ab,-;An,;). It 
shows zoning in addition to albite and pericline twinning, and tabular sub- 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 29 


idiomorphic crystals vary from 3 mm. to 15 mm. Orthoclase (about 205%) 
forms allotriomorphic grains varying from 1 mm. to 3 mm., and is slightly micro- 
perthitic. Inclusions of hornblende, biotite, sphene, apatite and quartz are fairly 
numerous. Biotite forms subidiomorphic flakes, a few large ones measuring 2 by 
3mm. It is strongly pleochroic, and shows a slight marginal intergrowth with 
hornblende. Some smaller flakes show alteration into chlorite which forms lenses 
parallel to their cleavages. Inclusions of iron ore, felspar, sphene and apatite 
are fairly abundant. This mineral forms about 11% of the rock. 

Hornblende (3%) forms subidiomorphic prisms about 1 mm. in length and, 
though apparently primary, is of a pale-green colour. A slight intergrowth with 
biotite is present, and inclusions of sphene, apatite and magnetite are fairly 
numerous. 

Sphene is moderately abundant, and is of a reddish-purple colour. It is 
associated with iron ore, and included in ferromagnesian minerals and felspars. 
Magnetite forms grains from 0-5 mm. to 0-1 mm., and is fairly abundant as 
an accessory. Apatite is present as inclusions. 

The rock has been analysed, with the following result: 


ie Ta. It, Ila. Te Tifa. IW, IVa. 
siO, 65°33 1-088 65°83 1-097 64-04 1-067 65-36 1-089 
Al,O; 16-20 0-159 16-44 0-161 15-58 0-153 16°37 0-161 
Fe,0; 2-43 0-015 1-03 0-006 0-80 0-005 1-80 0-011 
FeO 2-38 0-033 3°33 0-046 4:47 0-062 2-68 0-038 
MgO 1-28 0-032 2-00 0-050 2-64 0-066 1-81 0-045 
CaO 4-02 0-071 4-24 0-076 By 0-063 3-82 0-068 
Na.O 3°02 0-048 74325) 0-036 2-42 0-039 3-40 0-055 
K,0O 3:28 0-035 3:40 0-036 2-80 0-030 3°75 0-039 
H.O+ 0-58 — 0-67 — PS) — 0:33 — 
H,O — 0-10 0-10 -- 0:38 0-09 — 
TiO, 0:72 0 0:78 0-009 0-380 0-010 0:36 0-005 
P.O; 0-22 0-001 0-21 0-001 0-18 0-001 0-16 0-001 
MnO 0-03 0-08 0-001 = — 0-16 0-002 
Other Const. — —— — _- — — 0:33 0-010 
Total Re 99-59 100-36 99-88 100-35 
eG la. 2-742, Doe eee 2-711 
i. te IIl. 
Quartz .. 30 of ae sie si aye aes as 24-78 26:22 25-14 
Orthoclase ae er ats ee - Bir ie re 19-46 20-02 16°68 
Albite .. a Pee & 4 he a a4 te 25°15 18-86 20-44 
Anorthite Bo fs a ie aS a3 ots sys 18-90 20:29 16-68 
Corundum aes sus ae a ae ae ae se 0-82 1-63 2-45 
Hypersthene 4-39 9-22 12-94 
Magnetite si ay as Bis ae a o3 ia 3:48 1-39 1-16 
Ilmenite. . de oye Me oes xe ao os oe Le S37/ 1:37 Woh 
Apatite .. 0-34 0:34 0-34 


30 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I. Granodiorite. Junction of Campbell’s Ck. and Cox’s River, Hartley. [Amiatose, 
HU), 24 a S41, Auman ye AN, dichalbtay, 


II. Granodiorite. Por. 48, Parish of Moruya. [Amiatose, I(II1), 4, 3, 3]. Anal. 
Ida A. Brown, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1928. 


III. Granodiorite. Near Braemar House, Mt. Macedon, Victoria. [Harzose, “II, “4, 
3, 3]. Anal. R. J. Lewis, Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., 24, 1912, p. 20. 


IV. “Blue Granite’. Tenterfield, New England, N.S.W. [Amiatose, I(II), 4, (2)3, 
3”]. Anal. J. C. H. Mingaye, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., viii (3), 1907, p. 203. In W.T., 
p. 252, No. 54. : 


(b). Diorite Group. 
(v). Tonalites. 


The tonalites are the most acid members of the diorite group. These outcrop 
on Moyne Farm, where they form the central, more acid differentiate of the 
intrusion. The tonalites grade almost imperceptibly into the quartz-mica-diorites 
by a decrease in orthoclase and quartz and an increase in the ferromagnesian 
constituents, and in the basicity of the plagioclase. 


In the handspecimen, the tonalites appear as fairly fine-grained, massive, grev 
or pinkish-grey rocks with about equal proportions of light and dark constituents. 
With the aid of the lens, the light minerals can be distinguished as colourless or 
smoky quartz, white plagioclase, and pale-pink orthoclase, whilst the dark minerals 
comprise hornblende and biotite and sometimes fairly large patches of green 
epidote. Small aplite veins varying from half an inch to mere threads are very 
abundant, and these have produced a local monzonitiec fabric in the contiguous 
rock. 


Under the microscope, the tonalites are found to be holocrystalline and 
hypidiomorphiec to allotriomorphic granular, with a tendency towards subophitic 
fabric in some cases. The grainsize is even and averages about 2 mm. ‘The 
rock consists of plagioclase, quartz, biotite, hornblende and orthoclase, with 
accessory iron ores, sphene, epidote, apatite and occasionally carbonates, sericite, 
chlorite, kaolin and rutile. Most of the hornblende is due to reaction and a few 
cores of pyroxene have been detected. 


The plagioclase which is andesine (Ab,,An,,) forms subidiomorphic tabular 
crystals with a lath-like tendency, and varies from 1 mm. to 3 mm. in size. 
A slight magmatic alteration has caused sericitization and kaolinization of the 
felspars. Albite twinning and zoning are well developed. About 57% of the rock 
is plagioclase. The quartz (some 16:5%) is in allotriomorphic grains, and though 
interstitial, it is not so markedly so as in the quartz-mica-diorites. The consolida- 
tion has apparently been in part contemporaneous with that of plagioclase. In 
several cases a kind of intergrowth between quartz and uralitic hornblende has 
been observed. On an average the quartz grains in the body of the rock are 1-2 
mm., but minute grains are present in quartz veins, which ramify through the 
tonalites. Hornblende (about 11%) is both primary and uralitic after pyroxene, 
but the latter type is the more abundant. Simple twinning is often shown and 
good amphibole cleavage is apparent in some sections. The uralite pseudomorphs 
are usually fringed with biotite and include secondary magnetite, epidote and 
sphene. 


In one slide a frayed and tufted amphibole occurs in small quantity, and 
this may be of the nature of actinolite. In another specimen fragments of horn- 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 31 


blende, quartz, felspar and chlorite form a kind of groundmass, enwrapping larger 
mineral individuals. The hornblende contains numerous inclusions of iron ore, 
apatite and sphene, and is intimately associated with chloritized biotite and epidote. 


Biotite is often more abundant than hornblende, but varies in quantity in 
different parts of the mass. This is probably due to local variations of physical 
conditions during consolidation, and as a result a certain amount of heterogeneity 
has been set up. The average amount, like hornblende, is about 11%. The biotite 
forms subidiomorphic flakes up to 1:5 mm., but most frequently occurs in small 
flakes which are aggregated together into masses, measuring up to 3 mm. across. 


Inclusions of iron ores, apatite and sphene are common, and in one slide 
granules of secondary sphene and iron ore, evidently ilmenite, are strung out 
along the biotite cleavages. Where the biotite shows bending, these granular 
strings are seen to follow it. Small needles of rutile, arranged parallel to the 
cleavage, are also present in this slide. Lenses of chlorite are numerous, and in 
some cases the biotite appears to have been entirely chloritized by magmatic 
solutions. A slight intergrowth with uralitic hornblende is present in a few slides. 
Both primary and secondary sphene occur, but the latter is the more abundant. 
It is usually found as inclusions in the ferromagnesian minerals, and also sur- 
rounding and associated with ilmenite grains. Epidote is fairly abundant, and 
much appears to be primary or at least deuteric. Grains measure up to 0:2 mm. 
and are in association with the ferromagnesian minerals. In one slide sub- 
idiomorphic prisms measure up to 0-65 mm. and are grouped. Orthoclase 
is usually subordinate, but gains prominence in the neighbourhood of aplitic veins. 
Iron ores appear to comprise both magnetite and ilmenite, and are fairly abundant 
accessories. Apatite is a constant inclusion mineral and forms prisms up to 
0-3 mm. 


No specimen has been found entirely free from deuteric alteration, and due 
allowance must be made for this in the analysis. 


I. Ta. II. IIa. IBN, Iifa. 
SiOz. a8 40 62-06 1:034 61-61 1-027 61°44 1-024 
Al,O; .. ae o0 18°25 0:177 17°95 0-176 17-61 0-173 
Fe,0; .. te a 2°91 0-018 3°35 0°021 1°86 0-011 
FeO 2°94 0-040 3°38 0-047 3°59 0-050 
MgO ie yAl 0-043 2°09 0-052 3°09 0-077 
CaO... 4-90 0-088 4°91 0-088 5°88 0-105 
Na,O .. 3°12 0-050 3°22 0-052 2°03 0-032 
eS Ole 1°61 0-017 1:04 0-011 1:03 0-012 
H,0+ 1:34 = 1-50 == 1:17 = 
H,0 — 0:16 — _ — 0:10 a 
TiO, 0-60 0-008 0°37 0-005 1-42 0-018 
P,0; 0:24 0-001 0-19 0-001 0°33 0-002 
MnO 0-09 0-001 = 0:09 0-001 
Total .. oo oo 99-93 99°71 99-64 
Sp. Gr. Si C0 2°764 == 2-768 


32 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I II. It 
Quartz .. ob ae ys See ag ets is Be 24-12 24-36 PAL OF (70 
Orthoclase oe a a is 6 Pa ae ie 9-45 6-12 6-67 
Albite .. oe ae ae a an AG Es ae 26-20 Pall 215) 16°77 
Anorthite ne Be ys a ius te of as 23°63 23-63 27-24 
Corundum ws ae Be fs ae ae oe Ae 2-65 2-86 3°16 
Hypersthene .. otc # bes i ee e2 oe 6-28 7-97 10-60 
Magnetite ae oe Ae ae oe ae ui ef 4-18 4°87 2-55 
Ilmenite. . IL 022 0-76 2°74 
Apatite .. 0-34 0-34 0-67 


I. Tonalite. Moyne Farm, Little Hartley. [Yellowstonose, near Tonalose, (1)II, 4, 
3, 4]. Anal. G. A. Joplin. a 

II. Andesite (quartzose). Martinique, West Indies. [Tonalose, (I)II, 4, 3”, 47]. 
Anal. A. Pisané, A. Lacroix, Mont Pélée, 1904, p. 531. In W.T., p. 384, No. 114. 

Ill. Quartz-diorite (Tonalite). Kelly’s Point, 10 miles south-east of Moruya. 
[Bandose, near Tonalose, ‘II, (3)4, ’4, 4]. Anal. Ida A. Brown, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 
1928. 


(iv). Monzonitic Quartz-diorite. 

It has been pointed out that certain of the tonalites might be put down as 
monzonites from the microscopic examination alone, but field-relations have shown 
that these rocks occur in the neighbourhood of aplite veins, and that the monzonitic 
fabric is only of very local occurrence. 

On Kanimbla Station, however, a very coarse type of quartz-monzonite occurs, 
but through the presence of alluvium its field-relations cannot be ascertained. The 
rock occurs in the bed of Kanimbla Creek and the whole outcrop is only a couple 
of chains in diameter. On account of its coarse and massive texture, the rock 
weathers into huge tors, and the outcrop is most distinctive. This rock may 
be of only local occurrence, but its origin is certainly different from that of the 
monzonitic tonalites, whose extent is but a matter of centimetres. 

Much consideration has been given to the naming of this rock, and it has 
been decided for the present to call it a monzonitic quartz-diorite, rather than a 
quartz-monzonite. The latter would imply a distinct group, which some authors 
(Harker, and Hatch and Wells) place as intermediate between the diorites and 
syenites, and it will be shown later that the Hartley complex is typical of the 
granite-granodiorite differentiation as outlined by Bowen (1915). 

Though the quartz-monzonites show affinities for this line of descent, other 
difficulties present themselves. Firstly, the Hartley rock has a silica percentage 
much lower than the typical quartz-monzonites (Hatch and Wells, 1926). Secondly, 
the rock may be a local differentiate only, and would hardly warrant the intro- 
duction of another group-name. Thirdly, the scheme of classification outlined by 
Iddings (1909) necessitates exact measurements, either by a Rosiwal analysis, 
or by calculation from the chemical analysis. It has not been possible to make 
exact quantitative measurements, and as the composition of the ferromagnesian 
minerals is unknown, a calculation of the mineral composition is also impossible. 
Monzonitic affinities, however, are exemplified somewhat by the magmatic name, 
which is Harzose near Shoshonose. This latter is the subrang of many of the 
South Coast latites (Card, 1915). 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 33 


In the handspecimen the rock is holocrystalline, very coarse, and of a greyish- 
pink colour. It can be seen to consist of white plagioclase showing excellent 
multiple twinning, large plates of black biotite, colourless quartz grains, pink 
orthoclase, which often can be seen wrapping plagioclase, and producing a 
monzonitic fabric, and a little hornblende. 

Under the microscope the rock is holocrystalline and hypidiomorphic to 
allotriomorphic granular, with a distinct tendency to monzonitic fabric. The 
grainsize is coarse and averages 7 mm. .It consists of plagioclase, orthoclase, 
quartz, biotite, hornblende, iron ores, sphene, apatite, and a little rutile. 

Plagioclase forms about 60% of the rock and is present in subidiomorphic, 
tabular crystals, 2-8 mm. in length. It is andesine of the composition Ab,,ANgp. 
Albite and pericline twinning are both well developed, and the surface is a little 
kaolinized and sericitized. Inclusions of sphene, biotite, iron ores and apatite 
are present, and in some cases a slight zoning by inclusions is apparent. Orthoclase 
forms interstitial allotriomorphic grains up to 6 mm., and comprises some 26% 
of the rock. This mineral contains inclusions of all the others present in the rock, 
and is rather kaolinized. A certain amount of intergrowth with albite is present, 
and kaolinization has been selective in being more abundant in the soda-felspar. 
Quartz (about 8% of the rock) forms smaller grains than orthoclase, but is 
more abundantly developed. It too is interstitial, but slightly precedes orthoclase 
in final consolidation. Grains measure up to 15 mm. Biotite (about 2%) is a 
brown, strongly pleochroic variety, and tabular flakes measure up to 2 mm. across. 
Inclusions of apatite and felspar are fairly numerous, and there is some inter- 
growth with hornblende. Peculiar suture-like cracks are developed in some cases, 
and these must have been produced by strains during consolidation. A little 
chlorite is found as an alteration-product. Hornblende (about 2:5%) forms sub- 
idiomorphic prisms measuring 1-5 mm., and is slightly intergrown with biotite. 
Inclusions of apatite, felspar, sphene, iron ores and a little rutile are present, 
and chlorite is often associated as an alteration product. Primary sphene occurs 
mainly as irregular grain inclusions, but is not abundant. A small quantity of 
secondary sphene is associated with the iron ores, which apparently consist of 
both magnetite and ilmenite. 

The analysis of this rock is given below: 


is 112), Il. Ila. OO, IITa. 
SiO, . 58-37 0-973 58-20 0-970 59-94 0-994 
INCOR oo 18:38 0-180 18°35 0-180 15:61 0°153 
FeO; . 2-80 0-018 1:44 0-009 i/o6y5) 0-010 
FeO 4-43 0:061 3°46 0-048 6-25 0-087 
MgO 2-79 0-069 3°49 0: 087 2°53 0-063 
CaO 6-29 0-113 6-20 0-111 6-65 0-119 
Na,O Dots) 0-040 2-63 0-042 2°88 0-047 
K.O 2-56 0-028 2-96 0-032 2-06 0-022 
H,O+ 0-56 — 2-05 —_— 0-57 — 
H,O— 0-16 — —_ — 0:39 
TiO, 0-52 0-006 0-87 0-011 1-08 0-014 
P.O; 0-26 0-002 — — 0:64 0-004 
MnO 0-06 0-001 0-35 0-005 = 
Total .. a eee 99-70 100-00 100-15 
Sp. Gr. 2-807 | 


34 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I. II. Til. 
Quartz .. Lip ug as is ar BIO on ae 14:76 11:34 15-78 
Orthoclase ao ths ao ae Be aie ae aC 15-57 17-79 12-28 
Albite .. a ae a ae 06 ne ee ais 20-96 20-01 24-63 
Anorthite AG a A ais ets ae Hi we 29-47 29-47 23°35 
Corundum he we os oA ac ae ee aH 0-20 — _— 
Diopside. . ahs BG a0 26 6 a0 a0 ae — boil 5-35 
Hypersthene .. oo 2:0 ae a5 a0 ae ae 11-92 12-52 11:93 
Magnetite 3 Se we ob 7 ae ee aa 4-18 2°09 2°32 
Iimenite. . aid ate ne te ae ac ae ae 0-91 1:67 2°13 
Apatite .. AG Ne te its es ah ace ae 0-67 —_ 1:34 


I. Monzonitic Quartz-diorite. Kanimbla Station, Little Hartley. [Harzose, “II, 4”, 
3(4), 37]. Anal. G. A. Joplin. 
II. Andesite. St. Paul’s, Whangaroa, N.Z. [Harzose, “II, 4(5), (2)3, 3”]. Anal. 


J. S. Maclaurin, Bell and Clarke, Bull. N.Z. Geol. Surv., 8, 1909, p. 68. In W.T., p. 368, 
No. 84. 


III. Granodiorite. Glenrock Falls, Marulan. [Bandose]. Anal. G. J. Burrows, 
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiv, 1909. 


(vil). Quartz-mica-diorites. 

Quartz-mica-diorites occur bordering both the Moyne Farm and Cox’s River 
intrusions. 

On Moyne Farm, this type merges imperceptibly into the tonalite by a gradual 
decrease in the ferromagnesian minerals, and an increase in the acidity of the 
plagioclase. The coming in of orthoclase also marks the transition into the 
tonalite. At the contact with the Devonian strata, the rock is finer grained and 
no hornblende has been detected. Masses of alteration-products, however, may 
represent remnants of this mineral. 

On the Cox’s River, the quartz-mica-diorites gradually become more basic away 
from the margin and pass into a diorite-gabbro, which in turn passes into a 
central mass of gabbro. It seems probable that the quartz-mica-diorites have 
suffered some contamination and that the diorite-gabbro is a reaction border of 
the gabbro. The analysis shows that the Cox’s River quartz-mica-diorites are a 
little more basic than the Moyne Farm type, though there is no essential differ- 
ence in the mineral composition. The rock near the contact with the Devonian 
strata is usually somewhat porphyritic in plagioclase. 

The quartz-mica-diorites have a typical dioritic appearance, light and dark 
constituents being present in about equal abundance. With the aid of a lens, quartz 
and biotite may be distinguished in addition to the plagioclase and hornblende. 

Under the microscope the rock is hypidiomorphic to panidiomorphic granular, 
and the fabric is ophitic to subophitic, and sometimes poikilitic. The mineral 
constituents are plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, quartz and, in some cases, 
uralitized pyroxene with occasional cores of augite. A little orthoclase is some- 
times present in the Moyne type. Accessory minerals are magnetite, ilmenite, 
apatite and rutile. Epidote, a-zoisite, saussurite, sericite, kaolin, rutile and sphene 
are deuteric and secondary. 

Some of the slides show a mineral that has not been satisfactorily identified, 
but may possibly be lawsonite. It is found forming lenses in the biotite, and has 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 35 


often caused slight bending in the mica. It appears to be in parallel intergrowth 
with the biotite, and seems to consist of an aggregate of fibres that are parallel 
to the biotite cleavage. It has a double refraction about 0-020, and has a medium 
refractive index, but other optical properties cannot be obtained owing to the 
fibrous nature of the mineral. Dr. Stillwell has described an apparently similar 
mineral as lawsonite in an actinolite-schist from Adélie Land, Antarctica, and of 
this he says: “The colourless mineral is frequently found in parallel intergrowth 
with biotite. Sometimes it is so developed after this manner that the biotite 
appears to be merely threaded in along cleavage planes. Its form is usually lobate, 
and the biotite plates, in consequence, bend round its contour. Its cleavage is well 
developed parallel to the elongation of the crystal, and the cleavage of the biotite.” 


it seems likely that the mineral of the Hartley rock is the same, though no 
evidence of metamorphism has been observed. There is little doubt, however, that 
the Hartley rocks have suffered deuteric alteration, and it may be possible that 
lawsonite, like epidote, may be a deuteric as well as a metamorphic mineral. 

With regard to the occurrence of lawsonite, Iddings (1911) says: “It has been 
found in a number of localities in Italy, accompanying albite and saussuritized 
felspar.” 

Plagioclase (about 57:-5% of the rock) occurs in elongated tabular sections or 
laths, and varies from 0:75 mm. to 2 mm. It is andesine, which on Moyne Farm 
ranges from Ab;;An,;, at the margin of the intrusion, to Abg,ANg. as the quartz mica- 
diorite passes into the tonalite. On the Cox the range is from Ab,,An,. to AbsAD:o 
where the rock merges into the diorite-gabbro (see Text-figs. 6 and 7). Albite and 
pericline twinning are well developed and zoning is fairly common. Some sections 
show tabular felspars crowded with inclusions of biotite, hornblende, epidote and 
iron ores. These are concentrated towards the centre of the felspar, and there 
is an outer border of sericite, kaolin and other alteration products of the felspar. 
The included biotites are usually oriented in such a way that their longer axes 
are parallel to that of their host. 

One of the Moyne Farm rocks and a great many of the marginal rocks of the 
Cox intrusion are porphyritic in plagioclase. Tabular, zoned phenocrysts measuring 
3 mm. across are set in a typical quartz-mica-diorite groundmass with an average 
grainsize of 0:15 mm. A somewhat similar type occurs on Kanimbla Creek on 
the property of Mr. Hughes. All three porphyritic types are somewhat similar to 
a porphyritic granodiorite (M127b) described by Miss Ida A. Brown (1928) from 
Moruya. 

As is the ease with the tonalites, sometimes biotite, and sometimes hornblende 
is the more abundant ferromagnesian mineral. Evidently local conditions have 
favoured the formation of either one or the other. Hornblende (about 16% of the 
rock) usually forms subidiomorphic plates wrapping plagioclase, and thus pro- 
ducing an ophitic fabric. In some cases almost idiomorphic columnar sections 
occur, and in one of the Moyne specimens granular aggregates of hornblende 
are present as well as subidiomorphic individuals. In several slides a kind of 
poikilitic fabric is produced by optically continuous masses of hornblende up to 
3 mm. across, which includes felspars, iron ores, epidote, apatite, biotite and 
chlorite. Inclusions of the accessory minerals are common in the hornblende 
of all the specimens. Some sections show an intergrowth of hornblende and biotite, 
and others masses of secondary amphibole bordered by primary hornblende and 
biotite, and usually enclosing pyroxene cores. Biotite (averaging about 10:5% of 


36 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


the rock) is sometimes developed in subidiomorphic, tabular flakes up to 3 mm. 
across, but averages about 1 mm. The larger sheets enclose most of the other 
minerals, giving a kind of poikilitic fabric, and this structure is sometimes 
developed to a marked degree. Bending is often present, and lenses of lawsonite (?) 
are fairly numerous, especially in the Cox’s River specimens. Intergrowth of 
biotite and hornblende is not infrequent, particularly around cores of amphibolized 
pyroxene. 


Inclusions of the accessory minerals are abundant in the biotite, and comprise 
ilmenite, magnetite and apatite. In one of the Moyne slides a few small reddish- 
brown haloes are present, and these possibly surround small zircons. Ilmenite 
and secondary sphene often form little granular strings in the mica. Lenses of 
chlorite are numerous and in places the biotite appears to have been almost 
entirely chloritized. Other alteration products of the mica are grains of epidote 
and secondary magnetite, which appear to be concentrated towards the margin. 
The original biotite evidently contained a fairly large proportion of titania, since 
sagenite webs are very well developed in a few slides. 


Quartz (some 12% of the rock) forms allotriomorphic grains and is always 
interstitial. The size of the grains varies with the texture of the rock, ranging 
from 0:1 mm. to 1:5 mm. Owing to its interstitial occurrence, a kind of poikilitic 
fabric is produced. In a few slides from both intrusions small plagioclase laths 
are enclosed in this way, and at first glance it appears to be almost a graphic 
intergrowth of quartz and plagioclase; the latter, however, are not oriented. 
Small groups of quartz grains often show mosaic granular aggregates. Inclusions 
are very numerous in the quartz, but are usually very small. Some of these have 
been identified as apatite, ilmenite, magnetite and rutile, but the majority are 
ultra-microscopic. Slight granulation is sometimes present, and in a few cases 
undulose extinction has been noted. Small quartz veins are fairly numerous. In 
some cases they merge into the body of the rock, and were evidently injected 
whilst it was still hot, and only partly solidified. On the other hand, some of 
these small veins show evidence of having been injected into the cold rock. 


Orthoclase is present in a few of the Moyne rocks, but it is not a common 
constituent, and is developed only in small amount. 


The iron ores consist of both ilmenite and magnetite, and are abundant as 
accessories, and comprise about 4% of the rock. Magnetite usually forms sub- 
rectangular grains measuring about 0:2 mm., and in one slide grains are bordered 
by clear, transparent, red haematite. Secondary sphene forms small granules 
bordering ilmenite, and is abundant in most of the slides. The iron ores occur 
mainly as inclusions, but in some cases appear to be intergrown with the ferro- 
magnesian minerals. Small grains of secondary magnetite are commonly associated 
with biotite and amphibolized pyroxene. Rutile is mostly secondary, but a primary 
origin must surely be postulated for the needles included in the quartz. Apatite 
is a constant inclusion mineral, and forms both stumpy prisms and long slender 
needles. Cross-partings are well developed in the latter. 


The occurrence of epidote, a-zoisite, saussurite, sericite, kaolin and secondary 
sphene, magnetite and rutile would indicate that the rocks have suffered a certain 
amount of deuteric alteration. HEpidote usually occurs in irregular grains associ- 
ated with biotite or hornblende and occasionally with felspar. In some cases 
subidiomorphic prisms occur, and these appear to be irrefutable evidence of a 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 37 


deuteric, rather than a secondary origin. A little a-zoisite intergrown with epidote 
and associated with plagioclase is present in one of the Moyne rocks; and in 
another it is associated with calcite, epidote, etc., in a mass of saussurite. 


Masses of alteration products consisting largely of sericite, carbonates and 
chlorite are very numerous in the rock from the contact with the Devonian strata 
on Moyne Creek. These are apparently pseudomorphs after some mineral. Horn- 
blende is conspicuously absent, and some of the pseudomorphs suggest hornblende 
in form, so this was possibly the original mineral. 

Two chemical analyses have been made of the quartz-mica-diorites, one from 
the Moyne intrusion, and one from Cox’s River. In both cases the freshest and 
most representative specimen has been chosen, but as in the case of the tonalites, 
due allowance must be made for deuteric alteration. Moreover, on account of 
the gradations of one type into another, and of the possibility of contamination, 
single analyses give a poor picture of the true composition of the original magma. 


The analysis of the Moyne type is given in column I below: 


I Ta. Il. Ila. INO IIIa. 
SIO, os ai fe 54-37 0-900 55-42 0-924 55-16 0:919 
Al,O; .. a He 19-64 0-192 21-35 0-209 17-51 0-174 
Fe,0O; .. ate a8 4-30 0-027 3:37 0-021 2-62 0-016 
FeO .. as 55 4-87 .: 0-068 4-87 0-068 5:83 0-081 
MgO .. 52 te 2-94 0-073 3°87 0-097 4-35 0-109 
CaO 8-07 0:1438 7°51 0-134 8-50 0-145 
WHO so 20 55) 0-040 2-94 0-047 1:83 0-029 
K,O 1:01 0-011 0:68 0-007 1-08 0-012 
H,O+ 0-96 — 0-37 — 2-01 — 
H.O— 0-11 -— — — 0-18 — 
TiO, 1:14 0-014 0-33 0-004 0:64 0-008 
P.O; 0:34 0-002 tr 0-21 0-002 
MnO ae ae 0:07 0-001 — — 0-15 0-002 
Other Const. .. ae — — — — 0-10 — 
Total .. aN ae 100-37 100-71 | 100-17 
Sp. Gr. a ae ~ 2-861 2-902 
I. II. III. 
Quartz .. £5 ay 58 ae exe oe Ms Be 13-14 11°52 13:98 
Orthoclase Sis ak x ss ths sich se es 6-12 3°89 6°67 
Albite .. as ai oe we Aa ahs 65 ae 20-96 24-63 15-20 
Anorthite ss ana ws es ws ve ag vee 38-09 37-25 36°97 
Corundum oy a ae ie ae Bie ve ne 0-41 2-14 — 
Diopside. . an ot a a ian ae Lie BA — — 1-36 
Hypersthene .. ae AY ae an ae ee eye 11-00 15°38 18-02 
Magnetite ae Bed ha an ape 5 ee 3 6-26 4-87 3°71 
Ilmenite.. an aes ae ate al ate oe BY 2-13 0:61 122) 


Apatite .. 5 Bi ie A any aye eX sks 0-67 — 0:67 


38 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I. Quartz-mica-diorite. Moyne Farm, Little Hartley. [Bandose, II, 4”, 4, 4]. Anal. 
G. A. Joplin. 

II. Diabase (inclusion in Andesite). Mont Pélée, Martinique, West Indies. [Bandose, 
II, 4(5),,.4, 4(5)]. Anal. A. Pisané, A. Lacroix, Mont Pélée, 1904, p. 5438. In W.T., p. 
410, No. 36. 

III. Quartz-diorite. Octoraro Ck., Cecil County, Maryland, U.S.A. [Bandose, II, 4, 
4,4]. Anal. W. F. Hillebrand, Am. Geol., xxviii, 1901, p. 146. In W.T., p. 406, No. 2. 


It is noteworthy that both the Moyne Farm quartz-mica-diorite and tonalite 
are comparable with Mont Pélée types. 


Column I gives the analysis of the Cox’s River type of quartz-mica-diorite. 


I. | 1B, II. IIa. 
Si0, sie Sa os Ba ae oe Se 52-43 0-874 53-35 0-889 
INLD 6 a sie 5G te Be BY 20-11 | 0-197 18-94 0-186 
Fe,0; 4-18 0-026 Berit 0-023 
FeO 5-59 0-078 5:35 0-075 
MgO A? Or03 4-15 0-104 
CaO 9-06 0-161 8-50 0-152 
Na,O 2-28 0-037 2°56 0:041 ° 
K,0 As ie or ae aS ws se 0-88 0-010 1:19 0-013 
H.O+ .. ae +5 ae ~ ‘3 se 0-36 — Tho1s} — 
H,O—.. os Be Ate Ae ae an 0-16 — — 
AMO, oo Sue ts Ls ea 30 ak 0:7 0-010 0:93 0:012 
P20; 0-32 0-002 — = 
MnO 0-19 0-003 — — 
co, GT -= _ — 
Total .. ae “fs bys 13S afs bes 100-46 | 99-81 
Sp. Gr... Se sy Ne ste ae ai 2-836 

I Tit. 
Quartz .. a an ee Sve ais Be ie oe a6 ae 8-34 8-22 
Orthoclase ay Ate an ye Be ai ve Bes ee ao 5-56 he 
Albite .. be aid ae Bi ws me mie ae ae ae 19-39 21-48 
Anorthite ae oes oe x sje es ae Be a Be 41-70 36-70 
Diopside. . he a oes ae ae eke 0 oe she i 1-11 4-51 
Hypersthene .. ae ee oa ae ae = My ore ae 15°71 13-49 
Magnetite is ve Bs es 5 si a ne ee a6 6-03 5-34 
Ilmenite .. ate ss we Ben ath als ra S08 As ss 1-52 1-82 
Apatite .. us te ate Be ae ie Be Bee ae Bee 0-67 — 
I. Quartz-mica-diorite. Marriott Ck., Cox’s River Intrusion, Little Hartley. 


[Hessose near Bandose, II, (4)5, 4, 4]. Anal. G. A. Joplin. 


Il. Hypersthene-Basalt. Capo Sperone, San Antioco, Sardinia. [Hessose, II, (4)5, 
4, 4]. Anal. A. Johnsen, Anh. Abh. Pr. Ak. W., No. 2, p. 59. In W.T., p. 543, No. 110. 


(viii). Quartz-pyroxene-diorites. 
Three specimens have been collected on Moyne Farm that can be classified 
neither as quartz-mica-diorites, nor as the more basic diorite-gabbros. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN, 


yndy 


ciao 92” Voge a 
PO al 


aprwaB- 327017 
THEE 


WisorTpou Da L) 


4 a; = - x 
TAP seo ial Sl eg a ST a SL a : 
OIG AT) ja z I =: Pesce toe A 2. R 

4 a iy y x 


cauhoyy mec [1 Tt Tt 


sara 25) a 2p a | | 


oneres-ynerg 


(asvyd mp2A0%) 
asq 706 - auazoahy 


epi puaq UaOfT 


Text-fig. 5. 


40 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


The plagioclase is basic andesine of the composition Ab,.An,, to Ab,AN,, and 
quartz-mica-diorites have been found on the Cox with felspar even more basic than 
this. The Moyne Farm rocks, however, differ in containing a fair quantity of 
fresh pyroxene, less biotite, and possibly less quartz. 

In the handspecimen they appear to be typical diorites in which plagioclase, 
hornblende and biotite can be detected; and on account of their general similarity 

_to the quartz-mica-diorites, it is possible that outcrops may have been overlooked, 
and that these sporadically distributed pyroxene-bearing rocks are more common 
than they appear to be at present. 

Under the microscope the rocks are holocrystalline, hypidiomorphic and 
ophitic. They consist of plagioclase, hornblende, uralitized and fresh pyroxene 
(augite and hypersthene), magnetite, quartz, biotite and accessory apatite and 
rutile. Epidote, sericite, chlorite and lawsonite (?) are possibly deuteric. 

As the characters of the individual minerals are essentially the same as 


those found in the quartz-mica-diorites, a separate detailed description does not 
seem necessary. 


(ix). Diorite-gabbros. 

This type occurs very abundantly in the Cox’s River intrusion, and two 
outcrops have been met with on Moyne Farm. 

On the Cox’s River the diorite-gabbros surround the pyroxene-gabbros, and 
appear to form a reaction rim about them. In the Moyne Farm occurrences, the 
rock seems to outcrop in isolated masses in the quartz-mica-diorite, and, as is 
possibly the case with the quartz-pyroxene-diorites, some of these outcrops may have 
been overlooked. 

In the handspecimen, the rock has a typically dioritic appearance and seems 
to consist of plagioclase and hornblende roughly in equal proportions. The grain- 
size is medium. Two slightly different types occur in the Cox intrusion, one at 
the head of Hughes Creek and one about half-way down Marriott’s Creek. They 
are coarse rocks of a fairly light greenish colour, and show a rude banding, the 
bands being about half an inch wide. These types contain a little more felspar 
than the normal type, but are otherwise similar. 

Under the microscope the rocks are seen to consist of plagioclase, hornblende, 
iron ores, augite, uralite, secondary sphene, and a little rutile and primary sphene. 
The plagioclase is slightly dusted with sericite and kaolin. In addition to these 
minerals, a few of the Cox specimens. and one of those from Moyne Farm also 
contain very small quantities of quartz and biotite. The plagioclase (about 
64% of the rock) occurs in stout laths measuring from 0-75 mm. to 2 mm., and 
is occasionally zoned. It is labradorite (Ab,,An, to Ab,,An,;,). Hornblende forms 
subidiomorphic prisms moulding the plagioclase, and is of two varieties. First, a 
pale-green uralitic variety (about 10%), which is secondary after pyroxene, and 
is often found surrounding cores of augite and associated with secondary magnetite. 
Secondly, a deep brownish-green, strongly pleochroic, primary hornblende occurs, 
and comprises about 22% of the rock. ‘This often fringes the amphibolized 
pyroxene, though it more frequently forms independent subidiomorphic prisms, 
which are subophitic towards the felspar. The hornblende is approaching a basaltic 
variety. 

Inclusions of magnetite, ilmenite and apatite are very numerous in the ferro- 
magnesian minerals, magnetite being particularly well developed (about 4%). 
The primary mineral forms rudely rectangular grains measuring up to 0:3 mm., 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 41 


and contains inclusions of apatite. Magnetite was fairly late in crystallizing, and 
often moulds plagioclase, and is intergrown with the ferromagnesian constituents. 

The pyroxene is almost completely amphibolized, and it would be difficult to 
say whether it was originally a monoclinic or rhombic variety. Uralite is more 
abundant than primary hornblende in a few specimens from Cox’s River, and the 
rock stands very close to a pyroxene-gabbro. In those rocks in which there is 
a little biotite, it is usually at the margins of the uralitized masses. Quartz 
occasionally forms small interstitial grains, averaging 0-15 mm. in Size. 

This rock undoubtedly bridges the gap between the diorite and gabbro groups. 
It is like a diorite in the handspecimen, yet it is a gabbro inasmuch as the plagio- 
clase is labradorite (Iddings, 1909), the chief ferromagnesian mineral was 
originally pyroxene (Harker, 1919), and the silica percentage is less than 52 
(Hatch, 1914). Miss Ida A. Brown has used much the same arguments in justifying 
the adoption of the same name for a somewhat similar rock at Moruya. 

Moreover, in the Cox’s River intrusion, field-evidence also points to its being 
transitional between the diorites and gabbros. 

The analysis of the Moyne diorite-gabbro is given belcw: 


I. Ta. TI. Ila. TII. Illa. 
4 
Sid, .. 46-49 0:775 47-15 0-786 50:04 0-834 
Al,Oy .. 19-22 0-188 22-30 0-219 18:68 0-183 
Fe,0, .. 6:68 0-042 2-22 0-014 0:80 0-005 
FeO 6-02 0-083 6:93 0-096 6-91 0-096 
MgO .. ce A 5-89 0-147 5-15 0-129 7-79 0-195 
G20N +: os ie 10-88 0-195 12°30 0-220 9-88 0-177 
Na.O .. 2-16 0-035 1-81 0-029 2-35 0-038 
Ke OMe: 0-65 0-006 0-35 0-004 0-12 0-001 
H.O+ 0:96 ss 1-00 = 1:74 — 
H,O0— 0:17 = = 0-28 — 
TiO, 0:92 0-011 0:90 0-012 0-80 0-010 
P.0; 0:40 0-003 0:19 0:00 0-16 0-001 
MnO res ae 0-20 0-003 — 0-14 0-002 
Other Const. .. an me — — — 0:89 — 
Rotalyee ie an 100-64 100-30 100-58 
Sp. Gr. as ae 2-967 = 2-977 
iL, II. III. 
Quartz .. Ne ai ee ee aS ae ab ae 0:96 — 0:24 
Orthoclase ae ae 56 2 ae as srs Pat 3°34 yO pape 0-56 
Albite .. a3 xe ae x4 ee i +3 hs 18-34 15-20 19-91 
Anorthite ne an - ae 43 - a 4. 40-87 51-71 40-03 
Diopside. . ne mls de oe a oe ane ae 8-64 C22) 6:77 
Hypersthene .. Me ae A ae we if O0 14-93 14°51 Pieler 
Olivine .. as ed os af ae a ae ve — 2-83 — 
Magnetite ate ane ae or Ne Ae “ils 5 9-74 3°25 1-16 
Ilmenite.. ae oe ie 0 ae ave oe Be 1-67 1-82 152 


Apatite .. ae O.6 ne eA fe a ns £5 1:01 _— 0:34 


42 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I. Diorite-gabbro. Moyne Farm, Little Hartley. [Hessose, II(III), 5, 4, 445)]. 
Anal. G. A. Joplin. 


II. Hornblende-norite. Riviére Clair, Mont Pélée, Martinique, West Indies. [II, 5, 
4(5), (4)5]. Anal. A. Pisané, A. Lacroix, Mont Pélée, 1904, p. 543. In W.T., p. 536, 
No. 64. 


III. Diorite. Murgatroyd’s Tunnel, New England, N.S.W. [Hessose, II(III), 5, 4, 5]. 
Anal. J. C. H. Mingaye, Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., viii (3), 1907, p. 216. 


(ec). Gabbro Group. 
(x). Pyroxene-gabbros. 


These rocks, which vary among themselves in texture, and in the relative 
importance of some of the mineral constituents, occur abundantly in the centre 
of the Cox’s River intrusion. 


The rocks vary from fine-grained, dark massive types, not unlike basalts, 
to coarse, dark rocks, which may be seen to consist of pyroxene, plagioclase and 
often hornblende. By an increase in the latter the rock passes into a hornblende- 
gabbro, and some of the intermediate types show large “shimmer” plates of 
amphibole, which enclose numerous inclusions, and give both a porphyritic and 
poikilitic appearance to the rock. 


Under the microscope the rock is seen to be holocrystalline, panidiomorphic 
granular, spbophitic and sometimes glomero-porphyritic. The constituent minerals 
are plagioclase, hypersthene, brown hornblende, augite, iron ores, uralite, some- 
times a little biotite, green hornblende, anthophyllite and rutile, and occasionally a 
tufted amphibole which may be tremolite. 


The plagioclase (about 57% of the rock) occurs in laths measuring 1-5-0-5 
mm., and these are frequently moulded by pyroxenes and amphiboles. The com- 
position is labradorite and varies from Ab,,An;, to Ab;;Anys. Some sections show 
slight zoning. Inclusions of pyroxene and iron ores are often concentrated towards 
the centre of the crystal, and the felspars show a remarkable clearing, probably 
indicative of metamorphism (Harker, 1904, and Browne, 1928). It is hoped 
that the contact metamorphism of these rocks may be studied in the immediate 
future. Hypersthene varies in abundance in the several types. It is often the 
most abundant ferromagnesian mineral (24%), but is sometimes subordinate to 
augite and sometimes to hornblende. It forms subidiomorphic prisms up to 2 mm. 
in length, and is strongly pleochroic. Crystals often show a fibrous alteration 
product surrounding them, and sometimes it is found along cracks. The elongation 
of the fibres is parallel to the “c” axis of the pyroxene. This mineral is colourless, 
and may be anthophyllite. Around this, there is an outer, very regular rim of 
a greenish-blue fibrous mineral, and this appears to be of the nature of hornblende. 
Fine dust, and sometimes small grains, of magnetite are often associated, and in 
places this has been haematitized. Patches of uralite sometimes occur in the 
crystals, and may represent one of two things. Hither the rhombic pyroxenes may 
be altering into uralite; or else the uralite may represent original augite, which 
is sometimes present in parallel intergrowth with the hypersthene. 


Brown hornblende forms irregular sheets up to 3-5 mm., which mould the 
felspars and enclose most of the other minerals. It is usuaHy found surrounding 
the pyroxenes or uralite. This mineral varies a good deal in abundance, but 
averages about 65%. It is occasionally present only in minute quantities, whilst 
it increases in amount and finally establishes itself as the chief ferromagnesian 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 43 


mineral in the hornblende-gabbros. A little green hornblende occurs in some of 
the more acid types, and this is usually accompanied by biotite. In a few slides 
the hornblende shows slight zoning as described by Wyllie and Scott (1913), and 
by Miss Ida A. Brown (1928). Patches of brown hornblende occur in greenish- 
brown hornblende, and there is a border of a bluish-green variety, which is possibly 
sodic. Some of the amphibole sections are terminated by small branching tuits, 
which penetrate the felspar. These may be tremolite. Small veins of amphibole, 
intersecting all the other minerals, are very numerous. 


Augite varies from about 4% to 15% of the rock. In some types it is the 
main ferromagnesian mineral, whilst in others it is third in order of abundance. 
It forms subidiomorphic prisms up to 2 mm. across, and groups of these give 
a glomero-porphyritic fabric in a few sections. Schiller inclusions sometimes 
occur and the augite is usually somewhat intergrown with hypersthene. Accessory 
minerals are sometimes present as inclusions. A good deal of the augite is fresh, 
but those crystals that have suffered alteration have been converted into uralite 
and secondary magnetite. 


Iron ores (about 7%) are usually fresh, and it is difficult to say whether they 
are ilmenite or magnetite. In consideration of the fact that both occur in other 
rocks of the series, and that titania is fairly high in the chemical analysis, it is 
likely that both are present. The crystallization of the primary ore has certainly 
followed that of plagioclase, and sometimes seems to have been preceded by all 
except brown hornblende. 


The naming of this rock calls for some comment. It has been decided to call 
the group pyroxene-gabbros for two reasons. Firstly, they all contain both mono- 
clinic and rhombic pyroxene, and this usually exceeds hornblende; secondly, the 
pyroxenes themselves vary in relative abundance, and many of the types would be 
classified more correctly as norites. It is desirable, however, that the list of type- 
names should be kept as low as possible, and as some of the hypersthene may 
have been produced by contact metamorphism, for the present it seems best to 
classify both the augite-hypersthene-gabbros, and hypersthene-augite-gabbros as 
pyroxene-gabbros. 


The analysis of the noritic phase is as follows: 


SiO, | 45-31 0-755 
Al,O3 19-39 0-190 
Fe,0; 5-33 0-033 
FeO Hes aes ae ie ee #s on ais wie ae Sy 7°81 0-108 
MgO aA Ee av = ie at ae ne ae ae Bs 6-93 0-173 
CaO a oe es A Ae BG Fi Se fe RS Me | 11-67 0-209 
Na,O | 19) 0-019 
K.O J 0:35 0-003 
H,O+ 0-69 — 
HO — 0-08 — 
TiO, Se 1108} 0-016 
P.O; 389 0°31 0-002 
MnO 0-17 0-002 
Total 100-59 

Sp. Gr. 3:004 


44 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


Quartz 0:96 
Orthoclase 1-67 
Albite 9-96 
Anorthite. . 46-70 
Diopside .. 7°85 
Hypersthene 21:70 
Magnetite. . 7:66 
Ilmenite .. 0-67 


Pyroxene-gabbro (Norite). Cox’s River, Por. 27, Parish of Lowther. [Kedabekase, 
IIT, 5(4), 5, 4(5)]. Anal. G. A. Joplin. 


(xi). Hornblende-gabobros. 

These rocks occur in isolated outcrops among the pyroxene-gabbros, and seem 
to grade into the pyroxene-bearing types. It is possible that these masses may 
represent cognate xenoliths, which have been caught up in the pyroxene-gabbro 
magma whilst they were still hot and only partly consolidated. The hornblende 
gabbros are usually coarse-grained, dark rocks, which appear to consist of horn- 
blende and plagioclase. In some types the plagioclase is not abundant and the rock 
stands very close to a hornblendite. 

Under the microscope the rock is seen to be holocrystalline, hypidiomorphic- 
granular and ophitic. The chief constituent minerals are brown hornblende, plagio- 
clase, uralitized pyroxene, iron ore and apatite. In one slide a little green horn- 
blende is present, and the plagioclases are usually dusted with a little sericite 
and kaolin. 

The plagioclase (about 33:-5% of the rock) is basic labradorite (Ab,,An,, to 
Ab,,ANg3), and occurs in stout laths which average 2 mm. in length. Albite, and 
sometimes pericline, twinning is well developed and a slight alteration is usually 
evinced by a dusting of sericite and kaolin. Sometimes, however, the plagioclase 
shows elearing. The plagioclase is moulded by hornblende. Brown hornblende 
forms large subidiomorphic crystals up to 4 mm. across. These mould the felspars, 
and partly enclose all the other minerals. A slight zoning is apparent, and veins 
of green amphibole cut through the rock. The fibres of these veins are parallel, 
and apparently continuous with the amphiboles that the veins intersect. This 
mineral comprises about 41% of the rock. A little fresh augite is sometimes 
present, and uralitized masses of pyroxene quite abundant (about 19%). These 
pseudomorphs form subidiomorphic columnar sections about 2 mm. in length, and 
in places tufts or sheaves of pale-green amphibole appear to terminate the pseudo- 
morphs and penetrate adjacent felspars. Secondary magnetite is commonly 
associated with the uralite. Primary magnetite is moderately well developed in 
most sections and averages about 65%. A little apatite is usually present. 


(xii). Hornblendite. 

This rock.appears to occur in irregular small masses in both pyroxene-gabbros 
and hornblende-gabbros. The masses are sometimes somewhat ovoid and measure 
a couple of inches across, but at other times they have more the appearance of 
veins. Some of the inclusions are most irregular in shape, and are possibly basic 
segregations. They seem to occur more frequently, however, as small cognate 
xenoliths which have been caught up whilst the magma was still hot. The 
vein-like appearance is possibly due to a string of these inclusions being drawn out 
in a certain direction whilst they were still hot and plastic. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 45 


In the handspecimen the hornblendites appear to consist of fairly large, black 
hornblende crystals, but, under the microscope, they are seen to be composed of 
brown hornblende, iron ores, plagioclase, apatite, uralite and a little quartz, 
actinolite, calcite, and possibly tremolite. 

Brown hornblende (about 545% of the rock) forms large subidiomorphic 
prisms up to 5 mm. across, and wraps the plagioclase. It includes the accessory 
minerals, and in one place is seen to enclose a mass of calcite, epidote and 
small grains of felspar and quartz. This mass evidently represents a pseudomorph 
of some inclusion mineral, but it is impossible to say what the original mineral 
may have been. The hornblende shows zoning, a bright-green border being 
present on the outer edges, and also around large inclusions. A good deal of uralite 
is present (about 55%) and sometimes tufts and sheaves of a fibrous amphibole 
penetrate quartz and felspar. Some of this is pale-green and some colourless, and 
it would thus seem likely that some has affinities towards actinolite, and some 
towards tremolite. The iron ores occur in large, somewhat rectangular grains 
up to 0:75 mm. Some skeleton grains occur, and these may represent ilmenite. 
These ores comprise some 15% of the rock. Plagioclase (some 12%) is andesine 
(Ab,,An;.), and most of it is rather altered into kaolin and sericite. Some, 
however, appears to be quite fresh. A kind of mesostasis is present (about 12%) 
and this is made up of altered plagioclase, masses of uralitized pyroxene, sheaved 
and tufted amphiboles, epidote, calcite and some quartz grains. 

This rock is certainly an irregular type, but appears to agree fairly closely 
in mineral composition with one that has been described as a davainite by Wyllie 
and Scott (1913) from Garabal Hill, Scotland. These workers have noted brown 
hornblende, much of which is secondary after pyroxene, and andesine as the main 
constituents of the davainite, but no reference is made to quartz, which appears 
in the Hartley type. The analysis of the davainite is given for comparison and 
certain similarities are apparent. 

The low specific gravity and the occurrence of relatively acid felspar and 
quartz would seem to imply that the Hartley rock is a hybrid or has suffered 
metamorphism. 

The analysis of the Hartley rock is given in Column I: 


If Ta. It Ila. III. Tifa. 
siO, . 41-82 0-697 40-2 0-670 43°53 0-726 
Al,O; . 11-79 0-116 9-5 0:093 7-24 0-071 
Fe.O; . 8-64 0-054 9-7 0-060 11:10 0-069 
FeO 11:68 0-163 1222 0-170 8-70 0-121 
MgO 8-68 0-217 8-0 0-200 11-51 0-288 
CaO . 12-14 0-214 13-1 0-234 10-19 0-182 
Na.O . 0:53 0-008 0:8 0-013 2-88 0-047 
K.O 0-25 0-003 0:2 0-002 1:39 0-015 
H.O+ 0-47 = 0:5 — 1°34 = 
H,O— 0-16 — = — 0:43 
TiO, 2-26 0-029 4:7 0-059 1:90 0-024 
P20; 0-42 0-003 = = r. 
MnO 0-20 0-003 0-4 0-006 — = 
Co, 0:53 — _- — abs — 
Fes, — — 0-4 — — a 
Total 99-55 99-7 100-21 
Sp. Gr 3-000 3°36 


46 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I, Il. 1001, 
Quartz .. 23 ne Pe ae oh is is ae 1-26 0-66 — 
Orthoclase ss 5 B5 we ie ak Sie ts 1-67 Woral 8-34 
Albite .. ae Bie ae Be ie af a as 4-19 6-81 13-62 
Anorthite ote xe iy: a ue a ve ee 29-19 21-68 3:06 
Nepheline Ne Bi aie as od o¢ oe 5 = = 5:96 
Diopside. . oa ae a a6 ahs aj se oe 22-50 Bylo 749) 37-42 
Hypersthene .. ab ss ate aes ae a ae 21-76 10:84 — 
Olivine .. Ss a3 ate a An 0 es Ls = — 10-57 
Magnetite Sf os 3 i ote a ae os NBo bs 13-92 16:01 
TIimenite.. sks we ae wigs a ins sae 0 4-4] 8:97 3°65 
Apatite .. 56 ate a3 ae ae Bie ws cA 1-01 — _— 


I. Hornblendite. Cox’s River, Por. 27, Parish of Lowther. [”IV, 2, 1, 2, ”3]. Anal. 
G. A. Joplin. 


II. Gabbro. Druin an Hidhne, Skye, Scotland. [IV, 2”, 1, 2, 3]. Anal, J. H. Player, 
OxdbGieSos ip 1384, os GHB, Min Wy. To, 71G5 IN@, Gls 


Ill. Davainite (Hornblendite). Garabal Hill, nr. Loch Lomond, Scotland. 
[Montrealose, “IV, 2, 2, 2, 2]. Wyllie and Scott, Geol. Mag., (v) x, 19138, p. 502. In 
Wat, Tes Wil, INI@s He 


Il. Hypabyssal Types. 
(1). Pegmatites and Aplites. 
(i). Pegmatites and Micropegmatites. 


A dyke of coarse, decomposed pegmatite occurs on the Jenolan Road to the 
north of the Glenroy Bridge. It is creamy-white in colour, and its structure is 
somewhat suggestive of the Cooma pegmatites, a graphic intergrowth of orthoclase 
and quartz forming the outer portion of the dyke, and a quartz vein the centre. 
A somewhat similar occurrence is met with on Williams’ property at the head 
of Moyne Creek. The exposure is only a small one, but it is possibly continuous 
with a pegmatite and acid granite on Bonnie Blink. These are probably outcrops 
of an apophysis from the granite to the west. 


Small veins of pink pegmatite and micropegmatite are numerous among the 
acid granites around the village of Hartley, and quite a striking set of micro- 
pegmatite veins is found cutting through an outcrop of quartz-mica-diorite near 
the mouth of Kanimbla Creek. This rock has been sectioned and found to 
consist of quartz, orthoclase, microperthite, a little plagioclase (Ab,;An.,), and 
a small amount of biotite, magnetite and lawsonite (?). A micrographic fabric 
is perfectly developed and the grainsize is 1-3 mm. 


(ii). Aplites. 


Granite-aplites occur abundantly, both as dykes several feet in width and as 
veins and veinlets that are often mere threads and can only be distinguished 
under the microscope. Aplites intrude both acid and intermediate types, but 
none has been observed in association with any rock more basic than the quartz- 
mica-diorites, and it appears that the intermediate types are affected only by the 
smaller vein intrusions. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 47 


On the Jenolan Road, about midway between the bridges, a dyke of aplite 
about 2 feet in width follows a prominent line of jointing in the granite, and 
strikes N 10° W. Several such dykes are found to follow major joint-directions 
on the northern bank of the River Lett, behind the Court House. A fairly large 
outcrop of aplite occurs among the granites on Campbell’s Creek, and though its 
mode of occurrence has not been ascertained, it is possibly a large dyke. 


On Moyne Farm the tonalites are often threaded by small aplite veins, which 
rarely exceed half an inch in width. Like the quartz veins, to which reference 
has been made, there appear to have been two periods of aplitic injection. Some 
of the veins are well defined, and under the microscope show chilled borders, 
whilst others have obviously been injected into a hot, and only partly solidified, 
rock, and the local monzonitic fabric which has already been referred to has 
been produced. 


The aplites vary in grainsize from 1 mm. to 0:1 mm., and in some of the 
coarser types there is a slight graphic intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase. 
A kind of monzonitic fabric is sometimes produced by the late consolidation of 
the orthoclase. 


The rocks consist of a mosaic of quartz and orthoclase or microperthite, 
plagioclase and a little biotite, magnetite and ilmenite. In a few slides apatite 
and secondary sphene have been noted. The plagioclase is acid oligoclase of the 
composition Ab,,Al,,. Biotite is usually bleached, often chloritized and sometimes 
contains lenses of lawsonite (?). 


Some of the aplites have suffered a certain amount of pneumatolysis, as 
evidenced by the occurrence of small quantities of molybdenite, cassiterite, 
fluorspar, and tourmaline. Some of the aplites show greisenization, but these 
have not been studied in detail. 


The analysis of the rock from Campbell’s Creek is given in Column I: 


He Ta. Il. IIa. Ill. ' Tita. 
SiO, 76-94 1-282 76-90 1-282 75:67 1:261 
Al.O3 13-98 0-137 12-53 0-123 13-74 0-134 
Fe,0; 0:18 0:001 0:99 0-006 0-67 0-004 
FeO 0-27 0-004 0-66 0-009 0-72 0-010 
MgO 0-06 0-001 0-17 0-004 0-25 0-006 
CaO 0:78 0-014 0-86 0-015 0:90 0-016 
Na,.O 2:68 0-044 2-36 0-038 2-60 0-042 
K,O 4-67 0-050 4-92 0-052 4-85 0-052 
H,0 + 0-39 o 0-43 _ 0-64 —} 
H,0 — 0-11 —_— —_— = = =) 
TiO, 0-16 0-003 0:50 0-006 0-29 0-004 
P.0; 0:02 — — _— — — 
MnO tr. -= 0-08 0-001 none — 
Total 100-24 100-40 100-33 


48 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I it, Til 
Quartz .. a os af és she fg aie Hi 41-34 42-48 39°42 
Orthoclase of BG oe a as ae af as 27-80 28-91 28-91 
Albite .. Sa ete as ae Be ate ao an 23°06 19-91 22-01 
Anorthite ae Oo aes ae te an a oh 3°89 4-17 4-45 
Corundum ae op Bs is oe ae oA Res 2-96 1:84 25D 
Hypersthene .. se ble Aa oe at te ak 0:20 0-40 0-86 
Magnetite 0-23 0:93 0:93 
Ilmenite. . B o0 0-46 0:91 0:61 
Haematite cee ace fo pe as a0 is AG — 0-32 — 


I. Aplite. Campbell’s Creek, Little Hartley. [Tehamose, I, 3”, (1)2, 3]. Anal. 
G. A. Joplin. 

II. Granite. Grafversfors, Stofsj6, Sweden. [Tehamose, I, 3”, (1)2, ”“3]. Anal. H. 
Santesson. P. J. Holmquist, B. Un. Ups., vii, 1906, p. 264. In W.T., p. 82, No. 31. 

III. Granite. Ornsk6ldsvik, Angermanland, Sweden. [Tehamose, I, 3”, (1)2, 3]. 
‘Anal. H. Santesson. P. J. Holmquist, B. Un. Ups., vii, 1906, p. 260. In W.T., p. 82, No. 34. 


(2). Granite Porphyry. 

Collinear outcrops of granite-porphyry occur in Portions 172, 173, 175 and 183, 
Parish of Hartley, and form a small chain of low hills across Moyne Farm. 
Though no intrusive relations have been observed between this rock and the 
tonalites and quartz-mica-diorites with which it is associated, the collinear arrange- 
ment of the outcrops would suggest a large contemporaneous apophysis of the 
granite. 


The rock is of a pink colour, and there is a decided variation in texture. 
Though the microscope reveals a porphyritic structure in every case, many of the 
handspecimens appear to be even-grained, fairly coarse biotite-granites. In the 
handspecimens of the obviously porphyritic types, phenocrysts of plagioclase, 
quartz and a little biotite are set in a dull pink lithoidal groundmass. The 
phenocrysts vary considerably in size and perfection of development. One outcrop 
on Moyne Creek contains perfect, tabular plagioclases, 20 x 10 mm. 


Under the microscope the granite porphyries are seen to consist of plagioclase, 
quartz, biotite and occasional orthoclase phenocrysts set in a holocrystalline 
mosaic of quartz, orthoclase and a little biotite. In a few slides a small quantity 
of plagioclase has also been detected in the groundmass. The grainsize is very 
variable. The phenocrysts usually average from 3 mm. to 6 mm., and the ground- 
mass, which is always holocrystalline, is fine to medium, and ranges from 0:05 
mm. to 0-5 mm. 


The plagioclase, forming subidiomorphic tabular phenocrysts, is oligoclase 
(Ab,,An., to Ab,An;,), and is both kaolinized and sericitized. In one slide bunches 
of secondary muscovite form small, radiating fans in the felspar. Occasionally 
zoning is present, and in such cases alteration is selective. Quartz is developed 
both as subidiomorphic: and allotriomorphic phenocrysts, and as irregular grains, 
which are very abundant in the groundmass. Most of the phenocrysts show 
corrosion and in some cases pseudo-inclusions are developed. Granulation and 
undulose extinction are sometimes present. One slide shows a corroded and 
“nibbled” subidiomorphic phenocryst bordered by smaller quartz grains, which 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 49 


appear to be a graphic intergrowth with the felspar of the groundmass. Harker 
and Marr (1891), Kemp (1922) and Miss Ida A. Brown (1928) have observed 
similar structures. Orthoclase (usually microperthite) is very well developed as 
small grains in the groundmass, but only in a few cases has it been observed as 
phenocrysts. 


A granite-porphyry collected on the Bathurst Road to the east of McGarry’s 
Hotel, however, contains phenocrysts of this mineral. This rock has not been 
observed in situ, but may represent a marginal phase of the biotite-granite. This 
possibility will be referred to later. 


Biotite is developed in tabular flakes as phenocrysts which measure up to 
2 mm. across, but is more frequently found as scattered shreds in the groundmass. 
This mineral has suffered considerable alteration. Apatite often occurs as 
inclusions, and one large section, measuring 0-3 mm., has been observed. Sphene is 
also a common accessory. HEpidote is abundant as an alteration product, and in 
one slide a large crystal of allanite has been noted. Iron ores are accessory 
and comprise both magnetite and ilmenite, and alteration products are repre- 
sented by chlorite, epidote, haematite and carbonates. 


Unfortunately all the specimens that have been sectioned (18) have suffered 
a certain amount of decomposition by weathering, but in many of the slides 
the amount of alteration does not warrant the assumption that all has been 
produced by weathering alone, and there seems little doubt that magmatic 
solutions have played a part. Quartz phenocrysts are corroded and exhibit pseudo- 
inclusions, felspars are sericitized and kaolinized, but it is the biotite that 
produces the strongest evidence of a deuteric period. 


In the less altered rocks the biotite is bleached, and secondary magnetite 
now converted into haematite, possibly by weathering, has been thrown out along 
cleavage planes. Chlorite and epidote are also present and quartz and felspar 
grains are associated. In one slide a phenocryst of biotite is entirely replaced 
by chlorite, in which there are parallel strings of magnetite and haematite grains, 
and associated granules of epidote. 


A further advance in the alteration is shown by masses of chlorite, haematite 
and epidote up to 3 mm. across. These appear to be pseudomorphs after clusters 
of biotite flakes. They contain parallel bands of secondary magnetite grains, 
which indicate the orientation of the original biotites. 


Another slide shows a still more advanced stage, but in this case it is likely 
that surface weathering has played a part. In this rock, “ghosts” of biotite are 
represented by masses of fairly regularly arranged strings of magnetite and 
haematite grains with interleaved grains of quartz, felspar, epidote and carbonates. 


There appear to have been two main deuteric processes operating upon the 
biotite: (1) Chloritization, (2) epidotization. It is not possible to trace each 
whole process through a series of slides, since both operate together, and often 
interfere with one another. Both processes have caused the throwing out of 
secondary magnetite, and at times silica has been set free as quartz. Orthoclase 
is also produced in an advanced stage of the breaking down of the biotite. 


From an examination of these slides, it has been inferred that “secondary” 
minerals have been produced chiefly by deuteric action, but in some of the more 
altered types weathering has undoubtedly played a part. 

D 


50 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


Deuteric: (1) Epidotization; (2) chloritization; (8) some oxidation; (4) 
some carbonation. 


Weathering: (1) Most of the oxidation, i.e., haematite, etc.; (2) most of the 
carbonation. 


(3). Hornblende-Lamprophyres. 


These rocks have not been found in situ, but occur as boulders in the Cox’s 
River in the immediate vicinity of the gabbro intrusion, and it is likely that 
this is an associated type. The name lamprophyre is applied only tentatively 
until something of the field occurrence is known. The rocks are not lamprophyres 
in the strict sense of the word, for felspar is just as abundant as ferromagnesian 
minerals. In the handspecimen the rocks are light-grey in colour with large 
phenocrysts of dark blackish-green hornblende up to 10 mm. across. 


Under the microscope the phenocrysts are seen to be large idiomorphic or 
subidiomorphic crystals of amphibolized pyroxene fringed by biotites and iron 
ore; or groups of these minerals that give a porphyritic effect. The groundmass 
consists of a plexus of plagioclase laths and interstitial quartz. 


Ill. Inclusions and Segregations. 


Very little work has been done on these occurrences, and little can be said 
about them here. 


Inclusions are of two classes—those of sedimentary, and those of igneous 
origin. 

The sedimentary type are very numerous near the contact zones, and are 
often up to a foot across. Some of these occur among the granites on Grant’s 
Creek, and a kind of “swirling” structure shows that the inclusion has been 
rendered plastic by the great heat of the magma in which it became engulfed. 


The igneous inclusions are very common throughout the series, but are most 
abundant in the intermediate types. 


On the property of Mr. J. Commens weathering of the hornblende-biotite- 
granite has caused the finer-grained inclusion to stand out in small knobs. Small 
inclusions are also numerous among the porphyritic granites at Hartley, and 
among the granodiorites at the mouth of Campbell’s Creek. One of the latter 
has been sectioned and certainly appears to be a rather abnormal jtype. The 
best name that can be applied to it is a sphene-quartz-diorite. 

It has already been indicated that the hornblendite probably occurs as cognate 
xenoliths, and there is some slight suggestion of their being basic segregations. 


D. PETROGENY. 
(a). The ‘‘Reaction Principle’. 
The foregoing descriptions serve to indicate that there are some striking 
examples of Bowen’s “reaction principle” among the Hartley rocks (Bowen, 1922). 


Not only does the series as a whole illustrate this phenomenon, but often 
much is to be seen within a single specimen. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 51 


Some of the basic rocks show an association of hypersthene, augite, brown 
hornblende and biotite; and thus exemplify an almost complete “discontinuous 
reaction” series as outlined by Bowen (1922). A “continuous reaction” series is 
exemplified by the zoning in the hornblende, which in some cases shows a brown 
centre, a green hornblende zone, and a bluish-green sodic border. The best example 
of this type of series is shown by the plagioclase. Zoning may be seen in 
individual slides, but taking the series as a whole there is an increase in the 
acidity of the felspar from Ab,.An,; to Abs.AN4. 

Other examples of the operation of the reaction principle amongst New South 
Wales rocks have been described by Miss Ida A. Brown (1928) from Moruya, and 
by Dr. W. R. Browne and Mr. W. A. Greig (1923) from Kiandra. Dr. Browne has 
also described quartz-dolerites from Adélie Land, Antarctica, which exemplify this 
principle. 

Such a mineral association gives some indication of the conditions under 
which the magma cooled, but this will be discussed later under differentiation. 

The mineral content of thirteen of the types described has been tabulated in 
such a way as to give the same picture as that conveyed by Bowen’s diagram 
(1922). 


a ey [b) 2 . 
5 Boll) Spalteite , 3 | 8 
A o = g ® . =) = 
S S| otal eS a | 3 S|) 2 Bs 
a = 2 Ss irs} & Tn 3 "S) 
oh = | E ° ro) na oO 2 3 
oO ts) i= ro) (s) op o ino} ag = 
= o) 2 
S) =I jen] mR ay a= us) q ue) = 
= A= jaa x Ss = o) a « 3 
2 ra ec o N S) o) < 4 5 
= i | + + fo) 5 K 
= S = B = a a = a 3 = 3 = 
= 5 iS 5) S s ey AS, a ag a ac iz 
= 1 =] uy (S) 3 (Ss) 3 i) 3 
a=) = ico) ia) faa) ag (o) xq ea <4 faa) <x fQ 
Hornblende-gabbro x x x x 
Pyroxene-gabbro >< x x x 
Diorite-gabbro .. a x x x x 
Qtz.-pyrox.-diorite bs x x x x x x 
Qtz.-mica-diorite. . Aa ; x x x x 
Monz.-qtz.-diorite - x x x x x 
Tonalite .. as ad SK x 5 Fi x 
Granodiorite ys aye x x x % x 
Hb.-bi.-Granite .. we x x x x x 
Porph.-bi.-Granite a x x x x 
Biotite-granite .. a x x x x 
Granite-porphyry as x x x x 
Aplite an ae 3 A x x Ss 


Diagram to show mineral constituents of the type rocks at Hartley. 


52 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


(b). Deuteric Action. 


There seems little doubt that the Hartley rocks have suffered a certain 
amount of deuteric action. The chief deuteric minerals that have been recognized 
are lime- and potash-bearing types. Sodic minerals seem to be entirely absent. 


No hard and fast line can be drawn between the periods at which the “reaction 
principle” ceases to operate and deuteric phenomena begin. Both processes are 
destructive and constructive, and it is possible that the formation of sodic horn- 
blende may be of deuteric origin. Some of the rocks that have been analysed 
have suffered a certain amount of deuteric alteration, yet there is no marked 
deviation apparent in the variation diagram, so it is concluded that there has 
been a re-assemblage of minerals, rather than that additive or subtractive 
processes have been at work. 


A glance at the chemical analyses (p. 53), and at the variation diagram 
(Text-fig. 5), will show that ferric iron is unusually high. Total iron is 
certainly high throughout the series, but in normal fresh rocks it is not 
usual for ferrous and ferric iron to be about equal amount, which is the case 
with most of the Hartley types. It is concluded from this, that oxidation of ferrous 
iron has taken place as a result of deuteric action. 


(c). Chemical Discussion. 

Hleven chemical analyses have been made of the chief rock types, and 
these amply confirm the other evidence of consanguinity. Not only is this close 
relationship borne out by the analyses, but reference to the norms (p. 53) will 
show also that there is a gradation in class, order, rang, and subrang. 

A variation diagram has been plotted according to Harker’s method, and the 
curves have been somewhat smoothed, though no very wide deviation of the 
curves has been necessary. In some cases, points actually coincide with the 
plotted curves. This method of representation has been useful in comparing the 
rocks of two other series that have been similarly plotted; namely, the Garabal 
Hill complex, Scotland, and the Moruya complex, N.S.W. ‘The similarity in all 
three instances is quite striking, and the features of the complexes suggest 
serial differentiation in a subalkaline or calcic magma. With regard to the 
Moruya series, Miss Brown says: “the relatively sudden change in the amount 
of curvature of the oxide-curves between the diorite-gabbro and the more basic 
gabbro is suggestive of complementary, as opposed to serial differentiation. This 
idea is supported by the field-occurrence of the hornblende-gabbro.”’ 

It is likely that the same explanation might hold for the sudden change of 
curvature between the pyroxene-gabbro and hornblendite at Hartley. The mode 
of occurrence here also is suggestive of complementary differentiation. 


There is one very marked difference between the Moruya and Garabal Hill 
complexes on the one hand, and the Hartley series on the other. In the former, 
magnesia is a very abundant constituent towards the basic end of the series, 
and greatly exceeds ferrous oxide, with which it is replaceable. At Hartley, 
however, ferrous oxide is always present in greater quantity, and magnesia does 
not approach it even in the ultrabasic type. 


Another striking feature of the Hartley series is the abundance of ferric 
oxide, which is usually about equal to ferrous oxide. As already stated, this can 
possibly be accounted for by deuteric action and “reaction”, since many of 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. Be 


the slides show a good deal of secondary magnetite, which is evidently due 
to the oxidation of the ferrous oxide contained in the ferromagnesian minerals. 


I, it, Til. IV. Vi: VI. VII. VIII. IX. Xi XI. 
SiO, ae 41:82 | 45-31 | 46-49 | 52-41 | 54-37 | 58-37 | 62-06 | 65:33 | 68-60 | 73-51 | 76-94 
Al,O3 11-79 | 19-39 | 19-22 | 20-11 | 19-64 | 18-88 | 18-25 | 16-20 | 15-33 | 14-03 | 138-98 
Fe,0; 8-64 5:33 6:68 4°18 4-30 2-80 2-91 2-43 1:92 0:69 0-18 
FeO 11-68 7-81 6-02 5-59 4-87 4-43 2°94 2-38 1-85 0:91 0:27 
MgO 8:68 6°93 5-89 4-12 2°94 2°79 Teal 1-28 0:81 0:38 0:06 
CaO 12-14 | 11-67 | 10-88 9-06 8:07 6-29 4-90 4-02 2°78 1-69 0°78 
Na,O 0:53 1-22 2°16 2-28 2°55 2°52 3°12 3°02 3°38 3:03 2-68 
K,0 0-25 0-35 0-65 0-88 1:01 2-56 1:61 3°28 4-52 4-58 4:67 
H,O+ 0-47 0-69 0:96 0-36 0:96 0:56 1:34 0:58 0:50 0-20 0:39 
H,O— 0-16 0-08 0:17 0:16 0-11 0-16 0:16 0:10 0-11 0-18 0-11 
TiO, 2-26 1:33 0:92 0:78 1-14 0°52 0-60 0:72 0:51 0:45 0-16 
P20; 0-42 0°31 0-40 0-32 0-34 0-26 0-24 0-22 0:22 0-05 0-02 
MnO ‘ 0-20 0:17 0-20 0:19 0:07 0:06 0-09 c-038 0:04 0-01 tr 
co, 0-53 tr. tr. tr. — — — — = = —= 
Total .- | 99-55 |100-59 |100-64 {100-46 |100-37 | 99-70 | 99:93 | 99-59 |100-57 | 99-81 |100-24 
Sp. Gr. aie 3:000)} 3-004) 2:967| 2-836) 2-861) 2-807) 2-764) 2-742) 2-703) 2-658) 2-603 
I. iNT, iil. IV. Vv WAL VII. | VIII. IX. xe ele 
Quartz 1:26 0:96 0:96 8:34 | 13:14 | 14-76 | 24-12 | 24-78 | 24-18 | 34-68 | 41-34 
Orthoclase . . 1:67 1:67 3°34 5-56 (HouPA |) ile sz 9-45 | 19:46 | 26-69 | 27-24 | 27-80 
Albite ae 4-19 9-96 | 18-34 | 19-39 | 20-96 | 20-96 | 26-20 | 25-15 | 28-82 | 25-15 | 23-06 
Anorthite .. | 29:19 | 46:70 | 40-87 | 41-70 | 38:09 | 29:47 | 28-63 | 18-90 | 13:07 8-34 3°89 
Corundum .. — oo = — 0-41 0-20 2-65 0-82 — 1-33 2-96 
Diopside .. | 22-50 7°85 8-64 Heil — — — — — aa — 
Hypersthene | 21-76 | 21:70 | 14-93 | 15-71 | 11-00 | 11:92 6-28 4-39 3°06 1:16 0:20 
Magnetite .. | 12-53 7-66 9-74 6:03 6-26 4-18 4-18 3°48 2:78 1:16 0:23 
Iimenite .. 4-41 2°43 1:67 boy 2°13 0-91 2, 1:37 0-91 0-91 0-46 
Apatite on 1:01 0-67 1-01 0-67 0:67 0-67 0:34 0-34 0:34 — — 
Class oe ANT Iii |I1 (111) II II “II T(1I) | Id) I’ I I 
Order 50 2 5 (4) 5 (4)5 4” 4” 4 4 4 (3) 4 By? 
Section ae To | — — — — — — — — —_ —_— 
Rang ts 2 5 4 4 4 3 (4) 3 3 a 2 (1)2 
Sub-rang .. “33 4(5) 4(5) 4 4 om 4 By” 3 3} 3 
= 3 5 = & A B Ss mS aS ao S re) 5 
oon B = B we 2 S wa ie me 5 He 3 
Sa PO ee ee eee |e 
° = 9 = °c N © © o & 
° jg 3 8 55 | 3 5 
- oO 


54 


PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


I. Hornblendite. Cox’s River, Por. 27, Parish of Lowther. 
Il. Pyroxene-gabbro (Norite). Cox’s River, Por. 27, Parish of Lowther. 
Ill. Diorite-gabbro. Moyne Farm, Little Hartley. 
IV. Quartz-mica-diorite. Marriott Ck., Cox’s River intrusion. 
V. Quartz-mica-diorite. Moyne Farm, Little Hartley. 
VI. Monzonitic Quartz-diorite. Kanimbla Station, Little Hartley. 
VII. Tonalite. Moyne Farm, Little Hartley. 
VIII. Granodiorite. Junction of Campbell’s Ck. and Cox’s River, Hartley. 
IX. Porphyritic Biotite-granite. Bathurst Road, Por. 4, Parish of Hartley. 
xX. Even-grained Biotite-granite. Bathurst Road, Por. 4, Parish of Hartley. 
XI. Aplite. Campbell’s Creek, Hartley. 
Table of Specific Gravities. 
Name of Type. No. Sp. Gr. Remarks. 
Granite-porphyry.. A.32 2-597 Slightly weathered. 
x 3 ‘ A.12 2°657 
Aplite D.40 2-603 
Even-grained biotite-granite D.22 2-608 Slightly weathered. 
3° ” be) be) D.63 2-658 
” ” »” ” D.25 2-688 
Porphyritic biotite-granite D.20 2-703 
Hornblende-biotite-granite D.30 2°705 
” ” ” D.33 2-706" 
29 ” ” D.39 2-706 
Granodiorite D.1 2-742 
Tonalite A.20 2-742 
5 A.14 2-764 
Monzonitic quartz-diorite D.16 2-807 
Quartz-mica-diorite A.36 2-750 Rather weathered. 
” ” ” A.37 2°754 ” ” 
” ” ” A.53 2-849 
5) ” ” A.65 2-854 
A a i; A.11 2°861 
»” ” oe) B.102 2-863 
2 99 99 B.95 2-883 
% Ay B.79 2-894 
” ” ” B.90 2-898 
” 3) 2° B.114 2-900 
” 9 ” A.50 2-923 
Quartz-pyroxene-diorite .. A.9 2-990 High on account of small segregation. 
Diorite-gabbro B.93 2-917 
»” ” B.108 2-963 
» » A.83 2-967 
Pyroxene-gabbro . .. B.25 2-960 
d7 ” B.10 3°004 
” ” B.30 3:°018 
Hornblende-gabbro B.40 3:°036 
Hornblendite B.24 3-000 Possibly low on account of small piece used. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 55 


The presence of normative quartz, even in the basic types, may possibly be 
accounted for by this oxidation of the ferrous iron. Free quartz is certainly 
present in the hornblendite, but the normative figure would exceed the modal. 
It has been suggested (Browne and White, 1929) that high Fe.0O, necessitates the 
using up of a good deal of FeO for the formation of magnetite in the norm. This 
leaves a deficiency of FeO for the femic minerals, and the SiO., which would have 
entered into their composition, comes out in the norm as free quartz. 

The relatively high alumina content of the Hartley rocks can possibly be 
explained by the abundance of biotite, which is an essential constituent of all 
types between the biotite-granite and the quartz-pyroxene-diorite. It has also been 
found as an accessory in the aplite, and in the more basic types. 

Soda is fairly high, particularly towards the more acid end of the series, and 
this is probably due in part to the presence of albite in the microperthite in the 
acid and intermediate-acid types. 

As in other rocks of comparable age in the State, titania is an important 
constituent. In the ultrabasic rocks this oxide exceeds the sum of the alkalis, 
and in the aplite it is comparable in amount to the ferromagnesian constituents. 


(d). Possible Differentiation of the Bathylithic Rocks. 


The fact that the Hartley outcrops represent only small portions of a large 
intrusion puts many difficulties in the way of a discussion on the differentiation. 
It is desirable, therefore, to tabulate the following field observations: 


(1) A gradation between the types on Moyne Farm. 

(2) A gradation between the rocks in the Cox’s River intrusion. 

(3) An apparent gradation between most of the other types at Hartley. 

(4) A normal sequence from basic margin to acid centre on Moyne. 

(5) An abnormal sequence from acid margin to basic centre on the Cox’s 
River and River Lett. 

(6) Contemporaneous acid dykes, apophyses and veins. 

(7) Later dykes and veins that present chilled margins. 

(8) The occurrence of basic cognate xenoliths both large and small. 


More detailed observations of the stocks have led to the establishment of 
the following facts: 


Coxz’s River Intrusion. Moyne Farm Intrusion. 
(1) A margin of quartz-mica-diorite, (1) A margin of fine-grained quartz- 
(2) which grades into diorite-gabbro, mica-diorite, 
(3) which surrounds a central mass of (2) which passes into normal quartz- 
pyroxene-gabbro, mica-diorite, 
(4) which includes sporadically distri- (3) which grades into a central mass 
buted hornblende-gabbros and horn- of tonalite. 
blendite. (4) Both the quartz-mica-diorite and 


tonalite contain xenoliths of quartz- 
pyroxene-diorite and diorite-gabbro. 
(5) An apophysis of granite-porphyry 
and small aplite veins are contem- 
poraneous. 
(6) Other veins of aplite and quartz 
are later. 


56 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


The chemical and petrographical work points to undoubted consanguinity 
among the fifteen types that have been described in this paper, and it is evident 
that all were derived from one original magma. 

The Cox’s River intrusion appears to be due to two injections of partial 
magma, (1) a basic one with ultrabasic inclusions, and (2) a quartz-mica-diorite 
one which reacted with the gabbro to form a diorite-gabbro. 

The Moyne Farm intrusion is apparently due to the differentiation in place of a 
partial dioritic magma, which contained inclusions of gabbros, and reacted with 


L742 SSIES 2 


Miles. 0, 


° a3 4 i B:750) . . 
a es nn ve 55, vag Ct REO OIG 5 oO 
0 5 10 1S 20 . 2.754) Oh 410 

hains 7 : 


MOYNE FARM INTRUSION 


showug lines of equal Albute percentage . 


Numbers ur brackels are Speectic Gravilies 


Text-fig. 6. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. by 


them to form slightly more acid types. The fine-grained phase of the quartz-mica- 
diorite represents the quickly cooled rock at the contact, and this possibly formed 
a non-conducting envelope, and differentiation in place thereby proceeded more 
slowly. The steep temperature gradient would cause convection currents to be 
set up, and as the more basic constituents consolidated about the margin, the 
currents would carry the more basic ingredients from the centre, and so cause 
a gradation into a more acid facies. 

Reference to the maps (Text-figs. 6, 7) shows that the specific gravities and 
the composition of the felspars are in accord with this hypothesis of differentiation. 

The injection of the main acid bathylith evidently followed that of the quartz- 
mica-diorite, before the latter was completely cooled. The granite-porphyry 
on Moyne Farm is apparently an apophysis of the granite, but is more or less 
contemporaneous with the diorites. 


. 
~ 


TE Ss 
2-994] SS 
< ~ 


COXS RIVER INTRUSION 
showing kines of equal Albile percentage 
Numbers wr brackets are Spectfre Gravilces. 


Text-fig. 7. 


The first period of aplitic injection, on Moyne Farm, possibly accompanied this 
apophysis, and the second most likely represents the end-phase in the consolidation 
of the granite magma, which was followed by pneumatolysis and the introduction 
of small quantities of tourmaline, cassiterite, topaz, etc. 

As so small a part of the bathylith outcrops at Hartley, little can be said 
about it here. There appears to be a gradation from one type into another, 
with the more acid phases situated towards the margin. 

Mr. H. C. Andrews (1916) has described marginal acid types in the Yetholme 
District, and assumes that such are later injections. W. J. Clunies Ross (1894) 
has observed similarly disposed acid rocks at Bathurst. 

E 


58 PETROLOGY OF THE HARTLEY DISTRICT, i, 


(e). Occurrence of Porphyritic Types. 

Two types of porphyritic rock occur in the Hartley area, (1) a porphyritic 
granite round and about the village of Hartley, and (2) a granite-porphyry on 
Moyne Farm and on the Bathurst Road. It is of interest to note that the pheno- 
crysts of these types are possibly of different origin. 

The granite-porphyry on Moyne Farm shows a marked contrast in the size 
and form of phenocrysts and the crystals in the groundmass and, though no 
orientation has been observed, the quartz crystals are often corroded. It is 
concluded, therefore, that the phenocrysts of this rock are of intratelluric origin. 

On the other hand, it is believed that the even-grained granite borders the 
porphyritic facies, and several transitional types have been collected. Moreover, 
a granite-porphyry, not in situ, has been found on the Bathurst Road, and this 
differs from the Moyne Farm type in containing abundant orthoclase phenocrysts. 
This rock possibly borders the even-grained granite (Watson, 1901; Crosby, 1900). 
A marginal intergrowth of plagioclase with the orthoclase phenocrysts is some- 
times present, and inclusions of all the other minerals are abundant in the 
tabular phenocrysts. Corrosion is absent. 

It is likely, therefore, that the phenocrysts of the porphyritic granite are of 
contemporaneous origin. 


E. AGE OF THE INTRUSION. 


The plutonic rocks intrude a sedimentary series of Upper Devonian age, and 
are overlain by Upper Marine Permian beds. This would place the age of the 
intrusion between Upper Devonian and Upper Marine. As many other intrusions 
of a somewhat similar type and of almost State-wide distribution have been 
shown to belong to the Kanimbla Epoch of diastrophism (Sussmilch, 1914), 
which closed the Devonian period, it is assumed that the Hartley plutonics are 
of similar age. 


SUMMARY. 
1. The ‘intrusion has been shown to be part of a composite bathylith, which 
forms a fairly typical calcic, plutonic complex. 
2. The bathylithic rocks have been shown to comprise two series: (a) twelve 
plutonic types, and (0) three related hypabyssal types. 


3. The petrography points to consanguinity of all these types, and the eleven 
chemical analyses, showing a range of more than 35% SiO., give corroborative 
testimony. 


4. It has been suggested that three separate intrusions of plutonic rocks 
have occurred, and that these are all differentiates from a single magma. 


5. It has been pointed out also that the two porphyritic types are possibly 
‘of different origin, the phenocrysts of one being intratelluric, and of the other 
contemporaneous. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank Assistant-Professor W. R. Browne, 
D.Sce., for kind advice, help and encouragement during the preparation of this 
paper; also Miss Ida A. Brown, B.Sc., on whose Moruya paper this one has been 
largely modelled. 


BY GERMAINE A. JOPLIN. 59 


The writer also wishes to express her gratitude to many residents of Little 
Hartley for hospitality and help during the fieldwork. 


References. 


ANDREWS, E. C., 1907.—Ree. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., viii, (3), p. 216. 
, 1916.—Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Res. No. 24, p. 173. 
, 1917.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., p. 53. 
Bowen, N. L., 1915.—Journ. Geol., xxiii, Supplement, p. 75. 
———_—,, 1922.— Journ. Geol., xxx, pp. 177-198. 

, 1922.— Journ. Geol., xxx, p. 539. 

Brown, IpA A., 1928.—Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., liii, Part 8, pp. 151-192. 
BROWNE, W. R., 1920.—Trans. Roy. Soc. South Australia, xliv, p. 15. 

, 1923.—Aust. Antarc. Exped. Sci. Repts., Series A, iii, Part 3, pp. 245-258. 

, 1928.— Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1xi, pp. 385-390. 

, 1929.— Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., liv (Presidential Address), p. xxii. 
BROWNE, W. R., and Greie, W. A., 1923—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lvi, pp. 271-275. 
BROWNE, W. R., and WHiItTz#, H. P., 1929.—Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xii, p. 319. 
Carp, G., 1915.—Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology No. 7, pp. 306 and 309. 
Crossy, W. O., 1900.—Amer. Geol., xxv, p. 309. 

CURRAN, Batu and RIENITS, 1896.—Map of the Hartley District In Curran’s Geology 
of Sydney and the Blue Mountains. 
HARKER, A., 1894.—Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1, p. 336. 
, 1904.—Mem. Geol. Surv. U.K., pp. 51 and 181. 
, 1919.—Petrology for Students, pp. 52, 63, 71. 
Harker, A., and Marr, J. E., 1891.—Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xlvii, p. 278. 
HATCH and WELLS, 1926.—The Igneous Rocks, pp. 224-230. 
HoumeEs, A., 1920.—Nomenclature of Petrology, p. 162. 
IpDINGS, J. P., 1909.—Igneous Rocks, ii, pp. 162 and 171. 
,1911.—Rock Minerals, p. 411. 
JONES, L. P., 1924.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., p. 90. 
Kemp, J. F., 1922.—Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Xxxiii, pp. 232-254. 
Ross, W. J. Ciuniss, 1894.—Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1, p. 111. 
SKEATS, E. W., and Summers, H. S., 1912.—Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 24, pp. 19 and 20. 
STILLWELL, F. L., 1923.—Aust. Antare. Exped. Sci. Rept., Series A, iii, p. 37. 
SUssMILcH, C. A., 1924.—Geology of N.S.W., p. 226. 
TEALL, J. J. H., and Daxywns, J. R., 1892.—Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., xlviii, p. 116. 
TYRRELL, G. W., 1926.—Principles of Petrology. 
WASHINGTON, H. S., 1917.—United States Geological Survey, Prof. Paper 99. 
Watson, T. L., 1901.—Journ. Geol., ix, p. 97. 
WooLNouGH, W. G., 1909.—Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiv, pp. 795-797, 
WYLuiz, B. K. N., and Scott, A., 1913.—Geol. Mag., x, pp. 502-505. 


NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXVII. 


By J. R. MALLOocH. 
(Communicated by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 


(Two Text-figures. ) 


[Read 25th March, 1931.] 


Family CHLOROPIDAE. 
Subfamily OscINOSOMINAE. 
Genus EpuHyproscinis Malloch. 
EPHYDROSCINIS RAYMENTI Curran. 


Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 422, p. 1, 10th June, 1930. 


This species was described from one specimen apparently, and recorded as 
having been taken entering the burrows of Halictus raymenti Cockerell on high 
ground near the sea at Sandringham, Victoria, by Messrs. Rayment and Cockerell. 


If the species is correctly placed as to genus, it will be readily distinguished 
from australis Malloch, the genotype and only previously described species, by the 
large fuscous mark on each wing, australis having the wings hyaline. Should it 
prove to belong to the genus Parahippelates Becker, which is distinguished from 
Ephydroscinis in the female sex merely by the presence of a variably developed 
curved bristle at the apex of the hind tibia on its under posterior surface, then 
it is very closely similar to ornatipennis Malloch, which has the wings marked 
in much the same way, but the legs in the latter are yellow at apices of femora, 
bases and apices of hind tibiae and all of fore and mid pair, and the three basal 
segments of the tarsi are also yellow, while in raymenti the legs are black, with 
the tarsi brown. 


Nothing definite has been placed upon record regarding the habits of the 
species of the genus Parahippelates, but the late Dr. EH. W. Ferguson stated in a 
letter to me some years ago that some of the species occurred on the seashore, 
one or more of them being remarkable for the conspicuous appearance of the 
specimens when they face the collector owing to the silvery face shining in the 
sun, and the abrupt disappearance which takes place when they turn round. 


I have not seen Curran’s type which is deposited in the American Museum of 
Natural History in New York City, N.Y. 


Genus Oscrnosoma Lioy. 

This is the same generic concept as Botanobia Lioy of my previous papers in 
this series, the change being due to an interpretation of the genotypes. Later I 
hope to return to this matter in a revision of the Australian species; meanwhile 
I simply present descriptions of several species of the genus from Tasmania, which 
have been in my hands for some years. 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 61 


OSCINOSOMA NIGROANNULATA, Nl. SD. 


6. Head black, frons rufous-yellow in front, with white pruinescence except 
on the triangle when seen from in front, face brownish, cheeks with silvery- 
white dust above, lower margins glossy-black, antennae, aristae, and mouth parts 
black. Thorax glossy-black, lateral margins of mesonotum faintly grey-dusted. 
Abdomen shining black. Legs yellow, coxae except apices, femora except their 
extreme bases and apices, and a subbasal and subapical band on each tibia, black 
Wings clear. Halteres yellow, knobs whitish. 


Eyes sparsely haired; frons about half the head-width, triangle broad, extend- 
ing to beyond the middle of frons, postvertical and ocellar pairs of bristles of 
moderate size, erect and cruciate, vertical bristles and three on each orbit distinct, 
interfrontalia with very few hairs, two in middle of anterior margin quite distinct; 
parafacial not visible from the side; cheek very narrow in front, higher behind, 
vibrissal hair weak; antennae of moderate size, third segment orbicular; arista 
slender, microscopically pubescent. Mesonotum with fine short dark hairs, not 
punctate; scutellum with two long apical and two short subapical bristles. Legs 
normal, tarsi slender. Second costal division longer than first, and fully one and 
a half times as long as third, fourth nearly as long as third. Length, 1:75 mm. 

Type: Strahan, Tasmania, 6th February, 1923 (A. Tonnoir). Type to be 
returned to collector. 

The next three species described herein belong to a group in which the 
scutellum is largely or partly yellow, and the mesonotum is glossy-black except 
on its lateral margins. There are some other species of the group in this region 
but in the meantime I present a synopsis of the characters of the three now dealt 
with. 


Synopsis of the Species. 


1. Palpi, all coxae, anterior surface of fore femur on its entire extent and its posterior 
surface to a lesser extent, and nearly all of the third antennal segment, black; 
scutellum pale-yellow, only its extreme lateral basal angles black; prosternum 


Lanlel(chhc? Weis Cunha chic BECRPOATIEL 8 BRELEL Ph ech Oto onc Heche ERENCE O ICE OES sinc, EaoniTG ParepCR OROAeMG isp tonnoiri, n. sp. 
Palpi entirely, third antennal segment largely or entirely, yellow; scutellum more 
extensively blackened; prosternum not entirely black ...................... 2 


2. All the legs and the posterior lateral angles of the frontal triangle yellow .......... 
AERP Hats tay cir h cotta overs shane) Suabe ts. before aah al eels ache hora et apreinay sreratedsuces ey arate ene tasmaniensis, N. sp. 
Coxae, all femora, and the hind tibiae, largely blackened; frontal triangle entirely 
Tak vom MANE! Waa PI yess gs sees vial sususaetteeuan sc syey ay eas sep auselenen sr ouehel suehey ghee tinctipes, nN. sp. 


Of the other species described herein it may be mentioned that nigroannulata 
has the entire thorax including the scutellum glossy-black, distinguishing it from 
the tonnoiri group, and the tibiae of all legs are yellow with two black annuli, 
which latter character readily distinguishes it from any other Australian species 
so far described. The violet-black dorsum of thorax, dark halteres, and differently 
coloured legs will distinguish nigroviolacea from the other species in the present 
paper, and these and other characters which may be gleaned from the description 
will separate it from other Australian species. 


The group of species included in this paper after the description of nigro- 
violacea is one in which the scutellum is largely or entirely yellow, but the 
mesonotum is distinctly vittate with black or fuscous instead of entirely black 
except the lateral margins as in the tonnoiri group. I present a key to the 
species of this group that are dealt with herein. 


62 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXvVii, 


OSCINOSOMA TONNOIRI, 0. sp. 


¢. Head black, anterior two-thirds of frons, the face, lower part of second 
antennal segment, and lower basal angle of third, orange-coloured; triangle glossy- 
black; middle of cheeks yellowish; palpi black. Thorax glossy-black, upper margin 
of pleura and lateral margins of mesonotum orange-yellow, humeral angles suffused 
with fuscous on disc; scutellum lemon-yellow, black at extreme lateral basal 
angles. Abdomen orange-yellow, a spot on each side of first visible tergite, and 
the greater part of each of the other tergites black. Legs yellow, all coxae and 
anterior side of anterior femora black. Wings hyaline. MHalteres yellow. All 
hairs and bristles blackish. 


Eyes hairy; frons about one-half of the head-width, with numerous hairs, 
triangle moderately broad, rather obtuse, extending to about middle of frons; face 
concave, parafacials not visible from the side; third antennal segment large, a 
little higher than long, somewhat transverse at apex; arista pubescent; cheek 
narrow. Thorax smooth, with fine decumbent hairs and normal bristling; scutel- 
lum convex, with four bristles and fine black discal hairs. Abdomen stout, 
tapered apically. Legs long and rather stout, fore tarsi slender. Second costal 
division not twice as long as third; marginal cell at apex of first vein about 
’ twice as wide as submarginal at same point; fourth vein slightly arcuate on its 
apical section, its penultimate section more than twice as long as the penultimate 
section of third; inner cross-vein very distinctly proximad of apex of first vein. 
Length, 3 mm. 


Type: Burnie, Tasmania, 25th October, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). Type to be 
returned to collector. 


OSCINOSOMA TASMANIENSIS, n. Sp. 


3, 9. Head orange-yellow, occiput above, except its upper margin, frontal 
triangle except its posterior lateral angles, the aristae, and labrum, black or 
fuscous. Thorax glossy-black, upper margin of pleura, lateral margins of 
mesonotum, lower part of propleura, the prosternum, and the apex of scutellum, 
yellow. Abdomen yellow, a large mark ‘on each side of first visible tergite and a 
fascia on hind margin of each of the other tergites which extends forward 
centrally, black. Legs yellow. Wings hyaline. Halteres yellow, their knobs paler. 
Hairs and bristles black. 


Eyes hairy; frons less than one-half of the head-width, triangle large, extending 
about four-fifths of the distance to anterior margin, surface hairs on frons, and 
especially some on the posterior portions of the orbits, distinct; antennae normal 
in size, third segment rounded in front; arista pubescent; cheeks about half as 
high as width of third antennal segment. Thorax with the disc glossy, but there 
is a distinct aggregation of setigerous punctures on two lines in front of the 
dorsocentral bristles; scutellum a little pointed, the subapical pair of bristles 
much shorter than the apical pair. Abdomen in female more pointed than in 
male. Venation of wings much as in the preceding species, but the inner cross- 
vein is below the apex of first vein, and the third costal division and penultimate 
section of third vein are longer than in that species. Length, 3 mm. 


Type male, and allotype, Fern Tree, Tasmania, 1st November, 1922; paratype 
male, Mt. Wellington, Tasmania, 7th November, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). Type to be 
returned to the collector. 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 63 


OSCINOSOMA TINCTIPES, 0. sp. 

©. Differs from tasmaniensis as follows: The yellow colour does not extend 
across the upper margin of the occiput, and the prosternum is not entirely yellow. 
There is less indication of a line of setigerous punctures on each side of mesonotum 
in line with the dorsocentrals, and the species is smaller. Length, 2 mm. 

Type: Eaglehawk Neck, Tasmania, 20th November, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). Type to 
be returned to the collector. 

This and the preceding species are quite similar to impura Becker, an 
Australian species. I have before me a large series of the latter and find that 
the frontal triangle is always black on its entire hind margin, the mesonotum has 
no well defined setigerous lines, and the legs are entirely yellow. It is thus an 
intermediate species between the two Tasmanian forms herein described, possessing 
as it does characters of both. Another Australian species, as yet undescribed, 
presents characters similar to tasmaniensis in the colour of the frontal triangle 
and puncturing of the mesonotum, but differs in some other characters. 


OSCINOSOMA NIGROVIOLACEA, 0. Sp. 

®. Frons black, anterior third orange-yellow, triangle highly polished; 
antennae brown, third segment except its upper margin dull orange-yellow; face 
clear white, strongly contrasting with other parts of the head, cheeks anteriorly 
yellow, posteriorly fuscous, mouth parts fuscous, inner margin black; aristae 
fuscous. Thorax glossy-black, dorsum with a violet or purple tinge; hairs and 
bristles fuscous. Abdomen black, not as glossy as the mesonotum. Legs fulvous 
yellow, mid and hind femora, except the narrow bases and apices, black; hind 
tibiae black on basal halves. Wings hyaline, veins black. Knobs of halteres 
blackish. 

Frontal triangle bare, broad, covering about three-fourths of vertex and 
extending about two-thirds of the distance to anterior margin; ocellar and post- 
vertical bristles convergent; orbits each with about seven setulae, the frons 
anteriorly with distinct but sparse black hairs; antennae normal; arista with 
short pubescence; eyes haired; cheeks narrow. Thorax with erect hairs which 
are most numerous in line anterior to the dorsocentrals; scutellum with a rather 
evident angular edge laterally, not evenly rounded off, the disc sparsely. haired, 
margin with three pairs of setulose hairs, apical pair longest. Legs normal. 
Penultimate section of fourth vein as long as ultimate section of fifth and about 
twice as long as penultimate section of third; second costal division about one 
and a half times as long as third. Length, 2 mm. 

Type: Sydney, February, 1925; two paratypes, 25th January, 1925. Type to 
be returned to Australian Museum. 


QUADRISTRIATA Group. 

This group is distinguished from others in the genus by the general yellow 
colour of the thorax, and the presence of three or four distinct black or fuscous 
vittae on the mesonotum. The scutellum is yellow, and the head and legs pre- 
ponderantly so. I present a key to the species dealt with in this paper, but 
there are several more species of the group in the Australian region, some of them 
being now before me. 


Key to the Species. 


1. At most the sternopleura and hypopleura with dark markings; small species averaging 
about 1 mm. in length; mesonotal vittae not glossy; aristae subnude; width of 


64 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXvVii, 


marginal cell of wing at apex of first vein not as great as width of submarginal 
Geli at eSAIME ep OING qa hie shee. eet bd OSS eicas saoes Choa Pease quadristriata Becker 
Mesopleura, pteropleura, hypopleura, and sternopleura each with a blackish mark, 
the one on sternopleura sometimes rather faint; larger species, averaging at least 
2 mm. in length; mesonotal vittae always glossy-black; arista distinctly 
pubescent ; width of marginal cell at apex of first vein much greater than that 


Of tsubmarcinal’ vattisames Dointy ye tee crete = cies: cick mee nee evoke Orc hetoteme benicar Picci eter 2 

2. Third antennal segment entirely orange-yellow ................... luteicornis, n. sp. 
Third antennal segment largely dark-brown or blackish 225... -..--5-s e200 2 000 3 

8. Bristles and hairs on the scutellum and frons luteous; third antennal segment 
broadly, INFUSCATEA! Pix. cmcijpoieveesvcsedenehe eieteas ters ens ete Ghsiees Ge seals te = cere luteohirta, n. sp. 
Bristles and hairs on scutellum and frons black; third antennal segment narrowly 
ANTUSCALEC Ci AON ER CAM atcihercrae ier eacnemencte cee hen ice hotsnen sie Sksustier ena Roperometae rs nigrohirta, n. sp. 


OSCINOSOMA QUADRISTRIATA (Becker). 

A very small species of a general yellowish-testaceous colour, the ocellar spot 
and four mesonotal vittae black, the latter sometimes partly brownish and the 
two in centre partly fused; third antennal segment slightly darkened at base; 
aristae fuscous; abdomen sometimes slightly browned dorsally; legs yellow; wings 
clear. 

Frontal triangle slightly rounded, extending to beyond middle of frons; 
vertical bristles short, and, like the scattered frontal hairs, black; proboscis 
slender, the apical section recurved; cheek about half as high as width of third 
antennal segment; arista pubescent. Scutellum with four black marginal bristles, 
the apical pair longest, and a few blackish discal hairs. Abdomen and legs 
normal. Penultimate section of third vein more than half as long as penultimate 
section of fourth; marginal cell just beyond apex of first vein narrower than 
submarginal at same point. Length, 1 mm. 

Localities: Como, N.S.W., swept from flowers, December, 1923 (H. Petersen). 
Burnie and Wilmot, Tasmania, October and January, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). 

Originally described from Sydney, N.S.W. 

In none of the examples before me are there any dark marks on the pleura. 


OSCINOSOMA LUTEICORNIS, nN. Sp. 


6. Orange-yellow, with black markings as follows: Ocellar spot, a large mark 
in centre of occiput, four glossy vittae on mesonotum, the centre pair fused, large 
marks on hypopleura, pteropleura, posterior portion of mesopleura, and centre 
of sternopleura, the latter sometimes partly brownish, and all or almost all of 
metanotum. Abdomen more or less irregularly stained with fuscous on dorsum 
but not distinctly marked. Legs yellow. Aristae fuscous. Hairs on frons mixed 
black and yellow, most of those on mesonotum yellow, nearly all the femoral and 
tibial hairs yellow, those on the tarsi fuscous. Wings hyaline. 

Hyes quite densely haired; frons dull, a little longer than wide, the triangle 
pointed, not sharply defined, dull, and extending to beyond middle of frons; 
third antennal segment orbicular, not twice as high as cheek at middle; arista 
pubescent. Scutellum rounded, not margined, with four black marginal bristles 
and numerous quite long black and some yellow hairs. Legs stronger than usual, 
but neither the femora nor tarsi noticeably thickened. Penultimate section of 
third vein not half as long as penultimate section of fourth, ultimate section of 
latter slightly undulated, ending almost exactly in wing-tip. Length, 2-2-5 mm. 

Type: Wilmot, Tasmania, 8th January, 1922; paratypes, Adventure Bay, 
Tasmania, 28th December and ist January, 1922; Cradle Valley, Tasmania, 19th 
January, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 65 


This species does not run out satisfactorily to any in Becker’s key to the 
Indo-Australian species of Oscinella, none of those in section with quadristriate 
mesonotum being at all close in characters to it. Of the three species that fall 
in the segregate of the key to which this one runs, quadristriata has already 
been dealt with, formosa Becker has the eyes bare, mesopleura unspotted yellow, 
and the mesonotal vittae reddish behind and blackish only in front, while lutea 
de Meijere has the mesonotum entirely yellow and the dorsocentral bristles whitish 
instead of black. The wing in lutea has a dark apical spot. Neither of these two 
species is as yet known to occur in Australia, lutea being from New Guinea and 
the other from Formosa. 

I have before me a specimen which agrees very well with this species but the 
thoracic dorsal hairs are fuscous and the abdomen is more blackened above. It 
is not improbable that it is a distinct species, but meanwhile I leave it aside 
pending the receipt of additional specimens -from the mainland. 

Locality —Sydney, N.S.W., 24th September, 1924 (Health Dept.). 


OSCINOSOMA LUTEOHIRTA, N. Sp. 

6; 2. Male much darker than the preceding species, general colour brownish- 
yellow, the legs also darker, the ventral surfaces of femora brownish and the 
apical segment of each tarsus of the same colour; third antennal segment almost 
entirely black. Female paler in colour than the male, the third antennal segment 
with only the apex blackened, the legs fulvous yellow. In both sexes the dorsal 
hairs and the vertical and marginal scutellar bristles are yellow. Structurally 
similar to luteocornis, but not as robust. Length, 2-2-5 mm. 


Type male, Eaglehawk, Tasmania, 14th November, 1922; allotype, same locality, 
21st November, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). Type to be returned to collector. 


It is possible but hardly probable that this is a variety of luteicornis. 


OSCINOSOMA NIGROHIRTA, Nn. SD. 


do. Another very similar species, differing essentially from the preceding 
one only in having the frontal and scutellar hairs and bristles entirely black, and 
the legs uniformly testaceous yellow. The central contiguous mesonotal vittae 
are brownish in both the specimens before me, but this is probably not a constant 
character in the species. The third antennal segment has a narrow blackish 
upper margin, and the aristae are black. Structurally similar to Juteicornis. 
Length, 2-5 mm. 

Type; Geeveston, Tasmania, 8th December, 1922; paratype, Sassafras, Victoria, 
21st October, 1922 (A. Tonnoir). Type to be returned to the collector. Field 
investigation may disclose the fact that this is merely a variety of the preceding 
species. 

A female which agrees very well with the two males described above has the 
anterior half of the central contiguous vittae reddish and the extreme anterior 
portion blackened, in this respect rather markedly resembling the species of 
another group in which there is a very marked red or fulvous patch on either 
the central pair or on both these and the sublateral vittae at the suture. In this 
latter group the distinction in colour is much more marked and quite abrupt 
while, where there is a change in colour of the vittae in the preceding group, it 


is gradual and not sharply defined. The female mentioned here has the dorsum |. 


of the abdomen almost entirely black. 
Locality.—Sydney, N.S.W., 24th August, 1924 (Health Dept.). 


66 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXVIi, 


It may be noted here that there are still many species in my hands which are 
undescribed, my present estimate of the number in the genus which are available 
being about 45, which may be increased or decreased upon more intensive study 
than I have yet been able to give to the material. 


OSCINOSOMA SIMILIS (Becker). 

Apparently a common and rather variable species which may be distinguished 
from its nearest relatives by the following characters: Frons yellow in front and 
black above, the large triangle glossy-black except at its extreme anterior angle, 
the face pure dull-white; antennae fulvous-yellow, rarely slightly darkened on 
upper margin of third segment; aristae fuscous; cheeks linear, yellow, with a 
dark line on lower margin; palpi yellow; thorax including the pleura and 
scutellum glossy-black, without dusting, sometimes brownish-yellow on each side 
behind the mesonotal suture, the hairs yellowish, the bristles black; abdomen 
usually black above, not as glossy as the thorax. Legs honey-yellow, with or 
without blackish markings as noted under the varieties below. 


OSCINOSOMA SIMILIS VERA. 
In this form the legs are honey-yellow, with a dark streak or broad ring on 
the mid and hind femora apically. 
Locality —Sydney, N.S.W., various dates from August to January except 
December (Health Dept. collection). 


OSCINOSOMA SIMILIS APICTA, N. var. 
This variety differs from the typical one in lacking the dark markings on the 
mid and hind femora. 
Type female, allotype, and one male paratype, Sydney, N.S.W. (Health Dept.). 


OSCINOSOMA SIMILIS FUSCIBASIS, n. var. 

This variety differs from the typical one and apicta in having the bases of 
the hind tibiae distinctly infuscated. The mid and hind femora are distinctly 
infuscated as in typical similis. The specimens range larger than in either of the 
other forms, being usually at least 2 mm. in length. 

Type female, and five paratype females, Sydney, N.S.W., on various dates 
from September to January (Health Dept.). 


Genus DELTASTOMA Malloch. 
DELTASTOMA ATRICORNIS, nN. SD. 
©. Head testaceous-yellow, dull except on the black frontal triangle which is 
almost glossy; antennae yellow, third segment and aristae black; palpi yellow 
with the apices darkened; proboscis shining black; frontal hairs dark, the others 
pale. Thorax a little darker than head, with yellowish dust, the mesonotum with 
four dark vittae which are slightly shining but are partly obscured by the dusting; 
mesopleura shining reddish-brown below, pteropleura, hypopleura and sterno- 
pleura each with a black spot; scutellum yellow; all hairs and bristles dark. 
Abdomen dark-brown, shining, with brownish dust, genital segments yellow. Legs 
yellow. Wings hyaline, with a fuscous costal spot extending from apex of second 
to apex of third vein (Fig. 1). MHalteres.yellow. 
Structurally quite similar to the genotype, wnipuncta Malloch, differing in 
having the frons a little wider, with a larger triangle, which extends to a little 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 67 


short of middle of frons, the scutellum more convex, with six well differentiated 
marginal bristles, the apical pair longest, and the discal hairs much weaker, the 
wing a little longer, with the marginal and submarginal cells equally wide from 
apex of first vein to near apex of second, the latter more broadly curved to meet 
the costa, and no appreciable dip in the apex of third vein below the dark spot. 
Length, 2-5 mm. 

Type: Wahroonga, Sydney, N.S.W., 24th October, 1926 (Health Dept.). 

This species is readily distinguished from wnipuncta by its coloration, the 
genotype having a much smaller ocellar black spot, the antennae yellow, thorax 
entirely yellow, as well as the palpi and proboscis. 

Both types will be returned to Australia upon the completion of my work on 
the family. 


2 
Text-fig. 1.—Wing of Deltastoma atricornis, n. sp. 
Text-fig. 2.—Head of Assuania granulosa, n. sp., from the side. 


Genus SCOLIOPHTHALMUS Becker. 


This genus is not included in my key to the genera of this subfamily published 
in a previous paper in this series, because I have no Australian examples of the 
only species recorded by Becker, nor in fact any representative of the genus. For 
reference to the Australian species see subjoined catalogue of the subfamily. 


SCOLIOPHTHALMUS ALBIPILUS Becker. 


This species has the thorax yellow, the mesonotum and scutellum with the 
exception of the humeri and a small spot behind these greyish-brown-dusted, and 
with sparse short white hairs, the scutellum with two pale apical bristles - pleura 
with distinct black spots on the mesopleura and sternopleura. The head is yellow, 
with the frons almost twice as wide as one eye, the triangle grey-brown-dusted, 
and extending only to the middle of frons. Antennae brown, third segment 
large, trapezoidal and with pointed front angle, the arista bare, angulate, some- 
what thickened at base. Abdomen dull grey-brown on dorsum, the tergites with 
narrow yellow apices. Legs yellow, tarsi with brown apices, hairing white. 
Wings hyaline, with fine brown veins, third and fourth veins parallel. Length, 
1 mm. 

Locality —Queensland. Type in the Hungarian National Museum, Budapest. 


Subfamily CHLOROPINAE. 

I am unable to present at this time a complete revision of the Australian 
species of this subfamily and confine my present contribution to descriptions of a 
few new species, with notes on one or two of the commoner species of the genus 
Chlorops Meigen. I take the opportunity, however, to publish a catalogue of the 
described species of Australia in the hope that it may prove of value to those 


68 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXvVii, 


interested in the group. I have in my possession a number of species not dealt 
with herein and hope to be able subsequently to return to the matter of their 
description and elucidation. 


Genus CHLOROMERUS Becker. 

This genus was originally distinguished by its describer on the characters of 
the hind femora and tibiae, the former being much thickened and armed with 
two series of minute black spines on the apical half of the anteroventral and 
posteroventral surfaces and the tibiae much bent and fitting closely against the 
ventral surface of the femora when at rest. Unfortunately these characters are 
not always as clearly defined as in the genotype, and the species now dealt with 
was described as a Chilorops. 


CHLOROMERUS STRIATIFRONS (Becker). 

6. Lemon-yellow, thorax and abdomen glossy. Head entirely yellow except a 
narrow dark-brown stripe on the frontal triangle which is black over ocelli and 
extends to anterior margin, the triangle glossy; aristae fuscous; occiput with a 
subquadrate fuscous mark in centre from vertex to neck. Thorax with five 
dorsal vittae which are glossy deep-black except on a portion of the middle one 
which is red from near. anterior margin to beyond the suture in one specimen, 
the humeri each with a small black spot, the mesopleura, sternopleura, ptero- 
pleura, and hypopleura each with a deep-black mark; no black mark below pro- 
thoracic spiracle; postnotum glossy-black; scutellum yellow. Abdomen with a 
fuscous fascia on each of the four visible tergites, which is along anterior margin. 
Legs yellow, with rather faint dark marks on middle of anterior and posterior 
femora and middle of posterior tibiae. Wings hyaline. Halteres yellow. 

Frontal triangle smooth and polished, extending across vertex and to anterior 
margin; ocellar setulae small, proclinate and divergent; face slightly retreating to 
mouth margin, and concave in profile; cheek a little narrower than third antennal 
segment. Mesonotum with but one pair of prescutellar and one postalar bristle; 
scutellum almost convex on disc, with two rather prominent apical and two much 
shorter subapical black bristles. Hind femur much as in gracilis Malloch, hardly 
twice as thick as the mid femur, the two series of short black bristles visible 
only with a very high power lens; hind tibiae bent at bases only, not as 
strikingly so as in the genotype and the earlier described species. Second costal 
division very little longer than first or third, the latter two practically equal in 
length. Length, 2 mm. 


Loecalities—St. Patrick R., Geeveston and Fern Tree, Tasmania; Forbes, 
N.S.W. 

This species rather weakens the claim to separation of the genus from 
Chlorops, as the hind femur is much more slender than in the genotype of 
Chloromerus, but it is still possible to relegate it to that genus on the basis 
of the biserial armature of the femora, though in certain species of Chlorops 
now before me there is a tendency to a production of even this feature, the hind 
femora having a single weak series of spines. 


Genus ASSUANIA Becker. 
This genus is not a remarkably well defined one, the only characteristic 
feature being the angulate upper apical extremity of the third antennal segment, 
shown in Figure 2. Becker to a considerable extent made use of colour characters 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 69 


in his generic segregations, but in dealing with the Australian species he pointed 
out that the two Huropean species of the genus have the scutellum yellow, the 
single African species known to him has the scutellum partly dark, and the 
Australian species have it entirely black. The new species before me agrees in 
this respect with its Australian congeners. I have not seen the genotype. 

For the guidance of Australian students I present below a diagnosis of the 
native species based upon Becker’s descriptions and the species now described. 


Key to the Species. 


1. Palpi entirely yellow; third antennal segment yellow, infuscated above; cheek almost 
twice as high as width of third antennal segment; legs rusty-yellow, with 
brownish tarsi and a brown cloud on femora and tibiae; aristae very slender 
OU es OMS ey alcatel e Oe sHisitico ne (ode Utne ede eN Sceee psu chien susweweuoy sucine es eutiemt Use encuats nigroscutellata Becker 

Palpi black or fuscous; third antennal segment black or largely so; cheek not 
noticeably higher than width of third antennal segment; legs more extensively 
[OVEN evaKels ene ke ern aia metas BPR CEG CRA ES Ch eeRACeeR 8 ORt TR cane S eeer id COE ETRE e AG A SHSM aAley BS Steet hs 2 

Third antennal segment entirely black; legs black, apices of femora and tibiae and 
bases of latter yellow; aristae exceptionally thick for this genus; pleura entirely 
CLEUTE Kote crepe ey ee ae ote cme NAME REY Bon CTP LS eRe RISTO ECS PROMS HSC RLG! ES Sh eilayretee nan etal grossiseta Becker 

Third antennal segment yellowish below on at least the inner side; legs largely 
yellow, the femora, hind tibiae except their apices, fore tarsi, and the apical 
two segments of mid and hind tarsi, black; aristae thickened at bases, tapering 
off on basal fourth; pleura glossy-black, the upper margin of sternopleura yellow 
OCU Naeret nea an eee esha ee at EOE Tare erat aan TEder ete festa teater en Ge atehellal share tehetetel wi eu cner este granulosa, n. sp. 


ie 


ASSUANIA GRANULOSA, Nl. Sp. 


3d; %. Frons brown, anterior margin conspicuously yellow, triangle glossy- 
black, occiput shining black, face and cheeks yellowish-testaceous, dull, with 
whitish dust, centre of face slightly darkened below, cheek with a black line on 
lower margin; antennae black, third segment with the lower half yellowish on 
inner side and less noticeably yellowish on outer side; aristae fuscous on the 
thickened basal fourth, paler beyond; palpi fuscous. Thorax black, glossy on 
pleura and the mesonotal vittae, the latter five in number but the sublateral and 
submedian vittae fused so that there appear to be but three broad shining vittae 
on a grey-dusted ground, the central vitta broad in front, becoming linear about 
midway between the suture and hind margin and continuing thus to the margin; 
upper margin of sternopleura yellow; scutellum shining-black. .-Abdomen shining- 
black, apex of apical tergite narrowly yellowish. Legs yellow, entire femora and 
fore tarsi, hind tibiae except their apices, and the two apical segments of mid 
and hind tarsi black. Wings slightly clouded, the veins thick and fuscous. 
Halteres with the knobs white. 

Frons at vertex one-half of the head width, with some fine black surface 
hairs, the triangle falling short of eyes at vertex by about one-fourth of its 
width at that point, and extending to anterior margin, the sides straight and the 
surface polished; all four vertical setulae small, the ocellars very fine and short, 
directed forward and divergent; profile as Figure 2; cheek hardly higher than 
width of third antennal segment; aristae pubescent. Thorax with the dorsum 
granulose, especially on the more shining vittae, the pleura smooth and polished, 
all bristles very short and fine, the anterior notopleural indistinguishable in all 
three specimens, the posterior pair distinct; scutellum flattened on disc, apical 
bristles very short. Second costal division but little longer than first and about 
one and one-fourth as long as third, penultimate section of fourth vein nearly 
as long as ultimate section of fifth. Length, 2-5-3:-5 mm. 


70 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXVIi, 


Type, female, and allotype, Cradle Valley, Tasmania, 23rd January, 1923; one 
female paratype, same locality, 12th January, 1923 (A. Tonnoir). 


The wings of the two previously described species are entirely hyaline. 


Genus CHLoROPS Meigen. 
CHLOROPS GROSSA, 0. Sp. 


9. Head testaceous-yellow, frontal triangle black, shining, with slight 
brownish-dust centrally, occiput with a large subquadrate brownish mark in centre 
from vertex to neck, antennae yellow, third segment and aristae broken off in 
both specimens, palpi yellow, with black apices. Thorax coloured as head, with 
five black vittae which are but slightly shining because of the presence of grey 
dust on their entire extent, the median and submedian vittae tapered off behind, 
the sublaterals present behind suture only, and rudimentary; pleura with five 
black marks, one below the prothoracic spiracle, the others on the mesopleura, 
sternopleura, pteropleura, and hypopleura; scutellum broadly browned on disc; 
postnotum fuscous. Abdomen yellow, with the exposed dorsal area of each tergite 
except the narrow posterior margin dark brown or fuscous. Legs yellow, femora 
variably stained with brown or fuscous, tibiae less noticeably darkened, but the 
hind pair usually with a fuscous annulus beyond middle, several of the apical 
segments of fore tarsi and the fifth in mid and hind pairs fuscous. Wings slightly 
smoky, all veins brown. Halteres yellowish-white. 

Frons at vertex nearly one-half of the head-width, slightly longer at centre 
than its width at vertex, triangle narrow, about three-fifths of the vertical width 
at posterior extremity and continued to anterior margin, with a deep central 
sulcus and about three more slender deep sulci on each side parallel to the lateral 
margins, vertical bristles represented by minute fine hairs, the ocellars indis- 
tinguishable, the surface hairs as long as the vertical bristles; eyes a little longer 
than high, almost bare; face retreating below, the frons projecting farther beyond 
eyes than height of cheek, the latter about one-third as high as eye and higher 
than width of parafacial; antennae broken; palpi normal. Thorax with scattered 
black hairs and the usual bristles; scutellum with discal hairs and four apical 
bristles. Abdomen elongate, with fine black hairs. Legs normal, fore tarsi not 
widened. Wings elongate, the ultimate section of fourth vein more distinct than 
usual; its penultimate section a little longer than penultimate section of third 
and about three-fourths as long as ultimate section of fifth. Length, 6-5 mm. 

Type: King River, Tasmania, 4th February, 1923; one paratype, Wilmot, 
Tasmania, 8th January, 1923 (A. Tonnoir). 


CHLOROPS SCUTELLARIS Becker. 


The species has the frontal triangle almost entirely smooth, without either 
central or lateral sulci, and mostly black, the palpi black, and third antennal 
segment largely infuscated, the aristae fuscous. Thorax with five shining black 
vittae, and all pleural sclerites distinctly black-spotted, the scutellum black on 
each side and more or less broadly yellow in centre. Legs yellow, femora almost 
entirely black, the hind and sometimes also the mid tibiae infuscated centrally. 

A rather slender species, with the hind femora hardly thicker than the mid 
pair and though there is a series of microscopic wart-like elevations on the 
apical third or more of the posteroventral surface there are practically no such 
elevations on the anteroventral surface. It is possible that this species may yet 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 71 


be removed to the genus Chloromerus along with striatifrons Becker, a course 
adopted for the latter herein, but in the meantime I leave it in the genus in 
which it was described. There are several other species of a similar doubtful 
status now before me. Length, 2-5-3 mm. 


Originally described from New South Wales, and represented in the material 
before me from Como, N.S.W., December, 1928 (H. Petersen); National Park, 
15th December, 1922, Burnie, 3lst January, 1923, and Geeveston, 7th December, 
1922, all in Tasmania (A. Tonnoir). 


CHLOROPS CANALICULATA Becker. 


I accept as this species a specimen which agrees so closely with Becker’s 
description that I consider there can be no reasonable doubt as to the correctness 
of the identification though the type series of the species came from Formosa. 


The species belongs to that group in which the frontal triangle is finely 
longitudinally furrowed or striate on its entire extent, there being in this case 
two or three such deep complete furrows on each side and no central anterior 
shallower sulcus. An additional distinguishing character is found in the colour 
of the aristae which are yellowish-white, an uncommon character in the genus 
which is duplicated in at least two other species now before me. The palpi are 
yellow, the frons yellow with a slightly shining black triangle, the third antennal 
segment is yellow with the upper margin rather broadly infuscated. The thoracic 
vittae are broad, black, and dull because of a covering of grey dust, the scutellum 
is fuscous with the margin yellow, and though there are the usual dark gpots on 
the pleura they are not uniformly black, the one on the sternopleura being usually 
reddish-yellow. The legs are vellow, with apices of tarsi infuscated. Length, 
2-5-3 mm. 

Original locality, Formosa, and represented by one specimen now before me 
from Como, N.S.W., December, 1928 (H. Petersen). 


CHLOROPS STIGMATELLA Becker. 


This species has the aristae similarly coloured to those of the preceding one, 
and the antennae, palpi, thoracic vittae, and legs are almost identical in colour 
also. But the frontal triangle is brownish-black, glossy, with the posterior margin 
and a spot on each side in front of the ocellar elevation yellow, the surface smooth 
except for a shallow central sulcus anterior to the ocelli which extends to the 
linear anterior projection, the latter reaching anterior margin of frons, and in 
addition to the sulcus there is a single well-defined marginal impressed line on 
the entire length of the wide part of the triangle on each side. The scutellum is 
entirely yellow and the pleura are yellow, with but a faintly indicated reddish 
mark on the lower margin of mesopleura and a larger one on lower portion of 
the sternopleura, and a small deep black spot below the prothoracic spiracle. 
Length, 3 mm. 


Originally described from New South Wales and Formosa. I have a number 
of specimens before me from. Mosman, and Sydney, N.S.W., two of them taken 
on windows, in the months of October and April (Health Dept.). 


CHLOROPS PALLIDISETA, Nn. Sp. 


©. A darker species than the preceding one, the general ground colour being 
brownish-yellow, and distinctly less shining. Head brownish-yellow, the frontal 


72 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXvVii, 


triangle glossy-black; third antennal segment broadly infuscated above and at 
apex; occiput with a large black central quadrate mark; palpi yellow; aristae 
yellow on the swollen basal portion, white beyond. Thoracic dorsum brownish- 
dusted, with the five black vittae shining, but not highly glossy because of the 
overlying brown dust, the intervening stripes rather dark brownish-yellow; 
pleura almost entirely glossy-black, but the type pinned through the side so that 
the details are not distinguishable; scutellum yellow in centre, black on sides; 
hairs and bristles dark. Abdomen fuscous, shining but not distinctly marked in 
the type which is slightly teneral. Legs testaceous yellow, all femora, and the 
mid and hind tibiae browned in middle, the tarsi brown apically. Wings slightly 
brownish, veins dark brown. MHalteres yellow. 


Frons longer than wide, the triangle distinctly separated from the eyes at the 
vertex, and extending to anterior margin, its surface highly polished, the sides 
almost straight so that there is no linear anterior production; the four vertical 
bristles rather well developed for this genus, the ocellars very short and fine; 
third antennal segment a little longer than its greatest width, the upper apical 
extremity not evenly rounded; arista thick at base, with rather dense white 
pubescenee; palpi normal. Thorax without abnormal features, the scutellum 
with two rather long apical and two much shorter preapical bristles. Legs slender, 
fore tarsi not thickened, hind femora not distinctly thicker than mid pair and 
without ventral armature. Third and fourth wing-veins divergent at apices, 
penultimate section of fourth more than twice as long as penultimate section of 
third and about three-fourths as long as ultimate section of fifth. Length, 3 mm. 


Type: Sydney, N.S.W., 9th October, 1921 (Health Dept.). One specimen. 


C. ochrostoma Becker has also a pale arista, but it is not known to occur 
outside New Guinea and is distinguished from the others in this paper which have 
a similarly coloured arista by the entirely yellow frontal triangle and other 
characters. 


CHLOROPS NUBILIPALPIS, n. sp. 


3d, @. Very similar to scutellaris Becker in general colour and habitus, 
differing in having the frontal triangle glossy brownish-black, darker in the 
central anterior sulcus, the thoracic ground colour paler yellow, and the scutellum 
pale-yellow with only a small black mark on each basal angle. The femora are 
glossy-black, all tibiae are slightly darkened centrally, the hind pair more distinctly 
so than the others, and the tarsi are brown apically. 


Structurally the species is readily distinguished from scutellaris by the 
presence of a rather broad shallow sulcus which extends from in front of the 
Ocelli to its anterior extremity, causing the triangle to be more nearly straight 
on its sides than is that of scutellaris, in which species there is a rather evident 
emargination of the sides anteriorly so that the apex is.linear. I cannot detect 
any posteroventral armature of the hind femora in the new species even with the 
highest power lens available to me, while this armature is quite evident with a 
lower: power in scutellaris. The hind femora in nubilipalpis are also not as thick 
as in scutellaris. In other respects the two species are almost identical, the dark 
spots on the pleura being the same in size and arrangement in both even to the 
humeral and infraspiracular dots. Length, 3 mm. 


Type: Lake Margaret, Tasmania, 3rd February, 1923 (A. Tonnoir); one para- 
type, same date and collector. 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 73 


CHLOROPS ALBIFRONS Walker. 

I have before me several specimens which I refer to this species with a slight 
doubt. It is one of the intermediate group between this genus and Chloromerus 
Becker, having the hind femora slightly thicker than the mid pair and with one 
series of microscopic setules and a rudimentary one opposite it for a part of the 
extent of the apical third. The hind tibia is very slightly curved at the base, 
and in other respects the species is quite similar to striatifrons Becker described 
in this paper. It differs from that species, and in fact every other one from 
Australia in both the genera, in having the frontal triangle entirely glossy-yellow 
and without sulci or striae. Walker states that the antennae and palpi are 
fulvous, but in the only specimen of those before me in which the antennae are 
intact the third segment is partly infuscated. The general coloration is very 
similar to that of striatifrons, the thorax having five glossy-black vittae, and the 
scutellum being yellow. The pleura have usually three black spots in addition 
to the small one below the prothoracic spiracle, but there may be one or more 
of them partly rufous or orange. The legs are yellow, with the apical two or 
three segments of each tarsus generally darkened. Length, 3 mm. 

Originally described from Adelaide, and unknown to Becker who retained it 
in Chlorops. The specimens before me are from Como, N.S.W., December, 1928 
(H. Petersen). 

Because of the rather damaged condition of all five specimens available, I am 
deferring a definite opinion on the generic status of the species, but it is un- 
doubtedly distinct from any other in both genera now known to me or included 
in Becker’s paper. Of the species definitely recorded from Australia by Becker, 
there remain but three unknown to me, sulcata Becker, carinata Becker and 
pictipes Becker, but I have several as yet undescribed species in hand which I 
hope to be able to include in a future paper on the family along with complete 
keys to this genus and also to Oscinosoma Lioy, to neither of which genera I have 
yet published keys. Pending the publication of my keys students may consult the 
paper by Becker on the Indo-Australian Chloropidae in which most of the species 
of the subjoined catalogue were described. 


Catalogue of the Described Australian Chloropidae. 

In this catalogue I include all species which are definitely referred to this 
family up to and including the present paper, so that students of these insects may 
have a ready reference to the location of the descriptions. I give only the first 
reference to, or Australian record of, species in all cases, and cite the genotypes, 
most of which are not Australian. 

It may be of interest to note that Tillyard in his “Insects of Australia and 
New Zealand” estimates the number of species of the family from Australia as 50, 
a very conservative estimate indeed. There probably are several hundred species 
in Australia, the present contribution bringing the total to 97. 


Family CHLOROPIDAE. 
Subfamily OSCINOSOMINAE. 
I. Genus PARAHIPPELATES Becker* (1911, p. 109). Genotype, Oscinis pulchrifrons 
de Meijere. 


* References to papers in this catalogue are Becker, 1911, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungary, 
vol. ix; Malloch, 1923-1928, Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., vols. xlviii (1923)-liii (1928); 
Skuse, 1889, Proc. LInN. Soc. N.S.W., (2), iv, 1889; Thomson, 1869, Hugen. Resa, Dipt. 

F 


74 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXVii, 


1. nudiseta Becker, 1911, p. 113. Sydney, N.S.W.—2. ornatipennis Malloch, 
1923, p. 620. Victoria—3. brunneicosta Malloch, 1928, p. 620. Queensland.— 
4. duplicata Malloch, 1923, p. 621. Melville Island.—5. costomaculata Malloch, 
1924, p. 329. N.S.W.—6. albiseta Malloch, 1924, p. 330. Queensland.—7. fuscipes 
Malloch, 1924, p. 330. N.S.W.—8. aequalis Becker, 1911, p. 111. New Guinea; 
Malloch, 1924, p. 331. N.S.W.—9. anomala Malloch, 1925, p. 96. N.S.W., S.A.— 
10. seticauda Malloch, 1928, p. 302. N.S.W., Vict.—11. parva Malloch, 1928, p. 
302.—12. dasyplewra Malloch (subgenus Jerraereginia), 1928, p. 308. Queensland. 


Il. Genus ErHYDROSCINIS Malloch, 1924, p. 331. Genotype, E. australis Malloch. 
13. australis Malloch, 1924, p. 331. N.S.W.—14. raymenti Curran, Amer. Mus. 
Novit., No. 422, 1930, p. 1. Vict. 


III. Genus HuUHIPPELATES Malloch, 1925, p. 96. Genotype, HE. pallidiseta Malloch. 
15. pallidiseta Malloch, 1925, p. 96. N.S.W.—var. pallipes Malloch, 1925, 
p. 97. N.S.W. 


TV. Genus CapREMA Walker, Proc. Linn. Soc. London, iv, 1860, p. 117. Genotype, 
0. lonchopteroides Walker. 

16. atriseta Malloch, 1924, p. 355 (Gaurar). N.S.W.—17. bancrofti Malloch, 
1925, p. 97 (Hippelates). Queensland.—18. fergusoni Malloch, 1927, p. 438 
(Hippelates). N.S.W.—19. atricornis Malloch, 1927, p. 4388 (Hippelates). N. 
Queensland.—20. nigridorsata Malloch, 1927, p. 439 (Hippelates). Tasmania. 
21. unimaculata Malloch, 1927, p. 439 (Hippelates). Tasmania.—22. abbreviaia 
Malloch, 1927, p. 440 (Hippelates). Tasmania. 


V. Genus BaTRAcHOMYIA Skuse, 1889, p. 175. Genotype, B. nigritarsis Skuse. 

23. nigritarsis Skuse, 1889, p. 175. N.S.W.—24. quadrilineata Skuse, 1889, 
p. 176. N.S.W.—25. atricornis Malloch, 1925, p. 336. N.S.W—26. flavicornis 
Malloch, 1925, p. 336. N.S.W.—27. major Malloch, 1927, p. 440. Tasmania.— 
28. strigipes Malloch, 1927, p. 441. Tasmania. 


VI. Genus THyRIDULA Becker, 1911, p. 94. Genotype, 7. breviventris Becker. 

29. atroapicata Malloch, 1924, p. 358. N.S.W.—30. centralis Malloch, 1925, 
p. 396. N.S.W.—81. rugosa Malloch, 1926, p. 546; 1927, p. 441 (subgenus 
Huthyridula, as subgenotype). N. Queensland.—32. brunneifrons Malloch, 1927, 
p. 442. Tasmania. 


VII. Genus TrictmBa Lioy, Atti Inst. Venet., ser. 3, vol. 9, 1864, p. 1125. Genotype, 
Oscinis cincta Meigen. 

33. carinata Malloch, 1924, p. 356. N.S.W.—4. scutellata Malloch, 1925, p. 

337. N.S.W.—85. carinifacies Malloch, 1927, p. 443. Tasmania.—36. pollinosa 

Malloch, 1927, p. 4438. N.S.W., W.A.—87. convexa Malloch, 1927, p. 444. 


Tasmania.—38. similata Malloch, 1927, p. 444. N.S.W. 
VIII. Genus SIPHUNCULINA Rondani, Dipt. Ital. Prod., vol. 1, 1856, p. 128. Geno- 
type, S. brevinervis Rondani. 

39. breviseta Malloch, 1924, p. 358. N.S.W. 

IX. Genus Piaryina Malloch, 1927, p. 436. Genotype, P. nebulifera Malloch. 
40. nebulifera Malloch, 1927, p. 436. Tasmania. 

X. Genus BENJAMINELLA Malloch, 1925, p. 336. Genotype, B. albifacies Malloch. 
41. albifacies Malloch, 1925, p. 337. Tasmania, N.S.W. 

XI. Genus DELTASTOMA Malloch, 1924, p. 359. Genotype, D. unipuncta Malloch. 
42. wnipuncta Malloch, 1924, p. 359. N.S.W.—48. atricornis Malloch, present 

paper. 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 75 


XII. Genus CAvicers Malloch, 1924, p. 355. Genotype, C. flavipes Malloch. 

44, flavipes Malloch, 1924, p. 356. N.S.W. 

XIII. Genus ScoLIopHTHALMUS Becker, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 2, pt. 3, 1903, 
p. 147. Genotype, 8S. trapezoides Becker. Egypt. 

45. albipilus Becker, 1911, p. 115. Queensland.—46.° vicarius Walker, List 
Ins. Brit. Mus., Diptera, pt. 4, 1849, p. 1120 (Chlorops). Australia. 

XIV. Genus Oscrnosoma Lioy, Atti Inst. Veneto, ser. 3, vol. 9, 1864, p. 1125. 
Genotype, Chlorops vitripennis Meigen. 

47. mesopleuralis Becker, 1911, p. 150 (Oscinella). Queensland.—48. impura 
Becker, 1911, p. 150 (Oscinella). N.S.W.—49. subpilosa Becker, 1911, p. 150 
(Oscinella). N.S.W.—50. similifrons Becker, 1911, p. 152 (Oscinella). N.S.W.— 
51. similis Becker, 1911, p. 153 (OScinella). N.S.W.; var. apicta Malloch, present 
paper. N.S.W.; var. fuscibasis Malloch, present paper. N.S.W.—52. quadristriata 
Becker, 1911, p. 154 (Oscinella). N.S.W.—53. tibiella Becker, 1911, p. 155 
(Oscinelia). N.S.W.—54. pruinosa Thomson, 1869, 605, 307 (Oscinis). N.S.W.— 
55. punctulata Becker, 1911, p. 158 (Oscinella). N.S.W.—56. selachopina Thomson, 
1869, 606, 306 (Oscinis). N.S.W. [Tricimba?].—57. nigroannulata Malloch, 1925, 
p. 338 (Botanobia). N.S.W.—58. dilata Malloch, 1925, p. 339 (Botanobia). 
N.S.W.—59. tonnoiri Malloch, present paper. Tasmania.—60. tasmaniensis 
Malloch, present paper. Tasmania—61. nigroannulata Malloch, present paper. 
Tasmania.—62. nigroviolacea Malloch, present paper. N.S.W.—63. tinctipes 
Malloch, present paper. Tasmania.—64. luteicornis Malloch, present paper. 
Tasmania.—65. luteohirta Malloch, present paper. Tasmania.—66. nigrohirta 
Malloch, present paper. N.S.W. 


XV. Genus GAuURAx Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., vol. 7, 1863, p. 35. Genotype, 
G. festivus Loew. 
67. apicipunctata Malloch, 1927, p. 444. N.S.W. 


Subfamily CHLOROPINAE. 


XVI. Genus PAcHYLoPHUS Loew, Ofvers. K. Vet. Akad. Forh., 1856, p. 225. Geno- 
type, P. lugens Loew. 


68. lutea Malloch, 1925, p. 95. Queensland.—69. secundus Malloch, 1927, p. 
429. W.A—70. alienus Malloch, 1927, p. 429. N.S.W. 


XVII. Genus CHLOROMERUS Becker, 1911, p. 40. Genotype, C. purus Becker. 


71. purus Becker, 1911, p. 40. N.S.W.; var. varians Malloch, 1927, p. 433. 
N.S.W.; var. maculifera Malloch, 1927, p. 483. Tasmania.—72. pallidior Becker, 
1911, Queensland.—73. nigrifemur Malloch, 1927, p. 481. Tasmania.—74. macu- 
lifemur Malloch, 1927, p. 432. Tasmania.—75. gracilis Malloch, 1927, p. 4382. 
N.S.W.—76. trimaculata Malloch, 1927, p. 433. N.S.W.—77. striatifrons Becker, 
1911, p. 57 (Chlorops). N.S.W. 

XVIII. Genus CHLOROPELLA Malloch, 1925, p. 94. Genotype, C. bipartita Malloch. 


78. bipartita Malloch, 1925, p. 94. N.S.W. 

XIX. Genus CHLorops Meigen, Iilliger’s Mag., vol. 2, 18038, p. 278, no species; 
Syst. Beschr., vol. 6, 1830, p. 140. Genotype, C. laeta Meigen. 

79. scutellaris Becker, 1911, p. 58. N.S.W.—80. suleata Becker, 1911, p. 58. 
N.S.W.—81. stigmatella Becker, 1911, p. 59. N.S.W.; Formosa.—s82. carinata 
Becker, 1911, p. 59. N.S.W.—83. pictipes Becker, 1911, p. 60. N.S.W.—84. albifrons 
Walker, List. Ins. Brit. Mus., Diptera, pt. 4, 1849, p. 1121. Adelaide. 85. canalicu- 
lata Becker, 1911, p. 71. Formosa.—86. grossa Malloch, present paper. Tasmania.— 


76 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXViil, 


87. pallidiseta Malloch, present paper. N.S.W.—88. nubilipalpis Malloch, present 
paper. Tasmania. 
XX. Genus Dietotroxa Loew, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., vol. 7, 1868, p. 54. Genotype, 
Chlorops versicolor Loew. 
89. tasmaniensis Malloch, 1927, p. 484. Tasmania. 
XXI. Genus CHLOROPSINA Becker, 1911, p. 51. Genotype, C. oculata Becker. 
90. nigrohalterata Malloch, 1924. 
XXII. Genus Assuanta Becker, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, vol. 2, pt. 3, 1903, p. 149. 
Genotype, A. glabra Becker. 
91. nigroscutellata Becker, 1911, p. 81. N.S.W.—92. grossiseta Becker, 1911, 
p. 82. N.S.W.—93. granulosa Malloch, present paper. 
XXIII. Genus CHLorRopisca Loew, Zeitschr. Ent. Breslau, vol. 15, 1866, p. 79. 
Genotype, Chlorops glabra Meigen. 
94. subnotata Malloch, 1927, p. 429. N.S.W.—95. monticola Malloch, 1927, 
p. 430. N.S.W. 
XXIV. Genus ForMosinAa Becker, 1911, p. 78. Genotype, Chloropisca lucens de 
Meijere. 
96. australis Becker, 1911, p. 80. Queensland. 
XXV. Genus PEMPHIGONOTUS Lamb, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 8, vol. 19, 1917, 
p. 54. Genotype, P. mirabilis Lamb. 
97. mirabilis Lamb, l.c., p. 35. Melville Is. 


Family MILIicHIIDAg. 


The present group has generally been accepted as a subfamily of Agromyzidae, 
and was so considered by me in a previous paper in this series, but the most 
recent work on the acalyptrate Diptera by Hendel gives the rank of family and 
I am tentatively accepting this conclusion. I present some data upon one genus. 


Genus MILICHIELLA Giglio-Tos. 

Becker (Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungar., vol. 5, 1907, p. 507) published a revision 
of the subfamily Milichiinae and in it he gave synopses of all the species of this 
and other genera then known to him. In Milichiella he included a number of 
species which he had not seen, the total being 17. No species was recorded from 
Australia and only two from as close as New Guinea. Of the latter one, lacteipennis 
Loew, has been recorded in this series of papers, the other, argentea Fabricius, 
is not known to me. There are apparently three species of the genus now in my 
hands, though one of them is represented by a single specimen which lacks the 
head and I may be in error in placing it in this genus. Its other characters are 
so closely in agreement with those of the other species that I believe I am correct 
in my conclusions regarding its generic position. The three may be distinguished 
as in the key below, but only in the male sex, as the females are unknown to me, 
except lacteipennis. It is extremely probable that the females of all three species 
lack silvery dust on the dorsum of the abdomen which is characteristic of other 
species already known from other faunal regions. 

7 Key to the Species (Males). 


1. Abdomen entirely black, glossy except for a portion of tergites 3 and 4 (second 
and third visible) ; second and fifth tergites each longer than third and fourth 
combined, fifth tapered apically, the sides rounded over and with long hairs 
below curve which extend upwards as a loose fringe; legs black; knobs of 
halteres yellow; squamae whitish ......................... lacteipennis (Loew) 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. T7 


Abdomen densely silvery-white-dusted on dorsum; second tergite longer than fifth, 
the latter slightly narrowed at apex, not longer than third and fourth tergites 
combined eknobsNoL halteresm black On) USCOUWS peer lee creleielaleieleieie)ol-leliatsieielelieiele 2 

2. Legs, including the tarsi, black; all abdominal tergites with brightly shining silvery 
dust and two series of black setulose hairs centrally at apex, which become more 
numerous, generally triseriate laterally, the fifth tergite with some scattered hairs 
OneGISG bution e centrallyainwtrOntern eerie cisterns nigripes, N. sp. 

Tarsi yellowish, remainder of legs black; dust on dorsum of abdomen not brightly 
shining, rather dull, the third and fourth tergites with scattered hairs in about 
three series which cover almost all of the area, fifth with some hairs on about 
the central half, which extend to anterior margin of the exposed portion ........ 
OST Cc GO ROP IEMEONCRER HOLE Dee CHONG ROHR CHORE Re oIntG Re ONCE EMCO Cer ore lacteiventris, n. sp. 


MILICHIELLA LACTEIPENNIS (Loew). 

It may be difficult to distinguish the females of the next two species from this, 
but in nigripes the halteres and margins of the squama are black, and the frontal 
triangle is more deeply sunken and narrower, while the pale tarsi and dark 
halteres should serve to separate lacteiventris. 


MILICHIELLA NIGRIPES, N. Sp. 


6. Head and thorax deep-black, interfrontalia slightly shagreened, giving it 
a rather dull appearance as compared with the glossy triangle, mesonotum without 
a trace of dusting of any kind. Abdomen densely covered with bright silvery dust 
except on the rudimentary first tergite, each anterior lateral angle of second, and 
the apex of fifth. Legs black. Wings hyaline. Squamae and knobs of halteres 
black. 

Frons at vertex about one-third of the head-width, narrowed to anterior margin, 
each orbit with the upper bristle recurved, the second proclinate, and two or three 
anterior incurved bristles; interfrontalia slightly shagreened and with a series of 
minute incurved hairs on each side of central line which converge anteriorly; 
face as wide as anterior margin of frons, glossy on upper, dull on lower half, the 
series of bristles on each side rather fine, the uppermost one longest; cheeks 
practically obliterated. Thoracic dorsum with numerous rather long black hairs, 
two pairs of postsutural dorsocentrals, and two bristles on each anterior lateral 
area; sternopleural with two long and several shorter bristles; scutellum with 
slight evidence of brownish dust, the disc bare, bristles four. Second abdominal 
tergite longest, longer than fifth, but not longer than third and fourth combined, 
fifth slightly longer than fourth, the apical margin of each with at least one, 
usually two, series of hairs centrally and generally at least three series laterally, 
fifth with the anterior central portion bare. Legs normal, mid femur with the 
usual rather dense setulose hairs on anteroventral surface apically. First posterior 
cell distinctly narrowed apically, almost as in lacteipennis. Length, 2-2-5 mm. 

Type and two male paratypes, one lacking the head, February, 1924 (Health 
Dept.). 

This species is very similar to one occurring in the Philippines, but differs 
from the latter in having entirely black legs, glossy mesonotum, and more 
numerous hairs on the apices of the abdominal tergites. 


MILICHIELLA LACTEIVENTRIS, n. sp. 


6. Very similar to the preceding species, differing in the duller white of the 
abdomen, in the pale tarsi, and the slightly brownish dusted mesonotum. The 
squamae are also paler. In addition to the character of the hairing of the 


18 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXvVii. 


abdominal tergites it should be noted that the second tergite is distinctly longer 
than the fifth, and than the third and fourth combined, and the fifth is about as 
long as the two preceding combined. Length, 2 mm. 

Type: Hidsvold, Queensland. No other data. 


Family TACHINIDAE. 
Tribe RUTILIINI. 
Genus RuTILIA Robineau-Desvoidy. 
In the paper previously referred to herein under the family Chloropidae, 
Curran has described three species belonging to this genus, all of which he places 
close to formosa Robineau-Desvoidy. I offer some notes on the species. 


RUTILIA PALLENS Curran. 

This species possesses an anterior sternopleural, and pubescent aristae. It is 
undoubtedly referable to the subgenus Senostoma Macquart, and is probably the 
same as hirticeps Malloch, though it is impossible to be certain of this without an 
examination of the type which I have not seen. This is deposited in the American 
Museum of Natural History, in New York City. 

Locality, New South Wales, no other data. 


RUTILIA FORMOSINA Curran. 

This species evidently belongs to the formosa group, but it is impossible to 
tell from the description if it has been listed by me in any of my papers on the 
genus, as there is no mention by Curran of the nature of the hind tibial armature 
and certain other essential characters. I assume that the length given as 4 mm. 
is an error, possibly for 14 mm. 

Locality, Australia, no other data. 


RUTILIA CORONA Curran. 

Distinguished from the preceding species in Curran’s synopsis by the pile of 
the parafacials being rather “long and coarse and usually mostly black’’, instead 
of “short and fine and yellowish in colour”. 

Locality, New South Wales, three males, no other data. Type in same collec- 
tion as the other two. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE ACTINOMYCETALES. I. 
A CASE OF HEREDITARY VARIATION IN THE GENUS ACTINOMYCES. 
By H. L. JENSEN, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. 
(Plate iii; eleven Text-figures. ) 
[Read 29th April, 1931.] 


In a microbiological analysis of a soil from a lawn in the grounds of Sydney 
University in search of organisms of the genus Micromonospora (@rskoy, 1923; 
Jensen, 1930) the writer isolated an organism which seemed difficult to locate, 
since it exhibited characters belonging to both of the genera Actinomyces and 
Mycobacterium, which are not very well separated from each other. In quite 
young cultures it formed branching filaments, which soon broke up into short, 
rod-shaped, partly acid-fast elements; in this stage the organism could not he 
distinguished from the ordinary saprophytic mycobacteria (Myc. phlei, lacticola, 
etc.). In some instances, 4-5 weeks old cultures produced spots of white aerial 
mycelium, like that which is characteristic of most actinomycetes; by plating 
from this mycelium, cultures were obtained of an organism, which consisted of 
a richly branching mycelium, entirely actinomyces-like, and without any tendency 
to spontaneous “fragmentation”. Another organism behaving similarly was later 
isolated from another soil from a flower bed. It might be imagined that the 
cultures had, from the beginning, represented mixtures of two different organisms, 
but in view of the occurrence of the phenomenon in two different strains it 
seemed more likely to be what has been variously described as “bacterial muta- 
tion’, “clone transformation”, “saltation’’, “microbial dissociation”, or “cyclogeny”. 
Since this has an important bearing on the classification of microorganisms it was 
decided to subject the phenomenon to a closer study, in connection with a more 
general investigation of the occurrence and activities of actinomycetes in 
Australian soils. 


Review of the Literature. 

The phenomenon referred to above is intimately bound up with the whole 
problem of microbial variation and life cycles in bacteria. Since the literature 
on this subject is too vast to be reviewed here (for references, see Lohnis, 1921, 

Hadley, 1927, and Arkwright, 1930), we will deal only with the contributions 
referring to hereditary changes in the genera Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium, and 
Actinomyces. Metchnikoff (1888), Bruns (1895) and Coppen-Jones (1895) noted 
the occurrence of long, sometimes richly branching filaments in old cultures of 
the tubercle bacillus, which led them to regard this organism as a developmental 
stage of a more highly differentiated fungus. A permanent transformation to such 
a form was, however, not observed, and would indeed have met with little 


80 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


confidence in that era of monomorphistic views. Kitt (1897) found an actinomyces- 
like organism arising in broth-cultures of Bact. erysipetalos suum, of which he 
believed it to be a developmental form; later, however, he revoked his first state- 
ment, attributing it to an error caused by a “tenacious symbiosis” between the 
bacterium and a contaminating actinomyces; it seems difficult today to see which 
of these alternatives is correct. Two interesting contributions were furnished 
by Cache (1901) and Spirig (1903). They found in old cultures of Corynebact. 
diphtheriae a filamentous organism, which could be isolated, and appeared like 
an actinomyces. Spirig observed a formation of aerial mycelium in this organism 
and succeeded in carrying it back to a morphological stage resembling the culture 
in which it had originally arisen. The proof of its genetic connection with 
Corynebact. diphtheriae was complete neither in Cache’s nor in Spirig’s work, and 
their statements seem therefore to have received little attention, and have 
remained unconfirmed. Since these organisms grew for many generations as 
actinomycetes, they were obviously different from the filamentous, branching 
forms occasionally seen in old cultures of Corynebact. diphtheriae. Abbott and 
Gildersleeve (1904) found these forms occurring so rarely and inconstantly that 
they considered it justifiable to regard them as “involution forms’’, and Martin, 
Loiseau and Gidon (1924) were able to produce them experimentally in great 
abundance in one particular strain of Corynebact. diphtheriae by growth in 
broth under reduced oxygen tension; when transferred to serum, they reverted at 
once to the normal type; a hereditary change had thus not taken place here. 
This seems to occur in Corynebact. murisepticum (Holzhausen, 1926), which can 
appear either as short rods or as long filaments; these characters remain constant 
on agar media, but tend to revert into each other in broth culture.* Brulowa 
(cit. by Kedrowsky, 1928) is said to have transformed Corynebact. diphtheriae 
into an actinomyces-like organism by treatment with radium rays. Finally, a 
dissociation into “smooth” and “rough” variants, not connected with profound 
morphological changes, has been observed in Corynebact. diphtheriae (see 
Arkwright, 1930). In other corynebacteria, complex life-cycles have been described 
by de Negri (1916) and Mellon (1920, 1926); the latter author claims to have 
stabilized several stages of this cycle. Gildemeister (1921) found in the organism 
of tuberculosis in turtles (Mycobact. chelonei) a dissociation into two varieties, 
the “normal” forming flat, dry colonies with a rough surface, and constantly 
splitting off the “variant’’, which forms soft, raised colonies with a smooth 
surface; this latter kept fairly constant, but showed a reversion to the “normal” 
in subcultures from very old broth cultures. Vaudremer (1921) found that 
certain strains of Mycobact. tuberculosis lost their acid-fastness when grown on 
dextrose-agar or agar without glycerin; after having undergone this treatment 
they produced actinomyces-like forms when grown in peptone-solution; the 
original form could be regenerated by culture on serum-containing media or on 
glycerinated potatoes. Kedrowsky (1928) claims to have stabilized an actinomyces- 
like phase of growth in Mycobact. tuberculosis as-well as in Myc. leprae (see 
below), and the same statement concerning the former organism is made by 
Karwacki (1929). It has been known for a long time that Myc. lacticola exhibits 
two cultural varieties, a planum and B perrugosum. Haag (1927) showed, on the 
basis of a study of a large number of strains, that these two forms show many 
intergradations, and that the “perrugose” variety can be transformed experi- 


*It may be questionable, however, whether this is really a Corynebacterium. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 81 


mentally into the “plane” by growth on agar with addition of old cultures 
(accumulation of metabolic products). Also spontaneous, mutation-like changes 
took place. Two strains of the “plane” variety produced secondary colonies 
of a type described as Mycobact. eos (Biittner, 1926), and a case was observed, 
where a perrugose strain spontaneously produced a plane variant. Myc. phlei had 
likewise a perrugose and a plane form, the latter sometimes being produced by 
dissociation from the former. One case of variation is particularly interesting, 
since it seems to represent the origin of an actinomyces as a variant from a 
mycobacterium. Unfortunately, Haag’s description of the phenomenon is very 
brief, and runs thus: ‘“Merkwirdig verhalt sich Stamm 73, welcher zunachst als 
Mycobact. phlei festgestellt war, dann unter Abspaltung eines phlei-Stammes 
(73a) braungelb, matt, kornig und knorpelig wurde, also aktinomyzetenahnliches 
Wachstum annahm’’. The existence of an actinomyces-stage in the life-cycle of 
Mycobact. leprae has frequently been alleged. Deycke and Reschad (1905) isolated 
from a leprome an actinomyces which they believed to be genetically connected 
with Myc. leprae. Kedrowsky (1910) obtained similar results and stated that an 
organism, isolated from leprous lesions and capable of producing morbid affections 
in rabbits, had a complex life-cycle comprising acid-fast rods, non-acid-fast rods, 
and non-acid-fast actinomyces-forms. Similar results have been found by Bayon 
(1912), Johnston (1917), and others. Duval and Harris (1913) found Myc. leprae 
constantly acid-fast, and believed the aberrant forms to be contaminations. 
Recently Kedrowsky (1928) has reviewed the question in an interesting paper in 
which he states that subcultures from very old cultures of Myc. leprae and 
tuberculosis are rich in long, branched elements which have partly lost their acid- 
fastness; by further culture in rich media they soon regain their normal appear- 
ance and acid-fastness, but in media poor in nutrients, regular actinomycetes arise 
as fringes around the colonies. Kedrowsky argues, therefore, that both Myc. leprae 
and Myc. tuberculosis should be classed with the genus Actinomyces. In this last 
genus, which is notorious for the instability of its characters, the observations 
concerning hereditary variation are numerous. Pellegrino (1906) claimed to 
have transformed an actinomyces into a mycobacterium-like organism by culture 
in sterile butter; the actinomyces-form could be regenerated by culture on potato. 
Souza-Araujo (1929) reported a similar case: a true actinomyces isolated from 
leprous lesions could by culture on fat-containing media be transformed into acid- 
fast rods, said to be constant. Kedrowsky (1928) mentions the possibility of 
transforming actinomycetes into diphtheroid organisms by culture in media very 
rich in nutrients, and Sanfelice (1921, 1924) claims to have transformed two 
different actinomycetes into Myc. tuberculosis-like organisms through animal- 
passage. lLieske (1921) mentions several cases of mutation-like phenomena in 
actinomycetes—loss of spore formation, changes in pigmentation, etc. Among 
other things he (like Mrskov, 1923) observed a formation of a yellow variant 
from the normally red Act. polychromogenes, and a gradual transformation of an 
anaerobic, short-hyphed form into an aerobic, long-hyphed form. Finally, @rskov 
(1923) observed cases where actinomycetes gradually abandoned their mycelial 
growth and passed into stages where they were indistinguishable from coryne- 
bacteria or mycobacteria. A similar case was observed by Abramow (1912) in an 
actinomyces isolated from meningitic pus; it produced (a) branching rods of a 
diphtheroid type and (06) long, richly branching filaments, which formed dry 
colonies, adhering to the substratum; this latter type changed into the former 
after a few transfers. 
G 


82 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


Morphological and Cultural Characters. 
As mentioned above, two strains of organisms were isolated from two different 
soils. They are here termed I and II, the affixes R and F signifying, respectively, 
the original rod-shaped, mycobacterium-like form, and the modified, filamentous, 
actinomyces-like form. Single-cell cultures of the two R-forms were obtained by 
means of the method of @rskov (1922), and these cultures were examined on the 
following media: 
Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Dextrose 10:0 gm.; asparagine 1:0 gm.; K.HPO, 
0-5 gm.; agar 15:0 gm.; H.O 1,000 c.c. 

Dextrose-asparagine-solution: Same without agar. 

Dextrose-nutrient-agar: Dextrose 10-0 gm.; meat extract 5-0 gm.; peptone 
10:0 gm.; NaCl 5-0 gm.; agar 15:0 gm.; H.O 1,000 ¢.c. pH 7:0. 

Dextrose-broth: Same without agar. 

Plain nutrient agar and broth: Same two media without dextrose. 

Gelatin: Plain (15% gelatin in tap water) or corresponding to nutrient agar; 

pH 7-0. 

Potate plugs. 

Milk. 

Cultures were incubated at 30-32° C. and at room temperature (20—22° C.). 

During the course of the investigation, several modified types, besides the F- 
forms, were isolated. A list of these is given below. 


Designation. Appearance. How obtained. 
Original forms: * 
IRs “ Rod-shaped, producing soft 
red growth. From single cells of original 


s cultures isolated from soil. 
IIRs i Rod-shaped, producing soft 
red growth. 

Modified forms: 


IRh Rod-shaped with tendency to Arises spontaneously in cul- 
filament-formation, pro- tures of IRs, and can be 
ducing hard pink growth. produced experimentally. 

IRy Rod-shaped, producing soft 
yellow growth. Produced by exposure of IRs 

to ultra-violet radiation. 

IRw Rod-shaped, producing soft 
white growth. 

ITRh Rod-shaped, producing hard Arises spontaneously in cul- 
pink growth, tures of IIRs, and can be 


produced experimentally. 


IF Filamentous, producing firm Arises spontaneously in cul- 
pink growth with aerial tures of IRs. 
mycelium. 


IFy Filamentous, producing firm Arises spontaneously in cul- 
yellow growth with tures of IRy. 
aerial mycelium. 


IF w Filamentous, producing firm Arises spontaneously in cul- 
white growth with aerial tures of IRw. 
mycelium. 

TIF Filamentous, producing firm Arises spontaneously in cul- 
pink growth with aerial tures of IIRs. 


mycelium. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 83 


Form IRs. 

Dextrose-asparagine-agar: At room temperature the growth on agar slopes is 
restricted, raised, with smooth, shiny surface and flat myceloid edges, colour* after 
15 days Begonia Rose to Rose Doree (Rdg. I, 1b-I, 30-Rb). The consistency is 
after 3-4 days very soft and moist, after 1-2 weeks tough and pasty. Small specks 
of white aerial mycelium are usually seen after 2-4 weeks; they represent the 
beginning of the IF-form. Occasionally hard granules of the type IRh appear, 
and the culture may on transfer change as a whole to this type. At 30-32° C. the 
growth has a rugose surface and a paler pink colour, after 3-4 weeks changing to 
dull brownish-grey, with some soluble pigment of the same colour. 


Dextrose-asparagine-solution: At room temperature or at 30-32° C. growth 
starts as small pale-rose flakes in the solution; after 12-15 days voluminous pink 
sediment and soft, silky, pale-rose surface pellicle; after 20 days at room tempera- 
ture the pellicle is very thick, soft, colour as on agar. 

Dextrose-nutrient-agar: Growth at room temperature is abundant, raised, 
restricted, after 3-4 days soft and smooth, with myceloid edges, after 1-2 weeks 
with coarsely folded surface; colour after 16 days Coral Red (Rdg. XIII, 5’OOR). 
Light-brownish soluble pigment and a few colonies of IF are seen after 3 weeks. 
Similar growth at 30-32° C.; the F-form is not observed here. 

Nutrient agar: Scant, uncharacteristic growth, restricted, orange-red. No 
pigment. The F-form arises in old cultures. 

Dextrose-broth: After 3-4 days slight turbidity, small orange flakes on bottom 
of tube; after 2-3 weeks orange flaky sediment, no surface growth; broth clear, 
becomes turbid when shaken. Thick red surface pellicle in older cultures. No 
acid-formation. 

Gelatin (plain or nutrient, at room temperature): Thin yellowish growth 
along stab, with short filaments radiating into gelatin; flat, red, wrinkled surface- 
colony. No pigment. No liquefaction after 6-8 weeks. 

Potato: At room temperature after 3-4 days smooth, soft, pink growth, 
gradually becoming deeper red and wrinkled. After 2-3 weeks numerous spots 
of white aerial mycelium (IF), and sometimes raised, hard, pale-pink granules 
of the type IRh. At 30-32° C. similar, but the spots of aerial mycelium seem to 
arise less frequently. 

Milk: Growth starts as small orange granules on surface; after 1-2 weeks 
they fall to the bottom and form a thick, soft, orange-red sediment. The milk is 
not coagulated or hydrolyzed; in quite old cultures (10-12 weeks at room tempera- 
ture) it becomes viscous and semi-transparent. 

Morphology.—Direct observation of the growth (@rskov, 1923) on blocks of 
dextrose-agar shows the following mode of development. After 20-24 hours at 
room temperature the cells of the inoculum have germinated and formed a small 
mycelium of fairly long, wavy hyphae, 0-4-0-5 » thick, extending to a length of 
70-100 uw, and producing a few side branches (Text-fig. 1). After 2 days these 
mycelia reach a considerable extent; hyphae produce numerous rectangularly 
situated side branches, and show some tendency to penetrate into the medium. 
Aerial hyphae are formed (only visible under the microscope), arising as small 
refractive granules in the substratum mycelium, and gradually stretching into 
short, somewhat irregular threads; when examined under immersion lenses, these 


* Description of colours here and in the following after Ridgeway, Colour Standards 
and Nomenclature. 


84 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


aerial hyphae are not different from the substratum hyphae. Septa are not 
visible in the substratum mycelium, and the culture makes at this stage a perfectly 
actinomyces-like impression (Text-fig. 2-3). When the growth is scraped off and 
examined in ordinary smear-preparations, only slender, branching rods of varying 


Text-figures 1-11. 

1.—IRs. Dextrose-asparagine-agar, 1 d. room tpt. (living material). 2.—Same, 2 d. 
3.—Same, seen under high-power dry lens; aerial hyphae deeply shaded. 4.—Same, 3 d. 
Immersion lens. 5.—IRh. Dextrose-nutrient-agar, 3 d. room typt. 6.—IRs. Dextrose- 
asparagine-agar, 5 days room tpt. 7.—Same, 6 d. 8.—Same, potato-extract-agar, 5 d. 
32° C. 9.—IF, Dextrose-asparagine-agar, 2 days room tpt. 10.—Same, 3 d., seen under 
high-power dry lens; aerial hyphae heavily shaded. 11.—Same, under immersion lens. 
Magnifications: Figs. 1, 2, 3 and 6, x 500; Figs. 4, 5, 7 and 8, x 2,000; Fig. 9, x 250; 
Figs. 10 and 11, x 1,000. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 85 


length, 4-10 x 0:3-0-5 uw, are seen (Plate iii, fig. 3); in carefully made impression- 
preparations one may occasionally see the true mycelia, but mostly only irregularly 
staining rods, often in V- or Y-shaped arrangement. After 3 days the organism 
passes into another stage of growth. Septa are now formed in the substratum 
mycelium (Text-fig. 4), cutting off rod-shaped cells which occupy an angular 
position, adjoining each other at the corners like diphtheroids. In the following 
days this process of septation and of multiplication by cell-division goes on 
(Text-figs. 6-7). After 6 days all mycelial growth has disappeared.* After 14 
days the appearance is unaltered; the colonies consist exclusively of short, un- 
branched cells, 0-5-0-6 x 1:5-2-0 uw, always in angular arrangement (Plate iii, fig. 4) ; 
in still older cultures almost coccoid cells are formed (Plate iii, figs. 5, 6, 9). Thus, 
the mycelial growth, with which the development of the colony starts, is after a 
few days superseded by cell-division of the “snapping” type characteristic of 
corynebacteria (Graham-Smith, 1907); there is never any indication of the 
“slipping” or “gliding” growth which characterizes Myc. tuberculosis (Miehe, 
1910) and several saprophytic mycobacteria (Haag, 1927). The aerial hyphae 
disappear after some days; they appear to fall down and become indistinguishable 
from the substratum hyphae. The course of development is entirely characteristic 
for actinomycetes of Mrskov’s Group II (@rskov, 1923). 


The cells are gram-positive, but usually stain rather irregularly with anilin 
dyes, appearing banded and granulated, like many corynebacteria and myco- 
bacteria (Plate iii, fig. 4). They exhibit a certain degree of acid-fastness; after 
staining with hot carbol-fuchsin most cells are strongly decolourized by 20% 
sulphuric acid, but a certain number of them retain the stain very well; this is 
particularly true in old cultures (Plate iii, fig. 9). On other media the appear- 
ance of the cells is similar; there is a tendency to earlier production of short, 
coccoid cells in rich media, such as dextrose-nutrient-agar. At 30-32° C. there 
is in all media a tendency to production of longer cells than at room temperature; 
after a few days the culture contains many swollen, fusiform to lemon-shaped 
cells (Plate iii, fig. 10); they are most numerous on dextrose-nutrient-agar and 
potato, and particularly on dextrose-asparagine-solution of pH 8-3, where the 
microscopic appearance often resembles a minute yeast (at pH 5-3-5:7 there is a 
production of longer, branched, partly swollen cells). The formation of these 
swollen cells is easily followed on potato-extract-agar, where they arise in great 
abundance; after 1-2 days there is formed the usual rectangularly branched 
mycelium, which after 3-4 days divides into rod-shaped cells of varying length; 
after 4-5 days these cells show local swellings, often measuring 2:0—-2-7 u in diameter 
(Text-fig. 8). The swollen cells are viable; when transferred to fresh agar, they 
germinate readily with the formation of a normal mycelium. Similar forms have 
been described in corynebacteria, mycobacteria and actinomycetes by several 
authors. Vallée (1903) mentions “des éléments fusiformes, dont la partie seule 
se colore bien” in Actinomyces polychromogenes, and of the same organism Lieske 
(1921) gives illustrations (Fig. 35, p. 64) which could very well represent the 
present one. Korn (1908) describes similar formations, resembling heads of 
spermatozoa or fragments of shattered actinomyces-granules, in Mycobact. 
friburgense. Identical-looking phenomena are described by Vierling (1922) as 
“involution forms” in cultures of soil mycobacteria (or actinomycetes?). @rskov 


* On the surface of the agar; in the depth the development is difficult to follow, 
but septation seems to take place here, too. 


86 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


(1923) found a general tendency to production of such forms in a whole category 
of actinomycetes, and Henry (1910) found them arising in cultures of an anaerobic 
actinomyces when exposed to the air. Finally, Bergstrand (1923) describes similar 
forms under the name of “chlamydospores” in Corynebact. lymphogranulomatis; 
they show, according to his figures, a mode of formation analogous to that in our 
IRs, but his statement, that they multiply by yeast-like budding, suggests that they 
may, at least partly, be of another nature. Apparently these swollen cells represent 
nothing but a strongly accentuated development of the club-shaped cells often 
observed in corynebacteria and mycobacteria, but they are probably of another 
nature than the yeast-like cells described below under IIRs. The regularity of 
their appearance and their vitality render it unjustifiable to dispose of them as 
‘involution forms”, and their germination into a mycelium does not support the 
theory that they may be gonidangia. Further, their mode of formation inside a 
single cell shows that they are not “zygospores” arising through conjugation of two 
cells (LOhnis and Smith, 1923). 


Form [Rh (“hard” type of IRs). 


Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Growth at room temperature after 3-4 days thin, 
flat, almost colourless, with some raised pink granules of hard consistency. After 
1-2 weeks the growth is abundant, much raised and wrinkled, adhering strongly 
to the medium, surface cracking; consistency hard, dry and crumbly, but not 
cartilaginous like a true actinomyces; colour after 15 days Alizarin Pink to 
Venetian Pink (Rdg. XIII, 1’d.—XIII, 1’f.), paler than IRs. A faint pinkish-grey 
soluble pigment is formed after 3 weeks. At 30-32° C. similar, growth more 
dirty pinkish-grey; scant white aerial mycelium may be seen, but the F-form does 
not arise. 


Dextrose-asparagine-solution: Growth as hard granules on bottom and along 
surface of solution; tendency to formation of a tough, granulated, pink surface 
pellicie. 


Dextrose-nutrient-agar: Growth at room temperature abundant, much raised 
and granulated, of a crumbly consistency, but not so hard as on dextrose- 
asparagine-agar; colour after 15 days Carnelia Red (Rdg. XIV, 7’R-O). Light- 
brown soluble pigment after 2-3 weeks. Growth at 30-32° C. similar, but of softer 
consistency. 


Nutrient agar: Scant, uncharacteristic growth, granulated, orange-red. 


Dextrose-broth: Broth clear with granulated orange sediment; no surface 
growth; no uniform turbidity when the tube is shaken. No acid-formation. 

Gelatin: = IRs. 

Potato: Growth starts at room temperature as orange-red, raised, firm granules, 
gradually spreading after 1-2 weeks, becoming deeper red; consistency partly 
crumbly, partly soft after 3 weeks. No aerial mycelium. At 30-32° C. similar 
growth, deeper red. 

Milk: Orange granules on surface. Milk somewhat thickened after 3-4 weeks 
at 30-32° C. 

The F-form has never been seen to arise in cultures of this type. 


Morphology.cThe growth on dextrose-asparagine-agar starts in the same 
manner as IRs, but there is a much more pronounced tendency to growth in the 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 87 


depth of the medium, and much less tendency to septation. After 14 days at 
room temperature the elements are still chiefly filamentous and non-septate, only 
here and there showing rod-shaped cells in angular arrangement. On dextrose- 
nutrient-agar septation sets in after 3 days at room temperature, and the culture 
appears here much like IRs, although the cells are generally longer and more 
slender, 2-0-8 x 0:-4-0-5 w (Text-fig. 5). In smear preparations, especially from 
dextrose-asparagine-agar or solution, the long, non-septate filaments are very 
frequently seen, but they seem very easily to be broken up by rough treatment 
of the material (Plate iii, fig. 2). The rod-shaped cells are always longer, more 
slender and more irregular in shape than those of IRs. They are also less acid- 
fast; none of them retains the dye perfectly, but they shew a number of acid- 
fast granules. At 30-32° C. swollen cells, similar to those of IRs, are formed. 


Form IRy (yellow modification of IRs). 


Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Growth at room temperature restricted, raised, with 
smooth, shiny surface and flat, myceloid edges; consistency soft and moist, pasty. 
Colour after 16 days Ochraceous Salmon to Flesh-Ochre (Rdg. XV, 13’O0YO- 
XIV, 9’OR-Ob). 

Dextrose-asparagine-solution: At room temperature a thick soft pellicle of 
same colour as on agar, and thick yellow sediment. Solution clear, becomes 
turbid on shaking. 


Dextrose-nutrient-agar: Good growth at room temperature, raised, soft, smooth, 
with myceloid edges; colour after 16 days Apricot Orange (Rdg. XIV, 11’). 
Growth somewhat granulated and folded after 3 weeks, with a faint brown 
soluble pigment. 


Dextrose-broth: Broth slightly turbid after 4 days at room temperature, 
with yellow flakes on bottom. After 1-2 weeks thick yellow sediment, no surface 
growth; broth almost clear, turbid when shaken. Yellow pellicle in older cultures. 

Gelatin: Scant yellow growth along stab and on surface; short filaments 
radiating from stab; no liquefaction. 


Potato: Soft, smooth, raised, yellow-ochre growth after 4 days at room 
temperature. After 2-3 weeks numerous hard granules with white aerial mycelium 
arise, representing the form IFy. 


Milk: Growth starts as small loose yellow flakes along the wall of the tube, 
after 7-8 days settling and forming a soft yellow sediment; milk unchanged after 
4 weeks at room temperature. 


Morphology.—This organism corresponds in morphological respect perfectly 
to IRs, but the formation of a “hard” variant, corresponding to IRh, has not 
been observed. 


Form IRw (white modification of IRs). 


Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Good growth at room temperature, raised surface, 
first smooth, later roundly-folded, edges slightly myceloid; consistency soft and 
pasty; colour milk-white. After 4-5 weeks a faint pink colour develops, but 
platings show only white colonies. 


Dextrose-asparagine-solution: Thick, soft, white pellicle and sediment after 
3 weeks at room temperature; solution clear, becomes turbid when shaken. 


88 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


Dextrose-nutrient-agar: Growth similar to that on dextrose-asparagine-agar, 
but surface after 10-12 days more wrinkled and granulated on central part, edges 
entire. Faint brown pigment after 2-3 weeks. 

Dextrose-broth: Slight turbidity after 4 days, white flaky sediment. After 2 
weeks abundant white sediment and broken white scum on surface. Broth clear, 
turbid when shaken. No acid after 3 weeks. 

Potato: Scant, smooth, raised, white growth after 4 days at room tempera- 
ture. After 1-2 weeks growth somewhat better, with folded surface, else unchanged. 
Small specks of white aerial mycelium (Fw) arise after 3 weeks. 

Gelatin: Thin white growth along stab, with short, horizontally radiating 
threads. White surface growth. No liquefaction. 

Milk: Growth starts as small white flakes along wall of tube, later (1-2 
weeks) forming a white sediment. Milk unchanged. 

Morphology.—Hxactly like IRs and IRy. These three forms are distinguished 
from each other practically only by the pigmentation; the formation of the 
yellow and the white variety from the original red seems analogous to the well- 
known production of a lemon-yellow and a white variety (known respectively 
as Staphylococcus citreus syn. Micrococcus pyogenes B citreus, and Staphylococcus — 
albus syn. Micr. pyogenes y albus) from the orange Staph. aureus syn. Micr. 
pyogenes a aureus (Neumann, 1897), only in the staphylococci these phenomena 
occur spontaneously, while in the present instance they were only observed 
after treatment with ultraviolet rays. 


Form IIRs. 


Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Growth after 6 days at room temperature restricted, 
raised, with rugose surface and myceloid edges, consistency soft and moist. After 
2 weeks the growth is abundant, surface much wrinkled, consistency tough-pasty, 
colour like IRs. Specks of white aerial mycelium (IIF) arise after 3-4 weeks, 
sometimes earlier. At 30-32° C. the growth is paler pink, after 3 weeks dirty 
pinkish-grey, with some soluble pigment of the same colour. 

Dextrose-asparagine-solution: Soft, silky, pink pellicle and sediment; solution 
clear. 

Dextrose-nutrient-agar: After 1 week at room temperature similar to dextrose- 
asparagine-agar, but better growth, of a deeper red colour. After 15 days abundant, 
much raised and folded, Grenadine Red to Flame Scarlet (Rdg. II, 7R-O-9OR-O). 
Faint brown soluble pigment after 3 weeks. At 30-32° C. the growth is hardly 
different, develops somewhat more rapidly. 


Dextrose-broth: Flaky orange sediment after 1 week at room temperature: 
similar, more voluminous, after 2-3 weeks. Broth clear, only occasionally with 
granules of surface growth. At 30-32° C. similar growth. No acid is formed. 
Thick red surface pellicle in older cultures. ; 

Gelatin: At room temperature, 3-5 weeks, filiform growth along stab, with 
short radiating threads, and wrinkled red surface growth. No liquefaction. 

Potato: After 1 week at room temperature soft, moist, glistening, red growth; 
after 2 weeks round-granulated surface, pasty consistency, intense red colour. 
Numerous specks of white aerial mycelium (IIF). : 

Milk: Small reddish flakes swimming on surface and attached to the tube 
after 3-6 days; after 2-3 weeks a flaky, red sediment is formed. Milk remains 
unchanged. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 89 


Morphology.—The development on dextrose-asparagine-agar takes place in the 
same manner as in IRs. The rod-shaped cells are generally somewhat longer and 
more slender and show less tendency to production of swollen, lemon-shaped forms 
at 30-32° C., particularly in dextrose-asparagine-solution, where the shape of the 
cells is little influenced by the reaction, unlike IRs. The cells are also less 
acid-fast than those of IRs; on dextrose-asparagine-agar there is almost no acid- 
fastness, but on dextrose-nutrient-agar this strain is like IRs. In dextrose- 
broth (to a smaller extent also on dextrose-nutrient-agar) there is frequently 
after 4-6 days at 30° C. a formation of remarkable, big, oval, yeast-like cells, 
measuring 4-5 uw, usually aggregated in small clumps, containing a coarsely 
granulated cytoplasm, and staining intensely with carbol fuchsin and Delafield’s 
haematoxylin (Plate iii, figs. 7, 8). They seem to correspond to similar phenomena 
observed in corynebacteria by de Negri (1916), Mellon (1920), and Bergstrand 
(1922), and in actinomycetes by. Leyton and Leyton (1916), who call them 
“megaspores”. Similar things have been described as “gonidangia” in other 
bacteria by Lohnis and Smith (1923), Oesterle and Stahl (1929), Gibson (1928), 
and several others.* The gonidangium-nature of the present cells is uncertain, 
since it has not been found possible to follow their further development when 
transferred to fresh media; in hanging agar-block preparations they remain 
unchanged for up to 10-12 days, while the normal rod-shaped cells multiply 
vigorously. Neither have they shown any development in hanging-drop prepara- 
tions (dextrose-broth) for up to 3 days. In preparations from broth-cultures 
these cells often show evidence of a reproduction by yeast-like budding (Plate iii, 
fig. 8), as described by Bergstrand (1923), whose “chlamydospores”, however, 
seem partly identical with the swollen forms in our IRs. These latter are 
different from the yeast-like cells, since they, as stated above, germinate readily 
on agar media. The true nature of the yeast-like cells must, therefore, for the 
present, be regarded as unknown. Besides these there is often after 5-6 days in 
broth cultures a quite abundant formation of clumps of amorphous, granulated 
matter, resembling the phenomenon described as formation of “bacterial plasmodia” 
(Almquist, 1917) or “symplasm” (LOhnis, 1921, Lohnis and Smith, 1923). These 
flakes of amorphous material can quite easily be traced in hanging-agar-block 
preparations, like the yeast-shaped cells, and like these they remain unchanged 
for many days, until they are overgrown by colonies originating from neigh- 
bouring normal cells. A regeneration of cells inside them has never been 
observed, and there is thus so far no evidence that they represent living matter 
(cf. Bergstrand, 1923). 


Form IIRh (“hard” type of IIRs). 


Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Growth after 6 days at room temperature much 
raised and wrinkled, pale rose-pink, of a dry and crumbly consistency, somewhat 
adhering to the agar, after 12-15 days still more wrinkled. Colour Eosine Rose to 
Begonia Pink (Rdg. I, 1d—-I, 1b). The aerial mycelium is often macroscopically 
visible as a thin white veil all over the growth. 

Dextrose-nutrient-agar: Growth after 6 days at room temperature similar 
to dextrose-asparagine-agar, but more red; after 12-15 days abundant, much 


* The Schizosaccharomyces filtrans described by Lewis (1927) is probably also an 
organism of this group, and no yeast at all. 


90 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


folded, of a somewhat pasty consistency; colour Light Coral Red (Rdg. XIII, 5’00- 
Rb). Light-brown soluble pigment after 3 weeks. 

Dextrose-broth: Abundant growth after 3 weeks at room temperature; granu- 
lated red sediment and thick, easily broken, red pellicle. No acid. 

Potato: Growth at room temperature first granulated, pale-orange, of a firm 
consistency, after 3-4 weeks dull red with thin veil of white aerial mycelium 
on upper dry part. 

Milk: Small red granules on surface, partly falling to the bottom. Milk 
unchanged after 4 weeks. 

At 30-32° C. the cultures are hardly distinguishable from IIRs. 


As in the case of IRh, an F-form has not been seen to arise. 


Morphology.—Microscopically this strain can hardly be distinguished from 
IIRs, except for the more pronounced tendency to formation of aerial hyphae. 


Form IF (filamentous form of IRs). 


Dextrose-asparagine-agar: Growth at room temperature after 5 days consists 
of small, round, raised, partly confluent, pale-pink granules with myceloid edges, 
growing deeply into the agar and covered by a thin white aerial mycelium. 
After 12-15 days a granulated, confluent growth of a tough, cartilaginous, entirely 
actinomyces-like character, adhering strongly to the medium; colour Orient Pink 
(Rdg. II, 9 OR-Of). Similar at 30° C. The aerial mycelium is rather variable 
on this medium, sometimes almost absent, sometimes, particularly at room tem- 
perature, forming a well-developed, white, felty layer. The consistency remains 
cartilaginous in very old cultures (5-6 months). 


Dextrose-asparagine-solution: Growth starts as small colourless granules on 
surface and bottom of solution, after 12-15 days, forming a thick, atacand gi 
pale rose pellicle. Solution remains perfectly clear. 


Dextrose-nutrient-agar: After 5 days at room temperature small pinkish- 
orange granules without aerial mycelium; after 12-15 days raised, round, partly 
confluent granules, with scant white aerial mycelium; consistency hard and 
cartilaginous; colour Grenadine Pink (Rdg. II, 7R-Od). Faint brown soluble 
pigment. Similar growth at 30° C.; after 3-4 weeks the central superficial part 
of the growth assumes a more loose and crumbly consistency. 

Dextrose-broth: Small pink granules on surface, after 12 days at room tem- 
perature forming a coherent, pale-pink pellicle with thin white aerial mycelium. 
Broth remains perfectly clear. No acid is formed. 

Gelatin: Scant filiform growth with short radiating threads along stab; rose- 
red surface colony with thin white aerial mycelium; no liquefaction. 


Potato: Growth spreading, granulated, pink, after 12 days covered by a thin 
white aerial mycelium; consistency hard and cartilaginous, after 5-6 weeks at 
30° C. brittle and crumbly in dried part of growth. 


Milk: Small pale-pink granules on surface, gradually forming a red pellicle 
with thin white aerial mycelium. Milk remains unchanged. 


Morphology.—The growth on dextrose-asparagine-agar starts in a manner 
similar to that of IRs. After 2 days at room temperature extensive mycelia 
are formed, measuring 100-150 mu across, consisting of richly branched hyphae 
with numerous aerial filaments and a marked tendency to growth in the depth 
of the agar; the central filaments are thicker (up to 0-8-0:9 w) than the end 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 91 


branches (0-4-0-5 w). After 3 days the mycelia reach a very large extent and 
exhibit all-the characters of a true actinomyces of Group I (@rskov, 1923). In 
the following time the organism seems to remain at this stage of development 
(Text-figs. 9-11); unlike IRs, an angular arrangement is not seen, the hyphae 
remaining wavy and irregularly branching; septa are not formed. In the aerial 
hyphae a differentiation into spores, such as in @Mrskov’s Group I, is not seen, 
but when the aerial mycelium is scraped off and examined in ordinary prepara- 
tions, the hyphae are easily broken into fragments of varying length, down 
to 5-6 u long and 0-4-0-5 uw thick. Ordinary stained preparations show a typical 
actinomyces-mycelium: long, slender, branching filaments, mostly 0-4-0-5, up to 
0:8-1:0 uw thick, staining rather irregularly with anilin dyes (Plate iii, fig. 1). The 
hyphae are gram-positive, but only slightly acid-fast; like IRh, they are mostly 
decolourized by 20% sulphuric acid, but show numerous acid-fast granules. The 
loose and crumbly growth in old cultures on dextrose-nutrient-agar and potato 
shows microscopically many rather short, irregular, branching rods, somewhat 
similar to IRh, and quite markedly acid-fast; a similar phenomenon is seen in 
dextrose-asparagine-solution of pH 8-3 after 3 weeks at room temperature. This, 
however, does not represent a reversion to the R-form, since these cells produce 
only the normal F-form when transferred to fresh medium. In dextrose-asparagine- 
solution of pH 8-3 there is also, previous to the formation of short forms, a 
production of remarkably curved and gnarled filaments with many short lateral 
branches bearing terminal swellings which stain intensely and give the organism 
a Micromonospora-like appearance (@rskov, 1923; Jensen, 1930). 


Forms IFy (filamentous form of IRy) and IFw (filamentous form of IRw). 


These two organisms are parallel forms to IF, from which they differ only 
in colour. 


Form IIF (filamentous form of IIRs). 


Culturally this form is very similar to IF, from which it differs mainly in 
a more pronounced tendency to formation of aerial mycelium, particularly at 
room temperature, and in its colour. The growth on dextrose-asparagine-agar 
after 12-15 days is at room temperature Grenadine Pink (Rdg. II, 7R-Od), at 
30° C. Pale Salmon to Seashell Pink (Rdg. XIV, 9’f-11’f), on dextrose-nutrient-agar 
at room temperature Grenadine Pink, at 30° C. Brazil Red (Rdg. I, 5i). Morpho- 
logically it is indistinguishable from IF. 


Biological Characters. 


So far as studied, the various forms seem identical in physiological respect, 
although a complete study of their physiology has not been carried out. They 
are all obligate aerobic organisms. Invertase, diastase and proteolytic ectoenzymes 
are not produced. Paraffin wax, benzene vapour, stearic acid, phenol, and cellulose 
are not utilized. The optimal temperature seems to be 25-30° C.; at 60° C. the 
cells are killed within 2 minutes; aerial mycelium of IF shows no higher thermo- 
resistance than the substratum mycelium. The optimal reaction is at approxi- 
mately neutral reaction. IRs, IIRs, IF and IIF were grown in dextrose-asparagine- 
solution, the reaction of which was adjusted to pH values between 5:0 and 8:3 by 
means of tartaric acid and sodium hydroxide. The following results were found 
after 12 days at 30° C.: 


92 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


Growth of 
pH 
IRs IIRs IF TIF 
Decmeeenin sete none none none none 
bY og ao trace 4 trace very scant trace 
BO shel die very good fair fair secant 
Gipsy ot aks excellent good good fair 
G8} So 66 excellent good very good fair 
Creat acral ced fair scant good secant 


Identity of the Organism. 

The two original forms, IRs and IIRs, particularly the former, are doubt- 
lessly identifiable with Actinomyces polychromogenes Vallée. The original descrip- 
tion of this organism (Vallée, 1903) is not very complete, but it agrees with the 
present in the formation of long branching filaments in quite young cultures, 
short oval rods after a few days, fusiform cells in acid solution, and pigment of 
various red ,colours. Lieske (1921) and @Mrskoy (1923) have studied the same 
organism. Both authors record a spontaneous formation of a yellow variant, 
corresponding to our IRy. Their microscopic illustrations of Act. polychromogenes 
resemble the present organisms perfectly; Lieske’s Figs. 24, 25, 26 and 35, and 
Orskov’s Figs. 40 and 42 could very well represent our IRs. Lieske also found 
Act. polychromogenes acid-fast under certain conditions. Neither Lieske nor 
@rskov found, in disagreement with Vallée, any formation of aerial mycelium; 
this property had apparently been lost in the long period of artificial cultivation 
between the studies of Vallée (1903) and of Lieske and Mrskoyv (1921-1923). We 
may conclude from these data, that Act. polychromogenes is a species-group with 
a pronounced tendency to hereditary variation, some strains (e.g., that studied by 
Vallée, Lieske and @rskov) producing yellow variants spontaneously, others 
(e.g., IRs) producing “hard’’ and filamentous variants spontaneously, besides white 
and yellow variants under certain conditions (after treatment with ultraviolet 
rays, as shown below), and others again (e.g., IIRs) producing only “hard” and 
filamentous variants spontaneously. 


Various Factors that Influence the Appearance of Modified Forms. 

Age of Cultures——As shown above, the F-forms arise mostly in cultures 3-4 
weeks old. Subculture on dextrose-asparagine-agar from some older cultures gave 
the following results: 

IRs in dextrose-asparagine-solution, 21 weeks at room temperature: IRh pre- 
dominant, IF also present. 

IRs in milk, 20 weeks at room temperature: same. 

IRs in dextrose-broth, 15 weeks at 30° C.: mixture of IRs, IRh, and IF; last 
form predominant. 

IIRs on gelatin, 18 weeks at room temperature: mixture of IIRs and IIRh. 
On dextrose-asparagine-agar, 20 weeks at room temperature: same. 

Ageing of the cultures does thus here, as in many other cases (Arkwright, 
1921, 1930), give rise to variation (cf. also Kedrowsky, 1928, and Spirig, 1903). 

Drying.—Numerous experiments by Almquist and co-workers (Almquist, 1917; 
Almquist and Koraen, 1918; Koraen, 1918) suggest that drying of the cultures 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 93 


may markedly influence the life-cycle of various bacteria. In the present instance, 
no variation was found in subcultures on dextrose-asparagine-agar from dried-up 
cultures (4-5 weeks at 30° C.) of IRs and IIRs. Drying does thus not seem to be 
a special incitant to variation here; this has possibly some connection with the 
fact that mycobacteria and actinomycetes are as a whole very resistant to drying. 


Metabolic Products—The fact that the F-forms arise in rather old cultures 
suggests that the accumulation of metabolic products may have something to do 
with the phenomenon. In order to test this, IRs and IIRs were grown on media 
which had previously supported growth by the same organisms. Nadson and 
Adamovié (1910) could in this way induce remarkable morphological changes in 
Bac. mycoides, and Haag (1927) was, as mentioned above, by a similar method 
able to induce changes in mycobacteria. Other similar cases are quoted by 
Arkwright (1930). 


Two series of experiments were carried out here: 


I. Old cultures of the Rs-forms on dextrose asparagine-solution (2 months 
at room temperature) were boiled and filtered, and 1% dextrose, 15% agar and a 
trace of asparagine were added. IRs and IIRs were then grown on slopes of this 
medium at room temperature, with transfers every 10 to 14 days. The originally 
soft and moist growth became, after 2-3 transfers, dry and crumbly, with a 
wrinkled surface and covered by a thin white aerial mycelium. A complete change 
into the F-forms was not observed, but subcultures on ordinary dextrose- 
asparagine-agar from the fifth generation showed that the R-forms, originally of 
the s-type, had been changed into the h-type. 


II. IRs and IIRs were grown in dextrose-peptone-solution (150 ¢c.c. in 350 c.e. 
Erlenmeyer flasks) for 6 weeks at 30° C. The solutions were then boiled and 
filtered, and 1% dextrose, 0:-5% peptone and 15% agar were added. IRs and IIRs 
were as before grown on slopes of the corresponding agar medium for five genera- 
tions. IRs produced an abundant, smooth, pasty, red growth, occasionally pro- 
ducing the F-form, and in the fifth generation becoming more dry and crumbly. 
IiRs produced also an abundant growth, similar in all generations, raised and 
wrinkled, covered with a veil of aerial mycelium, but of a soft and loose con- 
sistency without any trace of the F-form. Transfers to dextrose-asparagine-agar 
from the fifth generation gave, as before, a growth of the h-types of both R-forms; 
a transfer from the first generation of IRs gave the normal s-form. Here again 
a change of the s-types into the h-types has been effected. 


Ultraviolet Radiation.—In the experimental study of heredity, much attention 
has in recent years been paid to the influence of short-wave radiation (ultraviolet 
radiation and X-rays) on the progeny of irradiated organisms. In microbiology 
a few cases of hereditary variation due to this cause have been recorded. Henri 
(1914) exposed Bac. anthracis to ultraviolet radiation and obtained in this way 
three modified forms, two of which proved constant for many generations. 
Enderlein (1925) states that exposure to sunlight exerts a strong influence on the 
alleged cyclogeny of Vibrio cholerae, giving rise to formation of filterable gonidia 
and to sexual repreduction. Following up the suggestions of Enderlein, Oesterle 
and Stahl (1929) were able to produce filterable forms and other aberrant types 
of Bac. mycoides by exposure to sunlight or ultraviolet rays. Nadson and 
Philippow (1929) induced mutation-like changes in the fungus Zygorhynchus 
Moelleri and in yeasts by treatment with X-rays. The changes mentioned by 
Brulowa (Kedrowsky, 1928) have been referred to above. 


94 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


An experiment on the influence of ultraviolet radiation on IRs and IIRs was 
carried out. Since no quartz-lamp was available, an arc-lamp with iron electrodes, 
consuming a current of 5-2 Amp., 112 V., was used as source of ultraviolet rays 
The material to be treated consisted of 1:5 c.c. portions of suspensions of 8 days 
old dextrose-asparagine-agar cultures in sterile 0°85% NaCl solution, placed in 
small transparent silica test tubes. These tubes were placed in a distance of 
30 em. from the naked arc, at which distance the heat effect was negligible, and 
subjected to the radiation for 3, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 minutes. After treatment, a 
loopful of each suspension, as well as of untreated control suspension, was trans- 
ferred to slants of dextrose-asparagine-agar, and duplicates were incubated at room 
temperature. The control tubes of IRs showed only the normal IRs. Thirty 
seconds’ irradiation caused a slightly delayed start of the growth, which contained 
numerous hard granules of the IRh-type. Irradiation for 1 to 6 minutes caused a 
continually thinner and more slowly starting growth, always consisting of a 
mixture of the soft, red colonies of IRs and the hard, raised, pale-pink colonies 
of IRh; most of the tubes also contained a few of the white colonies of IRw, and 
in one of the tubes from 3 minutes irradiation a colony of IRy appeared. Of the 
F-form, only a single colony was observed. It was thus possible to produce three 
modified forms (IRh, IRw, and IRy, although the last was very rare) by treat- 
ment of IRs with ultraviolet rays. IIRs produces a similar mixture of IIRs and 
IIRh, but this experiment was less convincing, since the h-type was present also 
in the control, although it seemed more abundant in the cultures from irradiated 
inoculum. 

Other Factors —Addition of 0:1% coffein or 1:0% lithium chloride (compounds 
which are both capable of exerting a strong formative influence on many bacteria) 
to dextrose-asparagine-agar had no clear effect on IRs and IIRs. The former 
compound did not affect the growth visibly, the latter suppressed it almost 
entirely. Neither did growth for 14 days on a starvation medium (pure agar 
in tap water) exert any influence on the subsequent growth of IRs, IRh, IIRs and 
IIRh on dextrose-asparagine-agar. 

The experiments thus show that we can in several cases experimentally change 
the Rs-types into other types, but the appearance of the F-forms seems to occur 
quite spontaneously and is not influenced by any of the factors tested here. 


Discussion. 


The question of the nature of these modified forms now suggests itself. The 
“soft” and “hard” types of the R-forms represent probably cultural varieties 
analogous to the “plane” and “perrugose’’ varieties in the closely related myco- 
bacteria; they may possibly also be compared with the “‘smooth”’ (S) and “rough” 
(R) variants of intestinal bacteria (Arkwright, 1921, 1930), though it has not 
been tested whether they are serologically different from each other. IRy and 
IRw are obviously colour-varieties of IRs, comparable to those in the staphylo- 
cocci, as mentioned above. The appearance of the F-forms seems to present a more 
extraordinary phenomenon. The whole morphological character of the F-forms 
would lead us to regard them as stabilizations of the initial mycelial stage of the 
R-forms, but they are apparently not formed directly from these initial mycelia, 
since they arise only in comparatively old cultures, where all mycelial growth has 
disappeared long ago. What seems to happen is, that now and again a cell of the 
R-form reverts to the original actinomyces-like mode of growth and remains at 
this stage, due to causes which at present we cannot ascertain. The “hard” types 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 95 


of the R-form (particularly IRh) seem to represent an incomplete step in the 
direction of the F-form. Whether we should regard the F-forms, which so far 
have proved constant, as simple hereditary variants or as stages in the life cycle 
of the organism can only be ascertained when the F-forms have been observed for 
a very large number of generations, in order to see whether they will again change 
back into the R-form. 

The origin of the F-forms throws an interesting light upon the alleged 
production of actinomyces-like forms in Corynebact. diphtheriae (Cache, Spirig) 
and Myc. leprae and tuberculosis (Kedrowsky, and others). When typical actino- 
mycetes (the F-forms) can arise in single-cell cultures of mycobacterium-like 
organisms (the R-forms), it would seem likely that the same phenomenon might 
occur in true corynebacteria and mycobacteria, from which our R-forms differ only 
in the extent of their initial mycelium. This difference is one of degree only, 
since also corynebacteria and mycobacteria may occasionally show indications of 
a mycelial growth (Lepeschkin, 1904, @rskov, 1923, and Haag, 1927; Lepeschkin’s 
Bacillus Berestnewii, which showed an hereditary tendency to branching and 
occasionally to formation of smali mycelia, was in all probability a corynebacterium 
or a non-acid-fast mycobacterium. Haag describes, in his Fig. 2, such a case as 
“aussergewohnliche Form’’). 

The phenomenon has also an important bearing on the systematics of the 
genus Actinomyces. @rskov (1923) suggested a division of this into two genera, 
primarily on the basis of the formation of septa in the mycelium. The present 
results show that at least this criterion cannot be used unreservedly, since on 
the basis of this alone we would have to place the R-forms and the F-forms in two 
different genera—a procedure which one cannot but feel as unnatural, despite 
the fact that all classification is artificial and all limits arbitrary. On the other 
hand, a careful study of phenomena such as these will enable us to place the 
systematics of the actinomycetes, as well as of other microorganisms, on a firmer 
and more natural basis than previously (cf. LOhnis and Smith, 1923). 


Summary. 

Single-cell cultures of two strains of a soil actinomyces, probably identical 
with Act. polychromogenes Vallée, produced two different growth forms. The first 
and original form “R” (rod-shaped) forms initially a small unicellular mycelium 
which soon divides into bacteria-like elements; these multiply by cell division in 
the manner characteristic of corynebacteria. This R-form has two subtypes; the 
s-type (“soft”), which is the original, produces a soft, pasty growth of a red 
colour; the bacteria-like elements are usually short, blunt, little branched, and 
partly acid-fast. The h-type (“hard’’) produces a dry, crumbly growth, adhering 
firmly to the medium and consisting of longer and more slender cells, less acid- 
fast than the s-type and with a marked tendency to formation of long filaments; 
this type arises spontaneously in cultures of the s-type and can also be produced 
experimentally from this. Exposure to ultraviolet rays gave rise to a yellow and 
a white variety of the s-type. The difference between the s- and h-types was 
more pronounced at room temperature than at 30-32° C. and more pronounced in 
one strain than in the other. These s- and h-types seem to correspond to the 
“plane” and “perrugose” variants of mycobacteria, and are possibly also comparable 
with the “smooth” and “rough” variants known to occur in numerous other 
bacteria. The second form “F” (filamentous) represents a stabilization of the 
initial mycelial stage of the R-form. It is a perfectly actinomyces-like organism, 


96 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i, 


consisting of long, delicate, branching hyphae, with a well-developed aerial 
mycelium, and without any tendency to divide by septa into bacteria-like elements. 
It arises spontaneously in old cultures of the R-form of the s-type (not in the 
h-type), and its appearance does not seem to be influenced by external factors. 

The author wishes to express his best thanks to Professor O. U. Vonwiller, 
School of Physics, Sydney University, for kind assistance and advice in carrying 
out the experiments with ultraviolet radiation, and for placing the facilities of the 
Physics Laboratory at his disposal. 


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H 


98 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, i. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE III. 


Fig. 1.—IF. Dextrose-asparagine-solution, 9 d. room typt. (Carbol-fuchsin). 
Fig. 2.—IRh. Dextrose-nutrient-agar, 12 d. room tpt. (Carbol-fuchsin). Fig. 3.—IRs. 
Dextrose-nutrient-agar, 1 d. room tpt. (Carbol-fuchsin). Fig. 4.—Same. Dextrose- 
asparagine-agar, 12 d. room tpt. (Carbol-fuchsin). Fig. 5—Same. Potato, 13 d. room 
tpt. (Nigrosin). Fig. 6.—IIRs. Gelatin, 32 d. room tpt. (Nigrosin). Figs. 7, 8.—Same. 
Dextrose-broth, 4 d. 32° C. (Carbol-fuchsin). Fig. 9.—IRs. Dextrose-asparagine-agar, 
2 months room tpt. (Hot Carbol-fuchsin, differentiated with 20% H,SO,). Fig. 10.—Same. 
Potato, 13 days 32° C. (Nigrosin).—All photographs are taken with the Zeiss ‘‘Phoku’”’ 
apparatus x Apochr. 1:5 mm. N. Ap. 1:30. Magnifications x 750. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE Itt. 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. I. 
TALLONG—-BUNGONIA. 


By FRANK A. Crart, B.Se., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 
(Plates iv—vii; ten Text-figures.) 
[Read 29th April, 1931.] 


This is the first of a series of papers in which it is proposed to deal with 
the physiography of the Shoalhaven Valley, from the head of the river to a point 
some ten miles south-east of Tallong. This area of 2,600 square miles includes 
much broken and mountainous country which is difficult to traverse, and consider- 
able stretches of level plains. Areas such as that dealt with in the present paper, 
which are capable of yielding the most valuable information, are to be studied in 
detail, whilst others will be investigated by more general methods. The actual 
methods employed depend largely upon the nature of the country involved. 
Obviously any considerable physiographic survey in mountainous country is not 
practicable, and the absence of any feature survey over considerable areas of 
such country is a disadvantage. 

The writer wishes to thank the Surveyor-General and Mr. L. H. Bowler of the 
Lands Department for making maps and survey information available. In field- 
work, the help and hospitality of Mr. and Mrs. J. G. Hoare and family of Tallong 


Towra 
2845" G 


\ 


~ / 


<a YA 
BUNGONIAK—’a B 


Text-fig. 1—Locality Map of the Area. The Main Southern Highway passes 
through Marulan and Towrang. 


100 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, I, 


have been invaluable. Parts of the work incorporated in this paper have been 
discussed with Professors Cotton, Browne and Macdonald Holmes, to the latter 
of whom the inclusion of Text-figure 5 is due. 

Unless otherwise stated, all heights quoted are referred to sea-level, and the 
magnetic meridian is used throughout (declination = 9° 35’ E.). 


The Area Dealt With. (Text-figs. 3, 7.) 


Between Moss Vale and Goulburn, on the Main Southern Railway of New South 
Wales, there is an expanse of upland plains, with low ridges and tableland masses 
rising above the general level. In places the railway passes through fertile basalt 
country, but the general impression is one of sandy uplands and gentle stream 
valleys, the latter seeming to wind blindly into low hills. To the south are steep- 
sided gorges and ravines which have been carved by the Shoalhaven River in the 
course of its attack upon the highlands. These cannot be seen from the railway, and 
their presence is only appreciated when, in crossing an apparently unbroken plain, 
a traveller finds himself on the edge of a precipice with a stream many hundreds 
of feet below. 

In this part the Shoalhaven, previously following a northerly course, turns 
sharply eastward to enter the sea below Nowra. The outer side of the great 
elbow bend thus formed consists of the uplands observed from the railway, which 
continue southward to form extensive plains to the west of the river. The higher 
points exist because of the resistance which their component material offers to 
weathering and erosion and, their slopes having been exposed to the weather over 
great periods of time, their sides are littered with rock debris. 

The sides of the modern canyons are still very steep, and they either carry 
a thin covering of scree or consist of lightly-forested rock slopes. Such complex 
gorges as those found in the more dissected parts of the Blue Mountain Tableland 
are absent for, although the stream pattern is intricate, the tributaries have not 
cut back very far from the main gorge, which has a simple enough appearance 
when viewed from the uplands. 

The country on the concave side of the great elbow presents a very even 
skyline before the commencement of the eastward coastal fall, but its surface 
covering of almost horizontal sandstone has favoured the development of precipices 
along all of the steeper stream courses, making that part very difficult of access. 
The river has cut it off completely from the railway side, and thus forms an 
excellent natural boundary for purposes of survey, classification or description. 

Previous Literature—The chief published accounts of this area are those of 
Andrews (1904), Woolnough and Taylor (1906) and Woolnough (1909). In the 
second the authors postulate a previous connection between the Upper Shoalhaven 
and Wollondilly Rivers. This stream line, they state, was finally broken after the 
period of uplift which formed the modern plateau and allowed the present lower 
Shoalhaven to cut back and capture the stream which now forms its headwaters. 
Evidence for the existence of the stream line referred to depends on certain mature 
valleys, stream gravels and a breached divide on the uplands, the three being 
intimately associated. Taylor has also referred to Kangaroo River—a more 
easterly tributary of the lower Shoalhaven—as having flowed originally westward 
past Tallong to the postulated main stream. Andrews, the pioneer of Australian 
physiography, regarded the lower Shoalhaven as an eastward-flowing stream of 
considerable antiquity—a conclusion which would appear to be amply supported 
by the field evidence adduced here. 


BY F. A. CBAFT. 101 


The paper by Woolnough on the Geology of Tallong has been largely availed 
of, and Dr. Woolnough’s map is incorporated in Text-fig. 2. On the geological side 
reference may be made to recent accounts of Tertiary contact quartzites by Ida 
Brown (1926) and Waterhouse and Browne (1929). 

As regards physiography, detailed work has not been done over any part of 
the Shoalhaven Valley and, although Woolnough and Taylor’s capture hypothesis 
has been criticized, no alternative explanation has been published. 


Geology and Resistance to Erosion. (Text-fig. 2.) 

The physiography of the district has been greatly affected by the character 
and structure of the rocks. Systems ranging in age from Tertiary to Ordovician 
are represented, in addition to intrusive and volcanic igneous rocks. These may 
be classified for present purposes as follows: 

Tertiary.—Quartzites are found near flows of Tertiary basalt and in places 
from which basalt has presumably been eroded. This material has been referred 
to as Silicified Tertiary sands by Brown (1925), and has been described by 


WINCELLO 


[= =|Limestone 
(] starian @ 


Text-fig. 2.—Geological Sketch Map of the Area. Other details are shown on Plates v 
and vi, and Text-fig. 8. Triassic strata occur in the extreme north-east. 


Waterhouse and Browne (1929). The quartzite is generally white or light-grey 
in colour, is brittle, and generally breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It contains 
erystals of quartz up to a half-inch across, and is easily distinguished from the 
fine-grained and much more resistant older quartzites. It resists weathering much 
more than the overlying basalt, and is frequently found quite away from any 
surviving flows (Text-fig. 8). Notable occurrences of this latter type are to the 
west of Ballanya Trig. Station (2,000 feet); to the south of Jerrara Creek (1,950 
feet); on a hill near Bungonia Trig. Station (2,000 feet); and to the south of 
Bungonia Creek (1,870 to 1,970 feet). It will be seen that these occurrences 
correspond over a limited range, and compare with the base of the Caoura flow 


102 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


(between Tallowa Creek and the Shoalhaven River), which is below 1,850 feet 
on its eastern extremity. 

This quartzitic material is readily distinguished from older sandstones which 
have been invaded by intrusive rocks. Examples of these latter are found at 
Bungonia Trig. Station and on the Goulburn road, a mile and a half west of 
Bungonia at 2,020 feet. In these cases the sandstone is altered to quartzite in 
places and has been strongly jointed by pressure, thus breaking into irregular frag- 
ments. It contrasts with the porcelain-like Tertiary contact quartzite. 

The recognition of this Tertiary material is physiographically important, as 
it indicates surfaces which existed immediately before the period of basalt flows. 

Permian.—Triassic strata hardly occur in this area, although they are 
extensively developed to the north-east, the edge of the series probably being 
near Wingello. The Permian Upper Coal Measures and Upper Marine Series are 
extensively developed, but it is not easy to distinguish between the two, nor is it 
necessary from a physiographic point of view. At the base of the system near 
its western edge there are massive beds of conglomerate up to 400 feet thick 
(Woolnough), which dip gently northward and eastward, and give place to finer 
sediments. They form a resistant bank on the northern side of Barber’s Creek at 
Tallong, where they consist largely of subangular and rounded quartz pebbles 
up to 8 inches in diameter. They are shore-line deposits flanking older masses 
such as Ballanya Hill. A horizon of conglomerate, sandstone and grit in contact 
with old Palaeozoic rocks marks the base of the Upper Marine Series, and forms 
a level tableland on either side of the lower Shoalhaven (i.e., below Barber’s 
Creek). 

Above this horizon are shales, shaly sandstones and soft sandstones, some 
of them fine-grained sediments containing masses of quartzite and quartz-porphyry 
up to 2 feet in diameter, as at the head of Tallowa Creek. In this particular 
locality the softer rocks have surface impregnations of iron oxide and a limited 
covering of bauxite, both having been derived from Tertiary basalts and both 
helping to preserve a level surface to the tableland to the north of Tallowa Creek 
(Text-fig. 6). 

The pebbles of the conglomerates are mainly siliceous metamorphic types 
with a considerable amount of white reef-quartz. To the north of Barber’s Creek 
the conglomerate bank gives place to shales and sandstones with occasional 
pebble beds, the change being accompanied by more mature land forms at the 
head of Uringalla Creek. The master joints of these rocks are approximately 
north-south and east-west in direction, thus determining the major cliff lines above 
the modern gorges. 

Older Palaeozoic——Woolnough has described Silurian and Ordovician rocks 
in the neighbourhood of Marulan. The latter comprise highly-folded shales, slates, 
cherts and quartzites striking about N. 10° W., whilst the former include slates 
and limestones whose strike varies from north to N. 35° E. Their dip is about 
45° west, and they are overlain on the western side by Devonian slates, shales 
and quartzites with a similar dip. This conformity has been noticed further 
south at Windellama, and it is possible that both series are of Devonian age. 
These rocks have been intruded by granites, and their strike curves in sympathy 
with the boundaries of the intrusion. 

From the physiographic point of view the Devonian series is the most 
interesting, as the older strata have been reduced to form plains of low relief 
in the uplands, whilst the Devonian country is marked by the presence of high 


BY F. A. CBAFT. 103 


ridges. The older rocks are broken into small sections by intense jointing and 
this, added to their natural thin bedding, makes even the hardest of them quite 
susceptible to mechanical erosion. The Devonian strata, on the other hand, 
contain beds of massive quartzites separated by weaker slates, shales and lime- 
stones. Their edges have been exposed by folding and, as the result of prolonged 
erosion, the softer rocks have been removed to form a series of strike valleys 
(Text-fig. 7), whilst the quartzites stand up as parallel isoclinal ridges rising to 
800 feet above the valleys. 

Tgneous.—Reference has already been made to the basalts of the uplands. 
The Tertiary age ascribed to these depends on the evidence of plant remains found 
at their base at Wingello, Penrose and the Moss Vale district, and on this ground 
they are generally referred to as of Pliocene age. Physiographically they can 
be classed together, as they are found in valleys cut to a common depth of 300 
feet in a peneplain surface. They antedate the main uplifts which have produced 
the present tableland, as those have caused new cycles of erosion to come into 
existence and to be impressed on the old plain surfaces, of which the basalts form 
an integral part. 

A belt of acid intrusives extends from Tallong southward past Bungonia. It 
has been described by Woolnough as having a somewhat sill-like form with 
westerly underlie, although it is not a sill. He points out that, for the Marulan- 
Tallong area, the mass comprises granodiorite, which passes into dacite and 
quartz-porphyry towards the west. Acid types continue southward towards 
Bungonia, with fine-grained felsites on the eastern edge and quartz-porphyry to 
the west. The general effect of the intrusion has been to give a series of rocks 
which form undulating surfaces when exposed to weathering over long periods. 

From the behaviour of these various rocks when placed in juxtaposition and 
subjected to uniform attack by weathering and erosion, a fairly accurate idea of 
their total resistance to these forces may be gained. The outstandingly resistant 
members are the Devonian quartzites, whilst their associated shales and slates 
are strongly jointed, fissile and offer comparatively small resistance. Using this 
topographic basis, of which many illustrations will be found in the succeeding 
pages, we obtain this scheme, using a descending order of total resistance: 
(1) Massive Devonian quartzites; (ii) Ordovician quartzites and cherts: various 
cherts and jaspers; (iii) Tertiary quartzites: porphyries; (iv) Permian con- 
glomerates: Tertiary basalt: acid granite; (v) Granodiorite: Permian sandstones; 
(vi) Older Palaeozoic slates, shales and limestones: Permian shales. 


Topography and Physiography. 

i. Taliong (Plates v, vi; Text-figs. 3, 6, 9).—Referring to the topographic 
map it is seen that the vicinity of Tallong is a low maturely-dissected tableland. 
The double residual which forms Twin Trig. Station at 2,350 feet is capped with 
hard sandstone, and rises a clear 150 feet above the surrounding country at 
2,200 feet. This, in its turn, is 200 feet higher than the plains extending from 
Tallong toward Marulan. 

The area between Barber’s Creek and the main road is drained by Uringalla 
Creek, which flows in a series of broad, mature valleys up to 200 feet deep. The 
three heads of this stream form a beautiful drainage pattern, although this fact 
is obscured in the field by dense scrub growing in the fiat, alluviated bottoms. 
The hillsides are covered with sandy soil and pebble drift from the conglomerates 
which, in this part, are much weakened by the presence of soft shales and sand- 


104 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


stones, thus contrasting with the hard bank immediately to the north of Barber’s 
Creek. Of the three heads of Uringalla Creek ‘A’, whose valley is used by the 
main road, has a gentle grade into alluviated swampy plains up to a half-mile in 
width. “B” flows through a flat valley and, after heavy rain, it spreads a thin 


TALLONC 


Cooura 


Tallowa Ck] 
te 


iP me WIZ = 
OE iS 
Dig pee 


ik ‘aii 


10909 2000 Fr 
Disconaae loon ts — SS 


Horizontal. = 


Shoalha =i iver 


Text-fig. 3.—Block Diagram of the Tallong District. Note the upper tableland surface, 
the wide upland valleys and the Caoura basalt flow. 


covering of very fine mud over a width of 200 yards; passing the 2,000 feet 
contour its channel is more definite, although lost in beds of sword grass at 
intervals. The third head is known locally as “Chain of Ponds’, on account of 
four small ponds occurring in a bend off a quartzite inlier. The ponds are 
situated in thick, rich black soil at a place where much fine wash has been carried 
in from tributary valleys. Below this point the stream runs through narrow 
swamps on to a wide, marshy flat a little below 2,000 feet. Its course here is 
quite indefinite, but above the ponds a narrowing mature valley is found, through 
which the stream flows gently. 


The local base-level is slightly below 2,000 feet, and erosion has progressed 
to a point of equilibrium where the force of falling rain-water on the hillsides is 
insufficient to carry any but the finest material into the streams. 


Areas of flat ground with indefinite drainage are found in the continuous 
valley at the head of Marsh’s Creek. This small stream, with a slight advantage 
in grade over Uringalla “B”, is cutting slowly into the swamps. The divide 
between the Shoalhaven and Wollondilly waters has a minimum elevation here 
of 2,025 feet, and the conditions are those of mature dissection. The higher 
plain at 2,200 feet has been dissected to 2,000 feet, whilst the higher Twin 
residual points to the former existence of a still older and higher land surface. 


BY PF. A: CBABT: 105 


ii. Barber’s Creek—Eastern Valleys (Plates v, vi; Text-figs. 3, 6) —The basalt 
hills of Warrima and Bumballa slope gently northward and give place to wide 
valleys between 2,100 and 2,200 feet. These slopes act as the gathering grounds 
of Barber’s Creek, which is also greatly assisted by level swamps on sandstone 
country to the north-east. The hills around the eastern and southern edges of the 
basalt rise to 2,250 feet, and are marked by deposits of pisolitic bauxite containing 
a good deal of iron, the whole having been derived from the basalts and associated 
tuffs. This material extends southward over flat land to the edges of the gullies 
of George’s and Tallowa Creeks, these gullies being essentially post-basaltic 
features. A similar remark is equally applicable to’ the level, swampy valleys in 
which Barber’s Creek heads. 


It would appear that swamps existed on the pre-basaltic surface about the 
(modern) elevation of 2,200 feet and, after the extrusion of basalt and the forma- 
tion of the bauxite horizon at this level, Barber’s Creek has gradually reduced 
its headwater country in elevation and retains its original swampy nature in 
parts, whilst originally similar country to the south-east has been drained and 
dissected by steeper streams flowing to Tallowa Creek. 


Looking down the valley of Barber’s Creek from Warrima Trig. Station, a 
gentle and rather indefinite slope westward beyond Tallong is noticed, leading 
to the granite plains toward Marulan. Certain youthful features are developed 
on the floor of this valley, the main head streams having steep banks and cliffs 
on their northern sides. Their southern slopes are, however, much gentler, and 
the valleys have a slightly asymmetric character. The lowest point noticed on 
the western side of the Warrima basalt is on the base of the more northern 
isolated mass at 2,150 feet. Thus the original pre-basaltic slope from this part 
of the tableland to the granite plains at 2,000 feet must have been quite gentle. 


Taken as a whole, the upper valleys of Barber’s Creek show the higher levels 
being attacked by streams based on 2,000 feet, although the degree of maturity 
of dissection reached is not so great as in the case of the head streams of 
Uringalla Creek. Still, the divide between this part of the system and Digger’s 
Creek is quite low, being just below 2,100 feet. 

iii. Barber’s Creek—Western Valleys (Plate vi; Text-figs. 3, 4, 5, 8).—Passing 
down Barber’s Creek from Tallong the topography changes abruptly. That part 
of the stream which flows southward drains a valley two miles wide, lying between 
dissected strike ridges of ancient rocks (Text-fig. 4). Proceeding southward, this 
valley widens out to form a considerable plain extending for many miles on the 
western side of the Shoalhaven gorge. 


There are three tributary streams from the west—Tangeran and Marulan 
Creeks, and the indefinite stream which drains the flats lying east of Marulan. 
The latter heads between Barber and Shepherd Trig. Stations, and its upper 
courses are cutting back slowly into the low watershed, giving a gently-rounded 
topography. Proceeding down the valley towards Barhber’s Creek a level plain at 
2,000 feet is crossed, which is bounded on the north by a long, straight 
conglomerate ridge. The plain is covered with sandy and gravelly wash and the 
stream courses are, for the most part, quite indefinite. Going southward across 
the railway one passes on to a gently undulating slope, which falls from the 
metamorphic ridge on the west into Barber’s Creek. Granite tors and low knolls 
are features of the landscape which, in turn, give place to the broad valleys of 
Marulan and Tangeran Creeks. 


106 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


Pah 


Text-fig. 4.—Profiles: i. Showing the residuals, the Shoalhaven Plain and gorge; 

ii. Marulan to Bungonia, showing the upper slopes, the 2,000 foot plain and modern 

valleys in the plain surface; iii. Valley of Barber’s Creek; iv. The Barber ridge 

and tributaries of Barber’s Creek. Vertical exaggeration of i and ii = 8-8; of 
iii and iv = 5:9. 


The ridge on which Barber Trig. Station is situated forms a contrast to the 
surrounding couftry. Owing to its steeper and more rocky nature, combined 
with the poorness of its soil, it has been left uncleared, and stands out sharply 
above the surrounding clear plain. Head streams of Marulan Creek rise in gentle 
valleys on three sides of this ridge, those going to the east and south falling 
gently to the main stream, whilst those on the western side lead to considerable 
areas of barren flats. 

In these level valleys the soil covering on the lower slopes is up to 15 feet 
thick, the surface portion being light and sandy whilst the bottom portions are 
clayey, and contain a basal layer of pebbles up to 3 feet thick. Soil from the 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 107 


weathering hillsides has drifted over the pebble wash of the original stream 
beds. Above the 2,000 foot contour the pebble layer is not prominent, and the 
wash is only about 5 feet thick, whilst below 1,900 feet the streams run into 
gorges leading to Barber’s Creek. Following the destruction of the ‘original 
trees, the ravages of rabbits and the stocking of the country, these areas of drift 
along the stream courses are being eroded rapidly, and the good land is being 
invaded by a network of gullies. 


One of the most striking features of Marulan Creek is its great erosive power 
in time of flood. The channel is from 10 to 30 yards wide and, for the greater 
part of its length, it is strewn with rock fragments. Cubes and more irregular 
pieces of fresh granite with edges up to 2 feet have been torn from the stream 
bed, and are carried freely by flood waters. The ruling grade of this stream is 
1 in 90. Tangeran Creek is similar to this stream, and both are notable for the 
precipitous gorges through which they fall to the main stream. 


Text-fig. 5—Average Profile for the basin of Barber’s Creek. Altitude is shown 

in feet above sea-level. The total area concerned is 33:4 square miles, and the graph 

demonstrates the first stage in the dissection of a mature tableland surface, the 

steep lower slope representing the canyons which have been cut as the result of 
recent uplift. 


Falling to Barber’s Creek from the east there are small streams which are 
similar to those on the western side, the most notable being Dog Trap Creek. 
This rises on clay flats to the east of Ballanya Trig. Station, and passes across 
the ridge line in a narrow, mature valley. Its course over weathered granodiorite 
is true to type, but its sediments are better differentiated than those of Marulan 
Creek. A typical section 800 yards above Barber’s Creek reveals 8 feet of sandy 
drift resting on 1 foot of small quartzite pebbles and angular fragments which, in 
turn, overlie white clay. The small streams further south are similar, but lack 
the quartzite pebbles in their drift. 


Turning to Barber’s Creek itself, we find the greater part of this section 
entrenched in a deep gorge whose sides are perpendicular in places. The head 
of erosion is marked by waterfalls aggregating 300 feet in height but, above the 
head of the falls, a narrow trench 100 feet deep extends back for some 300 yards 
into the undulating valley. This would appear to be due to local vertical down- 
cutting resulting from the increased horizontal velocity of the water as it 
‘approaches the steeper grade downstream, although the grade in the section so 


108 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


affected only changes very gradually. This feature is found above most of the 
waterfalls on the edge of our plateau scarp. ‘ 


Having obtained some idea of the appearance of this section, we may now 
survey its physiography. The higher tableland levels at 2,200 feet which are 
found to the east only exist here as isolated ridges. The predominant level is 
that based on 2,000 feet (Text-fig. 5), including those plains by the railway at a 
slightly lower elevation. The country at the heads of the western tributaries 
rises gently to 2,100 feet, but is part of the same gentle slopes. The plain has 
been cut into by a series of gentle valleys whose floors are covered with deep well- 
differentiated drift, itself indicative of mature and stable conditions. Remains 
of silicified sands and conglomerates occur on the eastern side at 2,000 feet, and 
would appear to have been associated with the basalt flows, thus giving an indica- 
tion of the age of part, at least, of this valley. 


The present maturity of the landscape when compared with the country 
further east is closely associated with its geology for, as Browne (1928) again 
emphasizes, granites may weather to a considerable depth before actually being 
subjected to the active forces of erosion. Such a process has not affected the 
surrounding sedimentary rocks so, when the plain at 2,200 or 2,300 feet was first 
subjected to erosion, great quantities of the weathered granite would be readily 
eroded, leaving the chemically inactive rocks as residuals. 


But, despite this variation in the amount of denudation, the streams operating 
on different rocks have cut down to a common level, from 200 to 300 feet below 
the surface of the original plain, and the great widening of the lower valley of 
Barber’s Creek and the valleys of its tributaries has been accomplished since this 
level was reached. This process is still continuing, and even the porphyries to the 
west of Marulan are being attacked readily because, in many places, their ground- 
mass has been decomposed to a soft clay to some depth below the surface. 


This part of the area is of particular interest in that the older plain, now 
at 2,200 feet, is well preserved in the horizontal sedimentary rocks, whilst its 
distinctive character in the rocks liable to extensive pre-erosional rotting has 
been largely destroyed. The wide valleys may be classed as “mature’”—or even, 
perhaps, as part of an incomplete peneplain—but the narrower valleys about the 
head of Uringalla Creek are quite as ancient, and the streams have cut their 
divides down almost to the 2,000 foot level, which is the common local base. 


iv. Digger’s Creek.—The greater part of the course of this small stream is 
in a deep gorge. The principal drainage area is crossed by the Tallong to Caoura 
road, where the deep soils covering the slopes between 2,000 and 2,200 feet store 
up a good deal of water and give a small permanent flow. On the western side, 
Dog Trap Creek takes part of the drainage which one would expect to go into 
Digger’s Creek, especially as the gorge of the latter has almost reached the 
indefinite, soft divide which separates the two runs. 


At the point where the stream begins to fall there are beds of level alluvial 
material containing somewhat rounded fragments of quartzite from the hillsides 
to the south-east. This material has a thickness of 5 to 10 feet, and its surface 
at 1,990 feet comes right to the edge of a trench, 100 feet deep, which marks the 
commencement of the gorge. Above this fall in the modern stream-bed there are 
small aggradation flats in the concave stream bends between 1,960 and 1,990 feet, 
from which a little gold has been won. 


Eby i, A, CARI, 109 


On the western or Ballanya side the local 1,990 foot level is continued as a 
pebble horizon (Plate vi, inset). The pebbles are up to 2 feet in diameter and 
consist mainly of brown sandstone and quartzite of ellipsoidal shape which have 
been derived from solid conglomerate resting on an agglomerate base at 1,950 feet. 
Underlying rocks are slates and quartzites, and angular masses of these pass 
upward into the horizontal strata and some of the pieces, weathered from the 
surrounding material, are found in the small stream channels. Above the con- 
glomerate there is a fine-grained ferruginous sandstone and grit containing small 
pieces of white reef-quartz above which, and up to 2,050 feet, the slopes are covered 
with sandy soil containing quartz and quartzite pebbles up to 5 inches in diameter. 


This deposit probably represents an outlier of the Upper Marine Series, other 
relics of a slightly different character occurring about the older rocks (Text-fig. 8). 
Standing on the loose surface pebbles above the gorge of Digger’s Creek and 
looking northward, the pebble and conglomerate bed is seen to be enclosed on all 
except the gorge side by a low bank. Part of this is a spur from Ballanya Trig. 
Station, and forms the divide between Digger’s and Dog Trap Creeks. Excavations 
for a water supply tunnel across this ridge at 2,050 feet have disclosed the presence 
of the older folded slates, which are weathering to a white clay, and which are 
strewn over by quartz drift as one approaches the head of the gorge. 


Passing from this ridge down the valley of Dog Trap Creek one finds the 
lowest part of the divide at 2,030 feet, and the westward fall is over flats of 
fine clay. A uniformly gentle fall leads to.the edge of the granite country at 
2,000 feet, where the stream flows over a bar of white quartzite to emerge on 
the plain. 


The gorge of Digger’s Creek is steep-sided and rough, and the activity of the 
stream has resulted in the deposition of a bank of detritus at its junction with 
the Shoalhaven River. The considerable size of this gorge when compared with 
that of Barber’s Creek—a much more powerful stream—is readily accounted for 
by the fact that it is cut parallel to the strike of the Ordovician slate in which 
it exists, whilst the gorge of the latter stream is cut in massive and comparatively 
fresh granodiorite. 


The main points of note in this section are the conglomerate relics, which 
had been described by Woolnough and Taylor (1906) as fairly recent stream 
gravel, and the flats at the head of the stream formed as the result of erosion in 
the edge of the Permian series. In fact, the periphery of these strata is marked 
by a continuous valley extending northward to the Wollondilly basin. 


v. The Area of Basalt Flows (Plates v, vi; Text-figs. 3, 6 and 10).—The basalts 
of Warrima and Bumballa probably represent original centres of extrusion, and 
there may be others in the neighbourhood of Badgery’s Lookout (fide Woolnough, 
1909, and Geology Dept. of the University). There is a possibility that some 
basalt came from the direction of Warrima and contributed towards the flow 
which extends from Badgery’s Lookout to Caoura Trig. Station (Plate v), but, 
so far as physiography is concerned, the origin of the Caoura flow is not a matter 
of great importance. 


The head of Tallowa Creek occupies a broad valley cut in the eastern flank 
of the Warrima basalt but, near Bumballa, the stream runs into a rough gully 


110 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


200 feet deep which is surmounted by sandstone cliffs up to 60 feet high (not 
shown on the contour map). Small tributary runs have formed bays on either 
side of the main gully, and these conditions continue until George’s Creek is 
reached. On the northern side of its valley is a steep bank, but the southern 
slopes are quite gentle (Text-fig. 6). This valley is incised 300 feet below the 
bauxite level, and its width is due to its being eroded in soft sandstones and shales. 

Below this stream Tallowa Creek flows into a characteristic gully. On its 
northern side is a flat hill at 2,100 feet which slopes uniformly into the creek. 
To the south are sandstone terraces at 1,800 to 1,950 feet, which are surmounted 
by basalt. Passing a mile downstream the basalt comes almost to the creek in 
a place where both sides of the gully are quite gentle. Here there is also an 
extensive terrace on the northern side, which ends abruptly against a steep bank 
150 feet high. The second hill on this side forms a distinct peninsula and, on 
either side of the gully, terraces are well developed between 1,850 and 1,900 feet. 
Here the gully is becoming a gorge, and the horizontal sandstones are under- 


Twin Barbers Ck. 


HEN 
PR aa 
EZ 


/ 


Text-fig. 6.—Profiles across the eastern basalt flows. Note the 2,200 foot plain, 
the Twin residual, the basalt-filled valley and the valleys due to post-basaltic 
erosion. Basalts are hatched. Vertical exaggeration = 5:9. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. Wali 


lain by hard porphyries through which the stream is cutting. Essentially similar 
conditions continue eastward to the junction of Tallowa with Bundanoon Creek 
and the Kangaroo River. Four miles east of Caoura Trig. Station the terrace has 
fallen to 1,500 feet, and the gentle fall continues eastward. 


Let us now consider the actual basalt flow. The western end is a level 
plain and, where small streams falling to the Shoalhaven have trenched it, they 
reveal the base to lie at, or possibly below, 1,950 feet, giving an existing maximum 
thickness of at least 130 feet. As the result of erosion, there have been developed 
at this end steep banks which stand above the cliff edges of the Shoalhaven 
gorge, though a little back from it. Off the edge of the flow there has been 
considerable contact metamorphism giving a glassy quartzite up to 6 feet in thick- 
ness, aS in the creek bed to the east of the Lookout. These contacts are valuable 
as defining the limits of the valley which the basalt has filled and are, in general, 
close to the former edge of the flow. Remnants of lateral valleys are preserved in 
places. This part of the flow is of square shape with sides a mile in length. 


Continuing eastward parallel to Tallowa Gully the width of the flow diminishes, 
although the generally plain character of its surface persists between converging 
hills. At the first constriction the basalt is only 400 yards wide, although contacts 
point to a former width of 700 yards. Here a ridge of soft sandstone and shale 
rises southward to a height of 140 feet above the basalt surface. Still proceeding 
east we find that three transverse streams have cut right across the flow, giving 
two isolated masses with an appearance not unlike that of huge pancakes. The 
line of maximum thickness here trends south-east and north-west and, although the 
absolute thickness of the basalt is obscured by drift from the steep crowning 
banks, it is not less than 150 feet, and the lowest part of the base is, at most, 
1,850 feet above sea-level. : 


Passing these isolated areas, the line is found to continue for two miles to 
Caoura Trig. Station and the flow preserves a fair width, although it is almost cut 
across in places. The northern edge is defined with some certainty by contacts 
from 1,900 feet upwards, and erosion has apparently removed a maximum width 
at the constriction. The southern edge is by no means as certain because, as 
the quartzite hill near Ruse’s Creek (1,700 yards SW. of Caoura Trig.) shows, 
erosion has played a considerable part. The maximum thickness of the basalt 
seems to be 200 feet near Caoura Trig., where an almost precipitous bank over- 
looks the head of Bullangalong Creek. The outlier to the south-east of the 
trigonometrical station and immediately above the Shoalhaven cliffs is probably 
a branch of the main flow, which points towards the place where Bullangalong 
Creek crosses the cliffs of the Shoalhaven gorge. Isolated relics further east 
(“White’s Selection’) also point towards this locality. 


The basalt is thus found to occupy a definite valley, both commencing and 
ending above the main gorge (Plate v). The original valley is well preserved, 
and exists to the present day as a definite topographic feature through the greater 
part of its original length. Between this valley and the Shoalhaven cliffs is an 
area of plain country between 2,000 and 2,100 feet, which has been maturely 
dissected by the head streams of Ruse’s Creek (marked 1, 2, 3 and 4 on the map), 
and to a much less extent by other smaller streams. 


Of the heads of Ruse’s Creek, 4 and the upper parts of 2 are lateral streams; 
3 may have been a transverse stream, whilst 1 is not connected with the basalt. 


112 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


The four valleys unite to form a broad, irregular amphitheatre, and they are 
mature to 1,750 feet (Text-fig. 10); 1, 2 and parts of 4 are well graded with 
alluviated courses and stretches of swamp, and they flow in U-shaped valleys. On 
the south of 1 is a line of hills overlooking the river, and cut off sharply by great 
precipices; 1 and the Shoalhaven River are horizontally equidistant from this 
line of hills. 


The western head of Bullangalong Creek flows in a rather similar valley to 
the preceding, but its sides are higher and steeper. This section was probably a 
transverse stream. To the west of Ruse’s Creek the land is crossed by gentle 
stream beds which only become entrenched near the edge of the cliffs. 


We may now consider the development of the topography, beginning with the 
more recent forms. 


The valleys to the south of the basalt flow are necessarily post-basaltic. This 
also applies to the transverse valleys falling to Tallowa Creek and to the sand- 
stone benches along that stream. It may also be stated that the valley now 
occupied by basalt originally fell into the Shoalhaven about the vicinity of the 
modern Bullangalong Creek, and that the upper part of Tallowa Creek—at least 
that part within the basalt flow section—is more recent than the basalts. This 
latter is, in fact, separated from the wider and lower parts of the terraces by a 
neck of high land to the east of Caoura. 


In the case of the mature and sub-mature valleys above the river, we have 
a clear differentiation between them and the great gorge to which their streams 
fall, and their lower parts are now being attacked with considerable force, causing 
the recession of cliffs and waterfalls and the development of more youthful 
features. 


The basalt flow itself is seen to occupy a linear valley whose original character- 
can be inferred from the maps and sections (see Text-fig. 6). In form it was 
approaching maturity, and would appear to have resembled the upland valley of 
Digger’s Creek in having broad and level sections connected by a narrower 
channel. The steep bank on the northern side of Tallowa Creek would appear 
to be the old valley side considerably steepened by erosion. Its recession has not 
been uniform, but the presence of outstanding “capes” is probably due to locally 
hard patches in the surface covering of sandstone. To get the pre-basaltic profiles 
we may take a gentle slope from the 2,200 foot plain on the northern side to the 
present northern edge of the basalt, so that it coincides with the inward-dipping 
contact quartzite. The southern side is still fairly well preserved in its central 
section, and the destruction of the original northern profile measures the post- 
basaltic erosion. 


We have thus come back to pre-basaltic conditions, where the 2,200 foot 
plain was trenched by a simple valley to a depth of 350 feet, whose sides were 
being attacked by tributary streams. That this process had not gone very far is 
shown by the ground plan of the basalt-filled valley, which has no important 
branches. On the higher plain to the north erosion has also progressed in two 
stages. The head of Tallowa Creek is in a mature post-basaltic valley which is 
now being attacked by the streams with the resultant formation of a steep gully 
(Text-fig. 6). The 2,000 foot level is represented in the neighbourhood of Badgery’s 
Lookout, but not so definitely as in the case of Barber’s Creek. The basalt-filled 


° 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 113 


valley with increasing depth eastward seems to represent a distinct phase in 
erosion below 2,000 feet, this stage having been continued towards maturity 
by Ruse’s and Bullangalong Creeks. 


Using 2,200 feet as zero, a comparison between the physiographic forms dealt 
with up to the present may be made: 


Cycle or Vertical 
Feature. Part Cycle. Height. Comparative Age. 
Residuals Lec e OM  e aie ation mat il JE aL Pre-basaltic 
Tableland yal A eae eee Leo ie Beer 2 0 Pre-basaltic 
Valley of Barber’s Creek .. 3 — 200’ Pre-basaltic 
(Since extended) 

DIE SCTIS Meeks. Se be), de 3 —160’ Pre-basaltic 
Valley between Lookout and Caoura 4 — 350’ Pre-basaltic 
Terraces of Tallowa .. teas 4 — 400’ Post-basaltic 
Ruse’s and Bullangalong Creeks er 4 — 500’ Post-basaltic 
Upper levels of Tallowa Creek, 4 miles 

MOLEC AOULA, ci. Mee ar ese. cae 6 4 — 700’ Post-basaltic 
Canyon of Shoalhaven River .. .. .. 5 — 1900’ Post-basaltic 


Of these cycles or part cycles of erosion, only traces of the first remain; the 
second was completed, and its effects have been largely obscured by the third. 
The fourth and fifth are notably incomplete, the effect of the former in particular 
virtually being confined to the country east of Barber’s Creek, and being more 
pronounced as one goes further eastward. The conclusion is that erosive forces 
have operated towards the east and have either not been applicable to the west 
on account of essentially different conditions of elevation, or did not have time 
to push further westward before the cutting of the canyons as they exist at 
present. The remarkable topographic uniformity of the tableland surface between 
the Wollondilly River and the Illawarra coastal highlands, when taken in 
conjunction with the forms already described in this paper, certainly suggests 
uniform normal uplift, and the balance of evidence is in favour of the latter 
alternative of extra part-cycles towards the coast. 


There is also a definite suggestion that the last stages in the elevation of the 
plateau involved an essentially constant uplift of the order of 1,000 feet, thus 
allowing for the difference between the base-level of the modern gorges (i.e. sea- 
level), and a former base-level now represented by the lowest limits of part-cycle 
4. In other words, base-level has remained constant within narrow limits, but 
the old surfaces have been uplifted. 


In all this it must be remembered that Caoura is only 25 miles from Nowra, 
and although that town is 15 miles from the sea, the nature and extent of the 
deltaic deposits below it suggest that the Shoalhaven River at Nowra has been 
at sea-level over a very long period of time, and the forces of erosion have had 
ideal conditions for their attack on the immediate hinterland, from which the 
softer surface material has been removed during pauses in the uplift, giving a 
distinctive series of part-cycles of erosion which disappear as one goes westward. 

it 


114 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


vi. The Bungonia Creek System (Text-figs. 4, 7, 8, 10)—On the western side 
of the Shoalhaven gorge there is an extensive plain up to 8 miles in width which 
is dominated by high residual ridges. The river itself is deeply entrenched in this 
plain, and some of its tributaries have cut sharply into the sides of the main 
gorge. The westward ridges are broken and rocky but, as most of them have 
been breached by streams, they are by no means inaccessible. It is convenient 
to discuss these separately from the plain. 


fi 
iyo 


IW 


=a 


Sis YY =i 
Shoalhaven 


Ae, 
Ee 
River 


Text-fig. 7—Block Diagram of the Bungonia Creek System. Note the residuals 
in westward-dipping rocks on the west, the Shoalhaven Plain in the centre, and 
3 the modern gorges on the east. 


a. The Residual Ridges—These owe their existence to the hard and resistant 
nature of the quartzite of which they are composed. The strata dip west at an 
average angle of 45 degrees, so the phenomenon of alternating dip slopes and 
scarps gives equal eastward and westward slopes. Interbedded with these harder 
rocks are less resistant shales and slates and a bed of limestone, which have been 
generally—although not uniformly—weathered away to form a series of deep 
valleys. The topography thus suggests a series of rather sharp waves whose 
axes are parallel to the strike and are, therefore, meridional. 


The master ridge lies to the east of Gundary Creek and includes the heights 
of Gundary and Towrang Trig. Stations. In structure it is synclinal, with the 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 115 


steeper limb on the eastern side. It forms the western watershed of Jerrara and 
Bungonia Creeks and separates those streams from the Wollondilly waters 
although, near Towrang, it is entirely within the Wollondilly system. On the 
eastern side of this master ridge, which rises to 2,845 feet, there are three 
lower ridges varying from 2,400 to 2,530 feet. They are cut across by the main 
streams, whose tributaries have eroded deep strike valleys between them. Divides 
between these latter are quite low and easily travelled. Passing eastward we reach 
another high ridge, highest at Vessey Trig. where it reaches 2,842 feet, and 
falling both to the north and south. Here the prevailing quartzite is relieved by 
the presence of fossiliferous breccia. 


The Vessey ridge is buttressed on its eastern side by two shorter and lower 
ridges at 2,600 and 2,300 feet respectively whose central points are joined by lower 
cross ridges forming the starting points of short meridional valleys. Those on the 
north fall to Stony Creek, whilst the more southerly enter the valley of Jerrara 
Creek. These ridges mark the eastern boundary of the quartzite strata, and where 
the zone of intrusive quartz-porphyries is reached, the country falls in a series 
of poorly-defined terraces at 2,200 and 2,100 feet to the Shoalhaven Plain. 


Of the streams which flow through the residual country Jerrara Creek is 
the most notable. Rising on the eastern side of the master ridge in a flat- 
bottomed valley at 2,250 feet, it flows eastward past the three lower ridges, 
and crosses the western limestone belt at 1,960 feet, having come through a 
mature valley. Looking upstream from the limestone belt at Pearce’s homestead, 
a distinct terrace at 2,100 feet is observed, about 100 feet above the modern stream 
flats. This higher level extends to 400 yards on either side of the stream, and 
forms a notable minor feature. 


A small stream comes along the limestone from the west of Vessey Trig., and 
flows through a flat-bottomed valley a mile and a half long. Only the lower 700 
yards are actually in limestone, which disappears northward and is replaced by 
shales. Where it does occur, its eastern edge is marked by bluffs of impure 
haematite and limonite rising to 30 feet above their bases. These are the result 
of concentration of oxides of iron from the limestone and neighbouring slates at 
the base of the westward-dipping limestone, part of which has since been removed 
by solution. This valley lies between 2,000 and 2,150 feet, and it is separated 
from Narambull’s Creek by a col at 2,300 feet which joins Vessey with the west- 
ward ridge at 2,530 feet. 


Narambull’s Creek falls gently through a widening valley to Shelley Flat on 
the Southern Highway, and past there to the Wollondilly. 


The western limestone belt can be traced to Spring Ponds Creek, about 2 miles 
south of Jerrara Creek, between which two streams it and the associated slates 
are responsible for a lower place in the divide at 2,160 feet. Below this limestone 
Jerrara Creek passes on to slates and quartzites. The hills close in and the 
stream flats and terraces disappear for some hundreds of yards (Plate iv, fig. 2) 
as the stream crosses the hard strata of the Vessey mass, which stands up grim 
and solid on the northern side. After passing this harder bar at a gentle grade, 
the stream flows into a wider valley with flats up to 400 yards wide on the left 
bank at an elevation of 1,950 feet. These continue downstream for a half-mile, 
the country on either side becoming progressively lower. Then once again the 
valley. narrows, and the flats almost disappear as the stream cuts through the hard 


116 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


western edge of the porphyries. These conditions continue for half a mile, after 
which the stream emerges on to extensive levels at 1,920 feet. Here it follows a 
gentle course through sandy drift about 4 feet deep overlying beds of water-worn 
pebbles, consisting of quartzite and quartz-porphyry. The material is roughly 
stratified, and is being eroded rapidly following the removal of trees from the 
banks. From this point there is a gentle fall past the Bungonia road, this part 
of the stream being in a late mature valley on the Shoalhaven Plain. It will be 
seen that the topography of this creek is that of an ancient stream which has 
been flowing across rocks of vastly differing degrees of hardness over a long period 
of time. 

On the northern side of the Vessey mass are the valleys of Stony Creek at 
2,200 feet which, like those of Jerrara Creek, have been determined in their 
upper courses by the prevailing rock strike. The main stream turns south- 
eastward to fall across the Bungonia road at 2,030 feet to its junction with 
Jerrara Creek at 1,800 feet. The Vessey ridge forms its western divide, and the 
ridges between the tributaries rise from 2,250 feet on the east to 2,500 feet on 
the west. 


The heads of Spring Ponds and Bungonia Creeks are also in the ridge 
country. The former rises in level valleys between 2,000 and 2,050 feet, the 
two main heads being separated by a ridge 200 feet higher. Its main course is 
across the plain. Many of the head streams of Bungonia Creek also rise in level 
valleys in the ridge country at 2,100 feet, but they flow past the ridges where 
the latter are much lower and less impressive than in the case of Jerrara Creek. 
By far the greater part of the course of this stream lies on the plain, across which 
it flows in a shallow trench up to 100 feet deep. 


vb. The Shoalhaven Plain—Looking eastward from the heights about Vessey 
Trig., an extensive plain is seen to extend on either side of the Shoalhaven River, 
that part on the western side of the gorge being a little lower than the eastern 
section. This plain includes the lower parts of the basins of Barber’s, Bungonia 
and Nerrimunga Creeks, and is marked by low relief and very subdued divides. 
It forms a striking contrast to the ridge country and, upon examination, it dis- 
closes a long and varied history. 


The dividing ridge between Barber’s and Stony Creeks rises to 2,265 feet at 
Morris Trig. Station, although the greater part is about 2,200 feet. The slopes 
of this ridge are gentle, and quite characteristic of granite country. The valley 
of Stony Creek falls uniformly to the south of this ridge and the course of the 
stream at 1,850 feet half a mile above its junction with Jerrara Creek discloses 
an entrenchment of the order of 100 feet in the level surrounding plain. The 
stream course is rocky, and is marked by small aggradation flats and boulders. 


Jerrara Creek follows a very broad valley after emerging from the hills, and 
falls from 1,900 to 1,800 feet before plunging into a ravine through which it falls 
to Bungonia Creek. On either side of this stream the ground rises gently to form 
a plain at 2,000 feet—the general level of the “Shoalhaven Plain” (Text-fig. 4). 
This surface extends southward past Bungonia, where it is drained by Spring 
Ponds and Bungonia Creeks, the former being entrenched nearly 150 feet in a 
broad valley at its junction with the latter. The course of Bungonia Creek is 
sufficiently varied to deserve special attention. 


When the limestone belt is crossed above Bungonia at 1,900 feet, the stream 
flows in a mature valley in the 2,000 foot plain. The limestone is associated with 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 117 


sandstone, quartzite, grit and shale, which rest on granite and dip westward from 
10 to 20 degrees, forming a low bluff on the right bank. Entering the zone of 
intrusive rocks the valley becomes narrower, but the stream continues to fall 
gently in a wide, sandy channel to 1,860 feet at Bungonia bridge. Beyond here 
the valley broadens again, and continues through weathered granite past the 
junctions of Spring Ponds and Ryan’s Creeks, the latter entering about 1,770 feet. 
Half a mile further down is a sharp bend to the north-west, and the stream falls 
50 feet to an elevation of 1,710 feet through a narrow ravine cut in dense felsite. 
This entry into fresher and more resistant rocks is marked by a corresponding 
increase in the steepness of the valley sides, although the fall during the next 
mile is only 50 feet and the floor of the valley is 100 yards wide. At this stage 
the depth of entrenchment is almost 300 feet, but only the lower half is 
represented by very steep slopes. 


There is a fall of 160 feet in the next half-mile through a narrowing and 
steepening gorge, which finally becomes inaccessible with precipitous sides when 
the stream. has fallen to 1,600 feet. Above the junction of Jerrara and Bungonia 
Creeks there is a notable series of waterfalls on either stream, and the ravines 
above the falls are deep and exceedingly narrow. Below their junction the water- 
falls continue, but the gorge has assumed a more usual “V” shape with a depth 
of some 1,400 feet above the eastern limestones. Where it crosses the main belt 
of (blue) limestone, almost the whole depth of the gorge is represented by a 
magnificent ravine with perpendicular sides, but it widens considerably towards 
the Shoalhaven. A mile below the limestone the stream makes an accordant 
junction with the Shoalhaven River somewhat below 450 feet above sea-level. In 
time of flood the power of these streams is enormous, but they only cut down- 
wards and backwards comparatively slowly through dense and unweathered rocks. 
In the stream channels the rocks are smoothed and polished by the abrasive 
action of water-borne material. 


Ryan’s Creek, a tributary of Bungonia Creek, rises near Chapman Trig. 
Station and follows the blue limestone northward through a broad U-shaped valley. 
Between the Inverary Park road and Bungonia Creek, a distance of 4 miles, it 
falls 130 feet. The ridge separating it from Bungonia Creek is capped with 
ancient sandstone, and has an elevation of 2,000 to 2,050 feet. Bungonia Creek 
cuts across the ridge from the west just above the junction of Ryan’s Creek, and 
swings out of the limestone about a mile further on, so the strike ridge to the 
west of the limestone is cut in two by this stream, the eastern half continuing 
to the Lookdown. Near the Lookdown, the limestone belt is marked by a number 
of sink-holes and a series of small caves. 


On the eastern side of this limestone belt, and separating it from the slopes 
leading to the Shoalhaven, there is a ridge composed of chert and jasper at an 
elevation of 2,100 to 2,150 feet. This extends southward from the head of Beck’s 
Creek, and apparently represents part of the crumpled Ordovician formation 
although here, on its western side, the Ordovician zone is much less twisted and 
broken than is the case below Barber’s Creek on the Shoalhaven. The general dip 
on this western extremity is westward. The limestone itself dips westward at 
45 to 55 degrees, but at some places, as on the Inverary Park road to the east 
of Ryan’s Creek, it rests upon slates dipping very steeply eastward. 

Ridges leading from this line of hills towards the Shoalhaven exhibit level 
stretches at 1,900 feet as they approach the river. This terrace has, of course, 


118 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


been greatly dissected, but it is a uniform feature on the western side of the 
river for some miles above the Lookdown, and might possibly be correlated with 
the eastern part of the valley of Jerrara Creek or the basalt-filled valley of Caoura. 


This part of the Shoalhaven Valley is, then, a plain at 2,000 feet, in which 
broad, mature valleys have been cut to a maximum depth of 200 feet. It has been 
trenched by the canyons of the Shoalhaven and tributary streams, the latter 
of which are now cutting back from the main gorge. 


[:-=] Cong. Outliers 
do. Drift 
Eeasalt 


=~ 


e+] do. Contacts | 


Text-fig. 8—Map showing conglomerate relics, contact quartzites and basalts. 
Compare with Text-fig. 2. 


c. Conglomerates and Contact Quartzites (Text-fig. 8).—The plain has two 
features which make it especially noteworthy in the remains of pebble con- 
glomerates and the presence of occasional glassy quartzites similar to those found 
in contact with the Caoura basalts. The quartzites have already been mentioned, 
but further details might not be amiss. The principal occurrences are: 


1. Capping a hill 700 yards NW. of Bungonia Trig. Station. Elevation 2,000 feet. 
Thickness 10 feet. Extent (approx.) half an acre. 
2. On Bungonia-Marulan road, 800 yards south of Jerrara Creek. Quartzite and 


indurated conglomerate on the hillside at 1,950 feet cover about an acre and 
a half. The covering is superficial, and overlies white clay from porphyries. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 119 


3. To the east of Bungonia Creek between 1,870 and 1,970 feet. The occurrence is 
about the western edge of the limestone a mile SW. of the Lookdown. The 
meridional length of the occurrence is 500 yards, and the maximum width 
300 yards. The thickness is doubtful, but must be several feet in places. 

4. On the ridge between and above Bungonia and Jerrara Creeks at 1,950 feet. 
The outcrop has a length of 600 yards, but the width rarely exceeds 20 yards. 
It is replaced towards the south by quartz pebble drift. 

5. On hillsides to the west of Ryan’s Creek, and an erratic on the plain to the 
east. Elevation 1,830 feet. These pieces are probably the product of weather- 
ing from higher levels, the material on which they originally rested having 
been dissolved away. 

6. Pieces of silicified conglomerate in the valley of Spring Ponds Creek on the 
-Goulburn-Bungonia road. Elevation 2,010 feet. The occurrence is not extensive. 


All of these occurrences are purely surface features developed under favourable 
conditions, either on sandy soil, sandstone or weathering conglomerate. They 
are entirely distinct from the partially altered sandstones found near the top 
of the granitic intrusion, or the massive quartzite contact series found on the sides 
of the intrusion at a considerably lower level. A fine example of the latter is a 
greenish-quartzite bluff 100 feet high which overlooks the junction of Bungonia 
and Jerrara Creeks from the north-west. 


It seems certain that the six occurrences noted are similar in origin to those 
near the Caoura flow—they owe their existence to basalt flows which have 
passed over the old land surface, here about 2,000 feet. Their closeness to ancient 
streams, together with the presence of elevated basalts at Inverary Park with a 
base at 2,060 feet overlooking the valleys of Ryan’s and Bungonia Creeks, adds 
weight to the suggestion that these quartzites were associated with now-eroded 
basalt flows, and mark a part of the late Tertiary land surface. 


Turning now to the conglomerate relics, we find them to be much more wide- 
spread, although the greater part is probably a surface screening only which has 
come down from disintegrated strata at a somewhat higher level in the natural 
process of vertical wasting. The principal occurrences are: 

1. Conglomerate strata and drift on the divide between Jerrara Creek, on the 
one hand, and Spring Ponds and Bungonia Creeks on the other. The elevation 
varies from 2,010 feet to 1,950 feet (and may be even lower) on the Bungonia- 
Marulan road. Portion of this material at the lower level has been indurated. 
The remainder rests on porphyritic rocks and appears to be horizontal. It 
contains pebbles of white reef-quartz, brown and grey quartzite, grey chert, 
jasper and quartz-porphyry—all locally derived material. The pebbles are 
somewhat rounded, and their major diameter varies from one to six inches. 
This drift continues northward along the ridge between 1,950 and 2,000. feet, 
and extends over a length of three miles and a half. Similar material is found 
on the opposite side of Spring Ponds Creek at a similar elevation. 


2. Pebble conglomerates are found above Bungonia Creek at 1,960 and 2,030 feet. 
They are ferruginous, and contain quartz, sandstone and quartzite pebbles with 
a diameter up to 8 inches. In general they are well rounded and the material, 
on the whole, resembles that found south-west of Ballanya Trig. Station. 
The surface upon which they rest is of slight relief, and consists of decomposed 
granite overlooking the left bank of the stream a short distance below the 
western limestone belt. 


120 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


3. Pebble beds are found at Spring Ponds Creek on the Goulburn-Bungonia road 
at an altitude of 2,000 to 2,020 feet. This material occurs near the junction of 
the two head-streams of Spring Ponds Creek, and at first sight looks like a 
bank of stream drift. Closer examination reveals the presence of cemented 
pebbles and fine-grained sandstone containing small quartz pebbles and gravel 
in places. A distinct horizontal bedding is visible. The larger fragments 
and pebbles are of quartzite, and the latter are ellipsoidal in shape, being unlike 
the rounded fragments or pebbles of similar rock found in the modern stream 
beds of the tableland or in the gorge of the Shoalhaven. 


The conglomerate and drift about the 2,000 foot level would appear to be 
distinct from the base of the Permian series, which are found with some thickness 
on the other side of the Shoalhaven, where they form the surface of the table- 
land rising from 2,000 feet to an altitude in excess of 2,400 feet. Continuing 
northward from these pebble occurrences, we find similar conglomerate relics 
existing to the south-west of Ballanya Trig. Station, and on either side of Barber’s 
Creek at an elevation of 2,000 feet. Woolnough (p. 786) recognized the latter and 
the screening near Bungonia Caves as being ‘“Permo-Carboniferous”, but they are 
confined to a plain level distinct from the rising base of the Upper Marine Series, 
and have no marked resemblance to the basal beds of those strata. (See also 
paper ii of this series, when published). The following points may be recognized: 


1. The Vessey and Jerrara ridges are old erosion scarps whose bases have been 
exposed by the removal of newer sediments. Presumably there has been some 
retreat of their outer edges. 


2. The pebble drift and conglomerate extending from Bungonia to Tallong form 
part of late Tertiary deposits, and the more southerly relics project 
into ancient indentations, through which streams now flow. This must be 
taken as a tentative conclusion only, in the absence of definite palaeontological 
evidence. 


38. The western limit of the Permian series is marked by the lines of high 
residuals, which can be compared with Mts. Walker, Flaherty, Lambie and 
Gangerang Range in the Cox Valley (Craft, 1928a). 


4. The 2,000 foot level to the south of the Barhber’s Creek system represents a 
peneplain of Tertiary, and possibly of pre-Permian age which has been exposed 
again by. more recent erosion. A similar level continues into the newer strata 
to the north, and extends over the eastern part of the Wollondilly basin 
(Craft, 192860) and is, therefore, an erosional feature developed at a regionally 
constant base-level. 


5. It will be noticed that there is no mention of faulting as a possible explana- 
tion of the high western ridges. There is no physiographic evidence of faulting 
in this area, as the description of the ‘residual ridges” will have shown. Like- 
wise it is not suggested that the various top points of the residual ridges repre- 
sent relics of ancient peneplains, as the gradual weathering of the post- 
Devonian folds is amply sufficient to account for the isolated and exceptionally 
high masses. The highest level to give a peneplain impression is that at 2,500 
feet, which is comparable with the residuals in the Tallong area and the 
eastern Wollondilly at 2,350 to 2,400 feet. 


The existing land forms in the Bungonia Creek system may be correlated 
with those around Tallong, again using 2,200 feet as zero: 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 121 


Cycle or 
Locality or Feature. Part Cycle. Elevation. Age. Remarks. 
Residuals jl rae c Ancient + 500’ Permian Probable. 
Ridges, Upper Jerrara 
Creeks o3¥ Paseo sm, Dak: i + 300’ Pre-basaltic | Doubtful. 
Beck, Morris and Cow- 
hole Ridges go ¥ Dies 2 0 Pre-basaltic | Depends on correla- 
tion of land forms 
in horizontal and 
folded rocks. Doubt- 
ful because of close- 
ness to Shoalhaven 
Plain. 

Shoalhaven Plain .. .. 3 — 200’ Pre-basaltic | Extended very little 
in more modern 
times. 

Higher Terrace, Upper 

Jerrara Creek .. 3 — 100’ Pre-basaltic 
Valleys of Jerrara, 
Spring Ponds and 
Bungonia Creeks .. 4 — 300’ Post- Average value _ for 
basaltic middle part of plain 
section. 

Deep Gorges 5 — 1760’ Post- Extreme value. 

basaltic 


vii. The Shoalhaven Gorges.—The upland country supplies the most valuable 
physiographic material, but the deep gorges are also instructive. Between 
Bungonia Creek and a point opposite Caoura Trig. Station the river falls from 
420 feet to approximately 350 feet. It flows in a narrow, rocky channel up to 
60 yards in width, but where conditions are favourable lateral erosion has given 
flats or terraces on the concave bends which are covered with old flood-drift. The 
flood terrace rises to 60 feet above the river-bed immediately above very sharp 
turns, and consists of rounded pebbles up to 2 feet in diameter overlain by 
smaller rock-fragments and, in places, by a superficial covering of sand. In the 
actual stream-course the nature of the boulders found is largely controlled by the 
tributaries. Near Bungonia Creek the pebbles are small and consist largely of 
limestone and slate brought down by that stream and the river itself. Barber’s 
Creek rolls huge boulders of granodiorite up to 4 feet in diameter into the river 
bed, and these constitute the greater part of the stony material during the next 
four or five miles. In time of flood these masses move along the rocky channel 
and form a great mill, which grinds and crushes all the smaller and softer 
material washed down by the torrent. 


The lateral movement of the river has been greatest at the incised meander 
below Barber’s Creek. Terraces exist 40 feet above the river, and consist of 
granite pebbles covered with a drift of soil which has, in times past, been 
cultivated (MacC€allum’s selection). Some 400 yards below Digger’s Creek on the 
left bank relics of similar material are found 80 feet above the river. Here the 
river is diverted to the right by a quartzite bar and this, combined with a 


122 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, 1, 


sharp left-hand turn immediately below, has resulted in the piling up of the 
highest modern terrace on the right bank immediately above the bar. 


Despite its great drainage area (2,400 square miles above this point) the 
normal flow of the river is quite small, although most of the channel is rendered 
dangerous by the presence of great boulders. 


In considering the sides of this gorge, we are at once struck by the linear 
cliff lines between Digger’s and Bullangalong Creeks on the northern side of the 
river. These walls illustrate the slowness with which massive horizontal layers 
in the top position are attacked, provided that they are not underlain by exces- 
sively weak strata. Passing upstream, the great bay eroded by Digger’s Creek has 
already been noticed and, continuing southward along the main gorge from that 
point, the gorges torn in the main slope by Bungonia, Beck’s and Spring Creeks 
make that section difficult to traverse. Again the weakness of the Ordovician 
structures is shown, as the crumpled and closely jointed strata are readily torn 
away by stream action. The shales and slates are susceptible to atmospheric 
influences and crumble readily on exposure, thus undermining the more resistant 
quartzites. On the eastern side the capping of horizontal sandstone has protected 
the tableland to some extent, but the absence of notable streams in this part 
has also retarded the dissection of the canyon sides. Further up the river this 
condition does not apply. 


The rapidity with which the Shoalhaven has cut its canyon is illustrated by 
two facts. The slopes are very steep, being often inclined more than 35 degrees 
to the horizontal, even though they consist of easily-eroded strata. Hvidently 
there has not been sufficient time for them to have been reduced much. Powerful 
tributaries, such as Barber’s and Bungonia Creeks, have not been able to extend 
their gorges very far back into the tableland (Text-fig. 10), also on account of 
this lack of time, although it must be remembered that both have come against 
hard and fresh rocks which offer great resistance to erosion. 


This gorge represents the latest work of the river, and the rate of cutting 
by such a powerful stream must have been rapid, especially in the weak meridional 
section. The whole time taken in this work must have been only a fraction of 
that which has elapsed since the formation of the 2,000 foot level before the 
period of Pliocene basalt flows. Small tributary streams such as Ruse’s Creek 
have not yet had time in which to take advantage of the extra grade given them 
by the cutting of this trench. The lower valley of the stream in question is now 
becoming trenched, and it is only a matter of time before the gorge now being 
eroded will drain such swamps as those existing on tributary ‘1’. 


It might be argued that the formation of the small mature system quoted 
could easily have taken place whilst the canyon was being cut. That would mean 
that purely vertical erosion would have to be checked effectively in order to 
allow the formation of the existing grades (Text-fig. 10), and the lateral widening 
of the valleys after these profiles had, in their essentials, been attained. This 
hardly explains why the purely vertical cutting from the gorge or downstream 
side is taking place quite readily now, and it makes the dangerous assumption 
that the sandstones on which the lower parts of the mature profiles are found 
are particularly resistant to erosion—an assumption for which I can see no 
justification. 

There is one place where one might expect to see vertical cutting checked, thus 
allowing considerable lateral widening of the valley. In part of its course Tallowa: 


BY F. A. CRAFTY, 123 


Creek has cut down to particularly hard and massive porphyries (shown as 
intrusive on Text-fig. 2), which are overlain by rather weak fossiliferous sand- 
stone of the Upper Marine Series. The process of downcutting has continued 
without any appreciable widening of the gully, despite the highly resistant nature 
of the porphyries, in which the stream is now entrenched to at least 150 feet, and 
possibly more further downstream. 

We would conclude, then, that whilst upland valleys such as those of Ruse’s 
Creek are still approaching more mature forms where they are not actually being 
trenched by headward erosion, still their formation as essentially mature features 
must have antedated the cutting of a gorge of even limited depth by the 
Shoalhaven. If we grant that this canyon only forty miles from the present 
coast is a recently-developed feature, we necessarily admit that it has only been 
made possible by comparatively recent major changes in the pre-existing order, 
and the only change competent to produce such results is one involving consider- 
able uplift of the land surface after a period of stability. This uplift would be 
required to be of the order of 1,000 feet. 


Land Forms. 

Now that the greater part of the information is at our command, it becomes 
possible to survey the area broadly as a whole, and to collect the scattered con- 
clusions which have already been reached. We shall begin with the upper surfaces 
and work downwards. 

i. Residuals and the Upper Tableland.—The presence of sandstone residuals 
in horizontal rocks rising to 2,350 feet points to the existence of an old, high plain. 
The existence of similar and higher masses in the eastern part of the Wollondilly 
basin extends the area of such occurrences northward and, in fact, a considerable 
part of the Blue Mountain Plateau is involved. 

Considering the Tallong-Bungonia area only, it is clear that not only is a 
previous higher level indicated, but that sedimentary strata of some kind must 
necessarily have existed over the present 2,000 foot level, giving it a surface of the 
order of 400 feet higher than at present. We might assume that the Shoalhaven 
Plain previously existed at an altitude higher by 400 feet than it does at the 
present day with respect to the upper surface of the more northerly sedimentary 
rocks, but such an assumption would only be justified in the light of some 
positive evidence, of which. there is none at present. It would involve the 
postulating of differential uplift from north to south—an idea which seems to be 
contradicted by the uniformity of the 2,200 and 2,000 foot levels over wide areas 
in this region. 

High residuals such as Vessey Trig. would appear to have existed several 
hundred feet above the maximum height of the newer sedimentary strata, in which 
case they would be strictly comparable with Mt. Walker, at Lithgow, which rises 
600 feet above the highest sediments which rest on its northern side. Other 
similar places in the Cox Valley have already been cited. If the eroded Permian 
series about Ballanya Trig. Station were restored, it would be entirely covered, as 
residuals of the newer sandstones in the vicinity rise to the height of its crest. 
Its survival to the present day is due to the fact that it has been protected by the 
overlying strata, now removed. 

ii. Valleys of the Tableland.—Defining the tableland proper as that surface 
now existing about 2,200 feet, we find that erosion has progressed in the table- 
land surface causing a widespread reduction of the order of 200 feet. That a 


124 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


considerable part of this reduction was accomplished before the period of basalt 
flows is shown both in this district, and northward in the Wollondilly area. Valleys 
eroded down to this level have been filled with basalt, some of the most notable 
examples being in the Moss Vale district. As the result of more recent erosion, 
a good deal of this basalt has been removed. The 2,000 foot level has been re- 
established and extended considerably, especially in the shales and sandstones to 
the north-east of the Tallong area. Proceeding southward over the Shoalhaven 
Plain, we do not see any reason for stating that this plain surface is essentially 
a post-basaltic feature: our most reliable indications are to the contrary, and 
indicate considerable age for this feature. 


Unfortunately it has not yet proved possible to investigate the area lying to 
the east of the Shoalhaven River and towards the coast, but it appears to be an 
inclined: plain rising from 2,000 feet near the river to 2,400 feet some 7 miles 
further south. The rise continues southward to the Sassafras and Currockbilly 
Ranges. 

More recent erosion has resulted in the formation of shallow valleys below 
the general level of the Shoalhaven Plain and around the edge of the Caoura basalt 
flow. This would appear to antedate the cutting of the modern gorges. @ 


iii. Gravels and Stream Capture—tThe great “elbow” of the Shoalhaven River 
near Tallong, when considered in connection with the long northerly course of the 
river, has led to the suggestion of capture. Woolnough and Taylor postulated a 
former Shoalhaven-Wollondilly stream flowing northward past Tallong before the 
plateau was raised to its present elevation. According to this hypothesis the 
Shoalhaven below Tallong has been reversed by capture from the direction of the 
coast, and previous to this capture streams such as Kangaroo River had flowed 
westward to join the old main stream at Tallong (see Taylor, 1918, p. 151). The 
various writings of Taylor make it clear that he accepted this view as having 
been proved, but the field evidence originally adduced to support this view is not 
at all convincing. 


If one accepts the view that a “normal” stream and its tributaries should 
have a “dendritic” or branching-tree pattern, such an elbow as that of the 
Shoalhaven at Tallong is abnormal, and requires a special explanation, such as 
one involving stream capture. Taylor accepted this view (1911, p. 8), and cited 
Kangaroo River, a tributary of the lower Shoalhaven, as indicating a former 
westward flow of the whole system before the formation of meridional streams 
such as the Wollondilly (ibid., fig. 18c¢). He envisaged three main stages. First, 
streams such as the Shoalhaven and Mulwaree Creek flowing westward to the 
Abercrombie-Lachlan system. Second, these streams being diverted northward by 
a meridional monoclinal fold. Third, the combined westward and northward- 
flowing streams on the coastal side being diverted eastward by capture from the 
coast following the uplift of the modern tableland. I propose to consider this 
third stage specifically. 


Field evidence in favour of an ancient stream channel across the highlands 
at Tallong depends on a continuous valley leading from above Digger’s Creek to 
a gap in the Shoalhaven-Wollondilly divide near Shepherd Trig. Station, on the 
presence of stream gravels along the floor of this valley, and on the impossibility 
of the gravels having been derived locally. 


In considering the gravels, whose general disposition is indicated in Text-figs. 
8 and 9 and on Plate vi, it must be borne in mind that they lie immediately 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 125 
off the edge of the Permian conglomerates, which contain specimens of all the 
older rocks in the district, some of which have been brought from a distance. 
Masses of quartz-porphyry found at the head of Tallowa Creek, for instance, are 
six miles from the nearest stratigraphically higher porphyry at Marulan. A 


summary of the various occurrences of gravel and pebbles is instructive. 


Locality or Altitude Thickness Size of 
Occurrence. at Base. | (in feet). Rock Types. Pebbles. Shape. 
Permian Maximum Variable Varieties of Max. 3 ft.: | Angular to 
Conglomerate 2,150 ft. quartzites: cherts, | 3in.to9in.| ellipsoidal 
jaspers, porphyries diameter 
Hast of Ol O efits 60 Brown quartzite D ite, Angular to 
Ballanya and sandstone. maximum ellipsoidal 
Slates and cherts diameter 
Viaduct, 2,000 ft. iL Quartzites, jasper} Maximum | Sub-angular 
Barber’s chert, quartz, 3 ft. or rounded 
Creek indurated Generally 
conglomerate 3 in. to 8 in. 
600 yards SE. 2,000 ft. Surface Silicified 4D) Bree Masses on 
of Viaduct conglomerate and ground 
sands in situ surface 
Eastern side 2,000 ft. Surface Brown quartzite 9 in Eillipsoidal 
Dog Trap Ck. 
Dog Trap Ck. 1,960 ft. In stream Brown quartzite To 18 in. Sub-angular 
channel 


The gravels east of Ballanya are apparently an outlier of the Upper Marine 


Series, and are described under the heading “Digger’s Creek’. Those at the 
viaduct are outwash on to the flood plain of Barber’s Creek, which stream now 
flows at a lower level and does not reach this height. The occurrence of indurated 
conglomerate indicates that the gravels have been derived, in part, from the 
vicinity of the basalt flows. Some of this material is found in situ near the 
viaduct. The quartz pebbles to the east of Dog Trap Creek are just off the lower 
edge of the conglomerates (Text-fig. 2), whilst the stream channel contains 
boulders of granodiorite weathering in situ, and quartzite which may be derived 
either from the conglomerate or the older rocks upstream. This latter is only 
mentioned because it has been referred to as “redistributed stream gravel”. 


With regard to the stretch between the viaduct and the gap near Shepherd 
Trig., Woolnough and Taylor (p. 550) refer to “recent wash from the hills, over- 
lying the old river gravels’. Supposing that to be the case, the level of the gravel 
would be below 2,000 feet, and it is not the case towards the main road, where an 
undulating surface of normally weathering granite is exposed. On examining the 
gap to the west of Shepherd Trig. Station, it is found to exist at 2,080 feet, and out- 
crops of granite exist within 20 yards of the lowest part of this gap on either 
side, and at much the same level. Recent erosion on the southern side has 
disclosed 5 feet of sandy wash overlying clay, the latter containing rounded 
pebbles of weathering granite. Small fragments of quartz are found at intervals 
over the granite surface, and comprise some of the drift from the sedimentary 
rocks forming the hill of Shepherd Trig. 


126 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


7 


Shoalhaven 


Dog Trap Ck. 


8g |. a ee ere | 
Jangeran 


ae pe 
Marulan 


Barbers Ck, 


Joarimin Ck. 


Text-fig. 9.—IX shows a high-point line on the northern divide of Barber's Creek. 
Where necessary, short projections have been made on to the line shown on Plate vi 
to get the height of the actual divide. X is a profile from the east of Ballanya Trig. 
to Joarimin Creek. A = stream drift; B = contact quartzite; C = conglomerate drift ; 
D = Upper Marine conglomerate above Digger’s Creek. Vertical exaggeration = 5:9. 
Text-fig. 10.—Profiles of the main streams. Note the predominance of the level 
about 2,000 feet, and the steep fall of the revived streams from the tableland. 
Ruse’s Creek is shown separately for convenience. Vertical exaggeration = 8:8. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 127 


Now consider the two profiles IX and X (Text-fig. 9). The latter shows the 
ground over which the hypothetical ancient stream is supposed to have fiowed. 
Its elevation would vary from 1,950 feet at the base of “D” to 2,040 as a minimum 
on the divide of Dog Trap Creek. A steady fall leads to the base of the gravels 
at the viaduct at 2,000 feet, whilst a sustained rise leads to the gap near Shepherd 
Trig. This curve does not represent the thalweg of a stream which flowed from 
“D” to Joarimin Creek as Woolnough and Taylor suggested, but it does represent 
a normal profile for streams flowing to such an ancient main stream as Barber’s 
Creek. 

Profile IX shows part of the northern divide of Barber’s Creek. The deepest 
gaps are those at the head of Marsh’s Creek, but Uringalla Creek as a whole 
has been very active in breaching its divide after having attained maturity. 
This curve demonstrates that the gap “l” near Shepherd Trig. is to be regarded 
as a normal feature of the landscape and, in view of the weathered granite 
exposed at this point and the proximity of the edge of the horizontal rocks, its 
presence is to be expected. There is no justification for assuming that a main 
stream flowed through this gap at one time when similar features exist at a 
lower level in the same divide. 

A eritical examination fails to reveal any field evidence in favour of a 
hypothesis of stream capture or of an ancient stream having flowed over this 
part of the land surface between the upper Shoalhaven and the Wollondilly. On 
the other hand, there is a considerable body of evidence which indicates that 
the present scheme of drainage has persisted since a time antedating the late 
Tertiary basalt flows. 

The basalt-filled valley leading from Badgery’s Lookout to Caoura, and existing 
below 1,900 feet, indicates a persistent eastern drainage over a long period, and 
discounts the idea that Kangaroo River flowed westward to Tallong at some time 
before the uplift of the present tableland. Corroborative evidence is found in 
the increasing amount of mature erosion as one goes eastward and in the appear- 
ance of incomplete cycles of erosion towards the coast. 

The Shoalhaven Plain exists at about 2,000 feet, and would appear to be an 
ancient feature which has existed over a long period of time at a level below 
that of the sandstone tableland further north, and essentially below the divides 
between the Shoalhaven and Wollondilly systems. On either side of this divide 
similar topographic features are developed to levels below those of the divide 
itself. The level valley of the Wollondilly between Brayton (or Longreach) and 
Paddy’s River at an elevation somewhat below 2,000 feet (Craft, 1928b), and the 
shallow valleys of the Bungonia Creek system incised in the 2,000 foot Shoalhaven 
Plain are cases in point. The latter especially is noteworthy, as it can probably 
be correlated with the small mature valleys of Ruse’s Creek. 

The ancient stream line as postulated by Woolnough and Taylor has left 
the wide lower valley of Barber’s Creek out of the account entirely. W. R. Browne, 
in verbal communications to the writer, has stressed this, and has insisted 
that the intersection of the supposed with the actual stream line condemns the 
former, a conclusion with which I agree. It might be said that the upper Shoal- 
haven and the Wollondilly were once continuous by way of Barber’s Creek, and 
that the lower part of the latter has been reversed by capture from the east. 
Apart from there being no field evidence to support this view, it is not necessary, 
and the objections cited above certainly apply to it equally with the original 
capture hypothesis. 


128 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i, 


In conclusion, we can state definitely that the present outline of the Shoalhaven 
River near Tallong represents its essential form since the development of the plain 
surface now at 2,200 feet; that the valley line between Digger’s Creek and the 
gap near Shepherd Trig. Station does not represent the line of flow of a main 
stream, and that the idea of the Kangaroo River ever having flowed westward to 
or past Tallong must be dismissed. In considering the factors which may 
originally have determined the outline of the Shoalhaven River we enter the 
realms of more or less legitimate speculation. 

iv. Streams of the Area.—The principal facts relating to the streams have 
already been disclosed, but they may be collected and summarized with advantage. 
As regards the actual profiles (Text-fig. 10), they are seen to be characteristic 
of revived streams. Barber’s Creek flows at grade through its whole upper length. 
Jerrara and Bungonia Creeks flow at grade through the residual masses and over 
the plains before passing into narrow, level gorges without a great fall. They 
fall from these preliminary gorges in a series of cataracts to meet in a deep 
canyon. Their profiles show no disturpdance such as one would find if their 
courses had been folded or faulted across (contrast Cox’s River, Craft, 1928a). 

The effect of the main stream is shown clearly by the steepness of the lower 
parts of these profiles. The Shoalhaven has reached grade rapidly, and by giving 
its tributaries the advantage of a great fall in their lower stages, it is enabling 
them to attack the tableland. The effective base-level of erosion is the level of 
the river where a tributary enters it. These streams contrast with those of the 
Cox, Grose and Colo systems of the Central Tablelands, most of whose tributaries 
have cut steep gorges right to their watersheds. The fact is emphasized that the 
last stage in the uplift of this more southern plateau was comparatively recent, 
so erosion of tributary gorges has not yet progressed very far. Erosion in the 
earlier stages of uplift had resulted mainly in the excavation of rather mature 
valleys, the greater part being done towards the coast. 

Considering the actual shape of the streams, we are at once impressed by the 
great incised meander of the Shoalhaven below Barber’s Creek, a feature which 
has been inherited from the original stream course at a higher level before 
the canyon stage began. Meanders on a much smaller scale are exhibited by 
Jerrara, Bungonia and parts of Barber’s Creeks. In the first two cases the 
meanders persist right along the varying courses of the streams through residual 
ridges, over plains and, to a limited extent, in the gorges. In the residual country 
Jerrara Creek has inherited its meanders from the 2,100 foot terrace at least, as 
they are comparatively fixed in slight entrenchments at the present day. ‘These 
circumstances agree with the remainder of the evidence, which points to a remote 
origin for these streams, even indicating that conditions to determine their 
origin were evolved about the time of the deposition of the Permian sediments. 
This only applies to the high western masses, which would appear to have supplied 
material for all of the newer sedimentary formations from the Permian onwards. 


The lower part of the Shoalhaven flows some five miles to the south of the 
Hawkesbury Series, which appears to begin at Wingello, and continue eastward 
to the north of Tallowa Creek. A similar feature is shown by the Wollondilly 
River between Paddy’s River and the Wanganderry bend, by the northward- 
flowing section of the Kowmung River, and by Cox’s River from its junction 
with the Kowmung almost to its head. In each case the present edge of the 
Hawkesbury Series (Triassic) is of the order of five miles from the stream, and 
exists on one Side only. It is suggested that these streams have a similar origin: 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 129 


that the edges of the Hawkesbury Sandstone formation—itself probably of shallow- 
water origin—were loose and unconsolidated, and when the deposition of the 
Triassic strata was complete and the formation was first raised and exposed to 
the attack of the weather, the edges of the formation were readily eroded. Valleys 
so formed were occupied by the progenitors of the streams named, which flowed 
according to the local slopes to the sea. In time these streams established them- 
selves and became permanent features of the landscape. 


The basis of this idea has been current for a considerable time, and Taylor 
(1911, p. 14), suggests that the exposed soft “Permo-Carboniferous” strata 
favoured the development of the lower Shoalhaven, which is found about the 
present edge of the Upper Coal Measures. This suggestion is complementary to 
that repeated above which Taylor also recognized. It is as yet too early to attempt 
any explanation of the origin of the Shoalhaven above Barber’s Creek, although its 
later development would doubtless have been favoured by the weak Ordovician 
structures which it has exposed. The supposed origin of the lower Shoalhaven 
is only to be taken as a supposition of reasonable possibility. 


Soil and Water Supply. 


An outline of the conditions of the soil and water supply of the area can 
be given both for purposes of physiography and economic geography. On the 
whole, the soil is of a sandy or gravelly nature. The conglomerate and sandstone 
tablelands near Tallong are rocky and hold little water. Valleys cut in them 
have a depth of soil up to 5 feet overlying pebble wash and this soil, in places, 
holds a good deal of water. These conditions give rise to swamps such as 
those found at the head of Barber’s Creek and along its upper valley as far west 
as Tallong. The permanent water supply of Barber’s Creek depends on these 
swamps, and is supplemented by soakage from the northern sides of the upland 
basalts. Drainage from the southern side of these latter areas passes into Tallowa 
Creek. 


The basalts have a definite value in storing up water and releasing it gradually 
in dry times. The Caoura flow is divided into thin sheets which are split up by 
a series of close vertical joints. Water penetrates this readily, and is stored up 
in the cracks and interstices, with the result that small streams heading in the 
basalt are permanent, whilst those originating in nearby sandstone are liable to 
fail in dry weather. Water issuing from the base of the basalt is charged with 
minerals in solution; in dry weather its taste is unpleasant, but stock drink it 
readily enough. 


Going westward and southward over the granite areas, we find a light sandy 
soil on the surface overlying clay subsoil. A good deal of water is stored in the 
surface layers, but it passes out readily during dry weather, so the normal flow 
of the streams in this part of the area is not so great as one might expect. They 
generally contain water, however, as sand beds in the rocky channels store a 
certain amount, and waterholes in the rocks or clay are fed by a slow percolation 
from the deep valley soils. The light surface favours rapid erosion after a dry 
spell during which the grass has been eaten off by stock or rabbits, but as this 
erosion is only very effective in country of such gentle slopes along the stream 
banks, the preservation of occasional trees on these provides an effective check, 
and helps to prevent waterholes which they shade from drying up altogether. 
Where all the trees have been cut away, the process of land destruction is 

J 


130 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, 1, 


becoming progressively more rapid, and can only be checked by planting suitable 
trees and grasses in the weathering banks. 

The residual ridges have light, deep soil in their valleys and along their 
lower slopes, but as this is derived mainly from quartzites and porphyries, it is 
of a sandy nature, absorbing a great deal of water and giving it up readily 
either to streams or to the atmosphere. The ridges themselves are stony and 
arid, and their steep slopes make a high run-off inevitable. In places where they 
are being cleared and stocked the removal of the little soil is only a matter of 
time. As the valleys are largely eroded in shales, slates and occasional limestones, 
they are marked by much gentler slopes and, where deeply-weathered soil has 
accumulated, a fair amount of water is retained and gives a small permanent 
soakage to the streams. On the whole the residual country is dry, although its 
porous soil combined with the fact that much of the country is still forested 
tends to reduce the violence of floods, and to retard erosion. 

Taking the remaining land—that on the Shoalhaven side of the granites— 
we find that the limestones and associated slates produce deep soil in level valleys. 
This holds water fairly well, and is useful for agriculture over limited areas 
along Ryan’s Creek. The sink holes towards the Lookdown at Bungonia discharge 
water through underground tunnels into Bungonia Creek. East of the limestone 
belt there is a series of chert, jasper, slate and quartzite ridges. These are close 
to the edge of the Shoalhaven gorge and the steep slopes, combined with the 
strongly-jointed nature of the rocks, render them almost useless for the storage 
of groundwater. This applies to the slopes of all the gorges, which are singularly 
dry and waterless. In very steep places even serub will hardly grow. 

The effect of these conditions in the area as a whole is to give streams which, 
although they flood after heavy rain, still continue to run freely for a month 
after the ground has been saturated. In dry summers all of the streams are likely 
to dry up, with exception of the head swamps and lower courses of Barber’s Creek; 
Tallowa Creek, which flows in a deep and sheltered gully, and the streams 
originating in the basalts. Barber’s Creek only ceases to run in its middle 
portion during exceptionally dry summers, but Stony, Jerrara, Marulan, Bungonia 
and Tangeran Creeks hardly flow during the greater part of summer and autumn, 
although they all have permanent waterholes. 

There is generally enough water for stock but, from the viewpoint of erosion, 
the drying of the watercourses and their surroundings in the hot season is 
unfortunate, as the ground cracks and is broken by stock, and the light soil is 
carried away easily by rain which succeeds the drought periods. 

On the imperfect evidence available it would be unsafe to say that the 
clearing and settlement of the country is causing streams to become less perma- 
nent, but it is certainly accelerating erosion in the mature highlands. 


Physiographic History and Summary. 

Looking at this part of the Shoalhaven Valley we find that it consists of 
crumpled Ordovician rocks overlain by newer Silurian (?) and Devonian strata, 
the whole having been folded into a grand arch, of which the western limb is 
exposed in the Tallong-Bungonia area. The crest or axis is represented at the 
present time by the linear outcrop of Ordovician strata along the Shoalhaven 
River between Nerriga and Tallong. The crest and eastern limb of this arch 
were cut away by erosion to form a peneplain, upon which the Permian strata 
were eventually deposited. This surface was warped or folded down to the 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 131 


east and north-east, allowing a great accumulation of the newer sediments, but 

the western portion stood relatively high, and was flanked on the west by ridges 

of Devonian quartzites. Newer surfaces were built up by sedimentation within 

a few hundred feet of the crests of these ridges, and the older and newer strata 

have been subjected to erosion and denudation over long intervals of time. The 

history of the land forms may be thus summarized: 

“Kanimbla Epoch” (Pre-Permian) —Folding of grand arch southwards. Forma- 
tion of peneplain, with ridges to the west. 

Permian.—Deposition follows subsidence, which was most pronounced to the 
east and north-east. Littoral beds in this area. 

Triassic.—Deposition of Narrabeen, Hawkesbury and Wianamatta beds to the 
north-east. 

Tertiary (provisionally ).—Final development of modern stream systems, including 
lower Shoalhaven off the edge of the Hawkesbury Series. 

Late Tertiary.—Harliest uplifts (?)—residuals of 2,350 foot level formed as the 
general surface was reduced to the modern 2,200 foot level. This peneplain 
existed near sea-level. 

Uplift—Hrosion to a depth of 300 feet in plain, forming Shoalhaven Plain 

and associated levels. Erosion of Caoura Valley after further uplift. 

Basalt flows (the “newer basalts’’)—These were considerably eroded, the 

lower plain was extended, and there was additional erosion towards the 

east, as at Ruse’s Creek, and the formation of shallow valleys in the lower 

(Shoalhaven) plain. 

Great uplift of the order of 1,000 feet in stages, resulting in considerable 

erosion and incomplete cycles of erosion towards the coast and a great 

removal of coal measure strata, but hardly affecting this area. 

Erosion of modern gorges. Uplands in which streams have not been revived 

continue to progress slowly towards maturity. 

In conclusion, it may be remarked that the views of Andrews (1910) and 
Sussmilch (1911-1922) regarding the development of the tableland surface are 
confirmed for this area, but the hypothesis of post-Tertiary “stream capture 
advanced by Woolnough and Taylor is rejected. 

Since this was written, a paper by G. F. Naylor on the drainage of the Marulan 
district has appeared. Working on the basis of Woolnough and Taylor’s paper 
the writer accepts the hypothesis of stream capture, although he rightly rejects 
some of the earlier arguments in its favour. His arguments and conclusions, 
however, do not accord with a more detailed field examination, and many of them 
can searcely be justified. 


References. 


ANDREWS, EH. C., 1904.—Introduction to the Physical Geography of New South Wales. 
, 1910.—Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 
xliv, 420. 
Brown, I. A., 1925.—Some Tertiary Formations on the South Coast of N.S.W. Proc. 
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lix, 387. 
BROWNE, W. R., 1928.—On Some Aspects of Differential Erosion. Proc. Roy. Sec. N.S.W., 
bai, 273. 
CraFrt, F. A., 1928a.—The Physiography of the Cox River Basin. Proc. Linn. Soc. 
N.S.W., liii, Part 3, 207. 
, 1928b.—The Physiography of the Wollondilly River Basin. Proc. Linn. Soc. 
N.S.W., liii, Part 5, 618. 
NAytor, G. F. K., 1930.—The History of the Development of the present Drainage System 
in the Marulan District, ete. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., Ixiv, 191. 


132 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, i. 


SuSSMILOH, C. A., 1922.—Geology of New South Wales, 8rd Edition, p. 213. (First 
published 1911.) 

Taytor, T. G., 1911.—The Physiography of Eastern Australia. Bulletin 8, Common- 
wealth Meteorological Bureau. 

,1918.—The Australian Environment. Memoir 1, The Advisory Council of 
Science and Industry. 

, 1923.—Guide Book to the excursion to the Illawarra District. Pan Pacific 
Science Congress, Sydney, 19238. 

WATERHOUSE, L. L., and BRowNkE, W. R., 1929.—Notes on an Occurrence of Quartzite 
containing common opal and chalcedony at Tallong, N.S.W. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 
lxiii, 140. 

WooLNOUGH, W. G., 1909.—The General Geology of Marulan and Tallong, N.S.W. Proc. 
LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxxiv, Part 4, 782. 

WoouNnouGH, W. G., and Tayutor, T. G., 1906.—A Striking Example of River Capture 
in the Coastal District of N.S.W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xxxi, Part 3, 546. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES IV-VII. 
Plate iv. 


1. The Shoalhaven River at the junction of Digger’s Creek. Note the terrace of 
detritus built up by the tributary. 

2. View across the valley of Jerrara Creek, looking up Limestone Creek, a strike valley 

in limestone and slate. Vessey Trig. Station is to the right, and rises about 200 feet 

above the ridges on the left. 

View down Jerrara Creek looking over Pearce’s farm. The strike valley of the pre- 

ceding view is in the foreground: a hard residual ridge is cut across by a consequent 

stream—Jerrara Creek—in the middle distance, and the Shoalhaven Plain is seen in 

the background. The most distant ridge is on the eastern side of the river. 

4. The bed of Dog Trap Creek, about 600 yards above Barber’s Creek. Note the fine 
wash resting on decomposing granodiorite. The smaller pebbles are of quartzite. 
This view is typical of the stream beds in the granite uplands. 


ix) 


Plate v. 


Topographic Map of the Tallong District, eastern section. The Shoalhaven River is 
flowing between 300 and 400 feet above sea-level. Tertiary basalt flows are shown. 


Plate vi. 


Topographic Map of the Tallong District, western section. The main road and rail- 
way pass through Marulan. These maps are based on county and parish maps of the 
N.S.W. Lands Department, and topographic detail is by closed and corrected traverses, 
plotted originally on the scale of six inches to the mile. Vertical control by aneroid 
and Abney level. 


Plate vii. 


1. View from Warrima Trig. Station, showing Twin Trig. rising above the tableland 
at 2,200 feet with the head of Barber’s Creek in the foreground. 

2. The northern edge of the Caoura basalt flow, looking eastward. Basalt is in the 
foreground and to the right; the tableland at 2,200 feet is on the left and the scarp 
is one side of the pre-basalt valley steepened by modern erosion. Tallowa Creek 
flows in a gully to the left of the cleared basalt country. 

3. The northern edge of Caoura basalt flow, looking eastward near Caoura station. 
Basalt banks are cleared in the foreground and on the right; the sandstone terrace, 
dissected by modern erosion, occupies the middle distance, whilst the tableland surface 
is seen in the distance. 

4. The Shoalhaven River, looking upstream with the junction of Barber’s Creek in the 
right background. View from above “McCallum’s Selection’’. 


PLATE fv. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 19381. 


‘AQT[VA JOAIY UsABYLeOYS Vay} Jo AYdeasoIsAyqd 


‘ee aie 8 ts pa ar r : 
penne se Tae li Mere eRe HARB re A em get NIN ok NGA RL le | 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931 


toWollondill 


River 


PLATE V. 
from Sydney ) KUringalia. Clore 
to Braytore 


' 
1 


2359' ico; 
Ey 


F100 


TALLONG 


y 
a 
~.2013' H 
\ 


—, S20, 
ar 
O ne 


Nz 
ms 


W 


Arree 


(ee | Conglomerate 


Western Sheet 


Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


See 


trom Wingello 


Eastern Sheet 


~TALLONG 


S © ALE 


ae 


3 MILES 


S= Contours— (Feet). 
“+ cot Precipices 
lertiary Basalt 


EB um oglla f 


~— Contact Quartzite 
Vie Profile Lines 
——_ Batlway 
———-| _—fioads 


Tallowa CK. 


toHangarroo River 


Bullangalon 
Ck. 


2/00 


=f ii, 
ay Alp yp 
ZAI; 2000 
TPL 
S Ss 77 


iy a Ih A 
ty PK SVN) 
4} 


" 
vy Uipanase hn 
es 


PLATE VI. 


te 
pare 
; 


L 


ts 


ae opp St 


Pa Eee 
& Hl 


SARKIS re pace DU 


FF eigen a nemertinseaee er etenaiion et yo 


 ealared a ke 


PLATE VII. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


“AQIIVA JOATY UIABYLBOYS 9y} JO AYdvASOISAYU 


FURTHER NOTES ON THE ORCHIDS OF THE SOUTH MAITLAND 
COALFIELDS, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW DENDROBIUM 
FROM BULLAHDELAH. 


By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. 


(Four Text-figures.) 
[Read 29th April, 1931.] 


I have given an account (These PROCEEDINGS, 1930, 413) of the autumn orchids 
of the South Maitland Coalfields and the present notes coyer the winter and spring 
months, June to October, inclusive. One species, Liparis reflexa Lindl., was omitted 
from the autumn list, and may be recorded here with three belonging to the 
summer: Sarcochilus Hillii F.v.M., Calanthe veratrifolia R.Br., and Dipodium 
punctatum R.Br. Some of the autumn species are found flowering throughout the 
winter, but the only two to which I shall allude here are P. ophioglossa and 
P. concinna, a fairly obvious hybrid between these having been found in July. 


Following is a list of the other orchids observed from June to October: 


Dendrobium speciosum Sm. 
aemulum R.Br. 
gracilicaule F.v.M. 
teretifolium R.Br. 
striolatum Reichb. f. 
Becklerii F.v.M. 
pugioniforme Cunn. 
linguiforme Swz. 


Bulbophyllum Shepherdii F.v.M. 


exiguum F.v.M. 
Sarcochilus falcatus R.Br. 

olivaceus Lindl. 
Cleisostoma tridentatum F.v.M. 


Cymbidium canaliculatum R.Br. 


suave R.Br. 
Calochilus cupreus Rogers 

Robertsonii Benth. 

paludosus R.Br. 
Thelymitra ixioides Swz. 

longifolia Forst. 

nuda R.Br. 

paucifiora R.Br. 

sp.? 

carnea R.Br. 


Diuris aurea Sm. 

sulphurea R.Br. 

brevifolia Rogers? 
Microtis porrifolia Spreng. 

parviflora R.Br. 

oblonga Rogers 
Corysanthes fimbriata R.Br. 

pruinosa Cunn. 
Pterostylis nutans R.Br. 

pedunculata R.Br. 

curta R.Br. 

mutica R.Br. 

Mitchellii Lindl. 

pusilla Rogers 

var. prominens, n. var. 

longifolia R.Br. 
Caleana major R.Br. 
Chiloglottis formicifera Fitze. 
Acianthus reniformis R.Br. 
Lyperanthus suaveolens R.Br. 
Caladenia testacea R.Br. 

alba R.Br. 

carnea R.Br. 

caerulea R.Br. 
Glossodia major R.Br. 

minor R.Br. 


134 ORCHIDS OF THE SOUTH MAITLAND COALFIELDS, 


The epiphytes in this list (Dendrobium to Cymbidium) occur chiefly in the 
ranges on the S. and W. borders of the area. I am positively assured, however, 
that a white-flowering form of Cymbidium canaliculatum has been found not far 
from Weston, my informant having secured a plant and brought it to flower in 
cultivation. Unfortunately this plant has been sold. It is now some fifteen years 
since I first heard of a white-flowering form of this orchid, but I have never 
succeeded in obtaining a specimen. 

CALOCHILUS.—Fitzgerald’s representations of C. paludosus and C. campestris 
are difficult to understand. Dr. R. S. Rogers (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., xlii, 1918) 
has noted that the former is incorrectly figured; while the flower of C. campestris 
is shown with a coloured ridge connecting the two column-glands, a feature 
peculiar to Bentham’s C. Robertsonii. The basal portion of the labellum is also 
shown as callose, but ealli are only present in var. grandiflora. The figures 
cannot be reconciled with published descriptions of either plant (including those 
of Fitzgerald himself in Moore and Betche’s Handbook), and it may be in part 
due to this difficulty that we have for many years in New South Wales been 
confusing C. campestris with a plant which is really Dr. Rogers’s species C. cupreus. 
The following tabulation of certain salient points in the four New South Wales 
species may help others in determination: 

C. cupreus.—Plant slender or often very robust, with many relatively small 
flowers. Labellum not greatly prolonged, yellowish with fimbriate margins and 
reddish-blue hairs sometimes rather scanty; basal portion with raised longitudinal 
lines of similar colour to the hairs. Column with a gland on each side at the 
base, with an irregular line of brown blotches between them, but no ridge. Anther 
long, like a duck’s bill. 

C. campestris.—F lowers few, larger than those of C. cuwpreus, in var. grandi- 
flora much so. Labellum much prolonged, densely covered with reddish-blue hairs 
except towards the base, where it is quite smooth (but in var. grandiflora beset 
with calli) and without raised lines. Column with a basal gland on either side, 
not connected by a ridge or coloured line. Anther acuminate or at least long and 
tapering. 

C. Robertsonii.i—Flowers usually few, variable in size. Labellum much pro- 
longed, densely covered with purple metallic-lustrous hairs, which towards the 
base are reduced to calli, and there is a callose swelling on each side. Column 
with a basal gland on either side connected by a coloured ridge. Anther short 
and usually blunt. 

C. paludosus.—Plant often slender but sometimes tall with many flowers, 
which expand more widely than in other species. Labellum much prolonged, 
rather densely covered with long brilliant red hairs, which towards the base are 
reduced to calli, and there is a smooth, shining, much-raised plate on either side. 
Column devoid of basal glands. Anther short, thick, blunt. 

All four normally have the apex of the labellum prolonged into a smooth, 
narrow ribbon, sometimes absent in C. Robertsonii. In C. paludosus it is often 
straight, in the others undulate. All except C. campestris are common on the 
coalfields. 

THELYMITRA.—Near Weston a few immature plants were found in which the 
column appears to differ from that of any known species, but I was unable to 
secure sufficient good material for determination. 7. nuda is the most abundant 
species. It is extremely shy, opening only for a few hours on warm, sunny days, 
when the pale-mauve flowers are very beautiful. The hair-tufts, usually almost 


BY H. M. R. RUPP. 1s 


perpendicular, are of the same colour, or rarely whitish. TJ. ixvioides occurs in a 
very slender form, occasionally 1-flowered. T. pauciflora and T. longifolia are 
uncommon, 7. carnea is abundant. 


Diugris.—D. punctata, though abundant east of Maitland, has been searched 
for on the coalfields in vain. D. aurea is in great profusion, and very fine 
specimens have been seen. A very late form appeared in October, with rather 


Text-figs. 1-4. 

1. Labella of the four New South Wales species of Calochilus, enlarged and flattened 
out to display their distinctive features: a, C. cuprews with dark smooth ridges (commonly 
four) on the basal portion, and prominently fimbriate margins; b, C. campestris with a 
smooth, dark base obscurely lined with darker veins, hairs very undulate; c, C. Robertsonii 
with callose or very short hairy base, somewhat swollen on either side, hairs very 
undulate; d, C. paludosus with callose base and a smooth raised plate on either side, 
hairs scarcely undulate. 

2.—Pterostylis pusilla var. prominens, n. var., with enlargements of labellum (right) 
and column (left). x 0-4. 

3. Flower of Caladenia caerulea with three labella and a stigma-capped style. 

4. Dendrobium Kestevenii, n. sp. (much reduced), with enlargement of labellum 
flattened out. 


small flowers, and markings suggestive of D. sulphurea. It is probably a hybrid, 
and seems to be rare. D. sulphurea is plentiful in October; the markings on the 
labellum exhibit endless variety. The labellum of this species is described as 
having a single raised line, but in the majority of flowers examined in this area 
it is merely smooth and convex (above) from lamina to base, with no raised line 
at all. An interesting variety occurs near Weston, the flowers being large but, 


136 ORCHIDS OF THE SOUTH MAITLAND COALFIELDS, 


very attenuated, with lateral sepals much elongated. Near the Weston Soldiers’ 
Settlement, I found a single specimen of a tall Diuris with 7 flowers corresponding 
to D. brevifolia Rogers. The leaves, however, were two only, and very long. The 
specimen has retained its colour after pressing, which is unusual in a Diuris. No 
other forms of Diwris were seen in the vicinity. 


Microtis.—The three species listed are typical. 


CoRYSANTHES.—The type of country would lead one to expect this genus to be 
strongly represented, but only the two species listed have been seen, and neither 
is common. C. fimbriata is large and richly coloured. 


PTEROSTYLIS.—I have already alluded to the appearance in July of an apparent 
hybrid, P. ophioglossa x P. concinna. This plant, of which about 20 were found, 
has the general appearance of P. concinna, with which it is associated, but the 
following points connect it with P. ophioglossa: (1) Flower rather larger than 
the surrounding P. concinna, with the characteristic forward “set” of P. ophioglossa; 
(2) petals bluntly truncate with inturned margins; (3) fork of the bifid labellum 
intermediate in character and just protruding from the sinus of the paired sepals; 
(4) column rather sharply bent; (5) stem (with two exceptions) bractless except 
immediately under the ovary. Robert Brown says of Pt. ophioglossa, “scapo medio 
ebracteato”’, and this peculiarity is not mentioned by most authors. It is a rule 
to which there are exceptions, but when a stem-bract does occur it is always low 
down. 

Of the remaining winter-spring forms of Pterostylis, only two call for special 
mention, and they are of considerable interest. One, of which only two plants 
have been seen, I believe to be Pt. Mitchellii Lindl., which I have hitherto regarded 
as a species confined to the western parts of the State. (It occurs in other States 
also.) It seems certain that Fitzgerald was mistaken in the plant he figures as 
Pt. Mitchellii. Fitzgerald’s plant is much closer to, if not indeed a form of, 
Pt. pusilla Rogers. Dr. Rogers has kindly lent me a photograph of Sir Thomas 
Mitchell’s original specimens in the Hooker Herbarium at Kew, and it is not 
possible to reconcile these with Fitzgerald’s plant. I also received from Dr. Rogers, 
a few years ago, two specimens labelled Pt. Mitchellii from Grangeville, S. Aust., 
which agree perfectly with two from Warialda in this State, which I had deter- 
mined as Lindley’s species. The coalfields plant also agrees with these save for 
one or two trifling details. The other coalfields Pterostylis alluded to presents 
some difficulties. I believed it to be quite distinct from any species hitherto 
described, and Dr. Rogers wrote that it was certainly not identical with any 
species known to him. Mr. W. H. Nicholls, however, maintained its identity with 
a Victorian form included under Pt. pusilla. It certainly does not conform to Dr. 
Rogers’ description of that species (7'rans. Roy. Soc. 8S. Aust., xlii, 1918), but I am 
compelled to admit that I cannot separate the flowers from those of the Victorian 
plant referred to. The form of the plant, however, seems very distinctive. It is 
abundant near Weston in September and October, and in appearance is unlike any 
other Pterostylis I have seen. The plant varies in height from a few inches to a 
foot, and the flowers range from 1 to 13. They are alternate along the raceme 
on long ovaries and stalklets which incline to the horizontal, giving the plant 
the semblance of a candelabra. The colour is green or whitish with very pro- 
nounced red markings and veins, or often wholly red. I am disposed to think 
that this plant and the Victorian form with similar flowers should be separated 
from Pt. pusilla as variations of another species, unless Dr. Rogers should re- 


BY H. M. R. RUPP. 137 


describe Pt. pusilla to include them. The manner of inflorescence (of the coal- 
fields plant) is so striking that I have no hesitation in proposing that it be recog- 
nized for the present as a variety, Pt. pusilla var. prominens. 

CALEANA.—C. major appeared in August, earlier than I have seen it elsewhere, 
and was still plentiful two months later. It does not seem to occur in colonies 
here asa rule. A form with flowers wholly golden-green has been found. 


CHILOGLOTTIS.—Numerous flowering plants of C. formicifera were found in 
September at Rocky Glen near Mount Vincent. 


ACIANTHUS.—A. reniformis is very common, and typical. A plant found by 
Miss D. Watson has two perfect flowers united “back to back” on a common 
pedicel. 

LYPERANTHUS.—L. suaveolens is very common, both red and pale-green flowers 
being in evidence. Often very tall, 2 ft. 


CALADENIA.—C. alba, C. carnea and C. caerulea are all in very great profusion; 
C. testacea is less common. OC. alba exhibits many variations, and some of the 
forms are extremely beautiful, notably one with reddish-purple lateral lobes to the 
labellum. Hybrids with C. carnea seem to be indicated by the presence of red 
bars on the column or the labellum. C. carnea itself shows little variation from 
the type. C. caerulea is exceptionally vigorous. For the first time I succeeded in 
finding a specimen bearing two perfect flowers. A most abnormal specimen was 
found by my son, Mr. Arthur Rupp, the paired petals being transformed into a 
second and a third perfect labellum. The three sepals are quite normal, but the 
column is represented by a slender style capped with a stigma; a loose purplish 
structure almost surrounds it at the base. 


GLossop1a.—G. major and G. minor are both abundant, the latter especially 
so. Hybrids occur, and the white-flowering form of G. major has been found. 


DENDROBIUM KESTEVENII, n. sp. Text-fig. 4. 


Caules in saxis serpentes, cum radicibus multissimis. Pseudobulbi striati, 
ad bases turgidi, 5-20 cm. longi. Folia lanceolata 3-4, ad pseudobulborum apices, 
5-8 em. longa. Racemi inter folia, 10-24 cm. cum floribus 4-14. Flos albus vel 
pallidus, saepe puniceo tinctus. Sepala lata, 2 cm. longa, calcar saepe obtusissimum. 
Petala sepalis angustiora. Labellum latissimum, 15 mm. longum, mucronatum, 
cum notis puniceis vel purpureis. Columna turgida. 


Stems creeping on rocks, with densely matted roots. Pseudo-bulbs grooved and 
jointed, swollen towards their bases, 5-20 cm. in height. Leaves 3 or 4, lanceolate, 
at the tops of the pseudobulbs, 5-8 cm. long. Racemes emerging between the 
upper leaves, 10-24 cm. long, with 4 to 14 flowers. Flower white or pale-cream, 
often tinted pink or mauve. Sepals broad, only 2 cm. long, the spur under the 
lateral pair prominent but often very blunt. Petals narrower than sepals. 
Labellum, when flattened out, very broad, 15 mm. long, lobed like that of 
D. speciosum, and splashed with pink or purple, mucronate at the straight or 
slightly recurved tip. Column very thick. 


This very beautiful orchid was sent to me in September, 1930, by Dr. H. L. 
Kesteven of Bullahdelah, whose sons had discovered it on the rocks of the eastern 
side of the Alum Mountain. A little examination served to make clear its close 
relation to D. speciosum, while some features suggest some connection with 
D. Kingianum. As both these species are common on the Alum Mountain, it is 


138 ORCHIDS OF THE SOUTH MAITLAND COALFIELDS. 


quite possible that cross-fertilization between them produced the subject of this 
description; but from Dr. Kesteven’s account of it there can be little doubt that it 
is well established independently. It would certainly not be recognizable as a 
variety of either, and it appears to be well deserving of specific rank. The flowers 
do not expand quite so widely as those of D. falcorostrum, and are not quite as 
large, yet at first sight it instantly suggests that species. This species is quite a 
notable addition to our orchids. As far as I can judge from the large mass of 
the plant sent to me, the stem quite definitely creeps over the rocks. The 
pseudobulbs resemble those of D. speciosum in miniature, being shorter, more 
robust, and more strongly grooved than those of D. speciosum var. gracillimum. 
Relatively to the size of the plant, the flowers are much larger than in any 
form of D. speciosum. The shape of the spur, the broad, short sepals, and the 
mauve tints occasionally present, suggest affinities with D. Kingianum. The 
perfume is certainly not that of the Rock Lily. 


ON BARIDIINAE (CURCULIONIDAE), MOSTLY FROM | 
NEW GUINEA. 


By ArrHur M. Lea, F.E.S. 
(Thirty-seven Text-figures. ) 
[Read 27th May, 1931.] 


Comparatively few species of this subfamily have been recorded from New 
Guinea and adjacent islands; but they are probably as numerous there as in 
tropical America; some of them are of comparatively large size and brilliantly 
metallic, although the majority are rather small and deep black, with or without 
white markings. 


BaRIs. 

Germar, Ins. Sp. Nov., 1824, p. 197. 

The majority of Australian species belonging to the Baridiinae have been 
referred to Baris, and no doubt they would form material for several genera; some 
of the species which I also here refer to Baris may eventually be considered as 
worthy of generic rank; but in a genus so abundant in species, many of which 
are closely allied, with species diverging in many directions, it is not desirable 
to propose new genera unless they possess very distinctive features. 

Pascoe (Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, 1885, p. 292), in dealing with the weevils 
of the Malay Archipelago, said “Baris as it stands at present, is a group of many 
genera’, and this is still the case. 


BARIS GIBBICOLLIS, nN. Sp. 

®. Black, shining. Parts of under surface and legs with short, white setae. 

Rostrum about one-third longer than prothorax, sides with moderately coarse 
crowded punctures towards base. Prothorax with basal width slightly more than 
median length, middle near apex rather strongly elevated; with fairly dense 
punctures of moderate size on disc, becoming slightly larger and denser on sides. 
Elytra elongate-cordate, distinctly wider than prothorax, a shallow depression at 
basal third and another beyond the middle; a fairly large obtuse tubercle crowning 
each side of the apical slope; sharply striate, the striae with punctures of 
moderate size, becoming rather small about middle; interstices with fairly strong 
punctures about apex and sides, a few smaller ones about base. Under surface 
with fairly dense punctures, coarser on side pieces of mesosternum than else- 
where. Front coxae fairly close together, front femora minutely dentate, the 
others moderately dentate. Length, 6-5—7-0 mm. 

Aru Island (H. Elgner); New Guinea: Manumbo (Madang district). 

A large species, very distinct by the bituberculate elytra and gibbous prothorax. 
B. bituberculata, from Torres Straits, is a much smaller species, with very 
different prothorax; several other species have the elytra slightly undulated 


owing to the transverse impressions, but their prothorax is not gibbous. 
A 


140 ON BARIDIINAE, 


BARIS POROSTERNA, Nl. SD. 

6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax, rather strongly curved; with crowded 
and fairly strong punctures on sides towards base. Prothorax moderately trans- 
verse; with fairly dense and sharply defined punctures of moderate size, becoming 
larger and crowded on sides. Elytra subcordate, not much wider than prothorax; 
with sharp striae containing deep-set punctures. Under surface with crowded 
punctures except on parts of abdomen; basal segment of abdomen distinctly 
impressed along middle. Front coxae rather widely separated, femora distinctly 
grooved and feebly dentate, tibiae with upper edge gently incurved to middle. 
Length, 4-5 mm. 

Aru Island (H. Elgner); New Guinea: Astrolabe Bay (Dr. W. Horn, from 
— Rhode). 

In appearance approaches several species of Myctides, but the rostrum is not 
bearded. On the prothorax the punctures are more or less confluent on the sides 
at the apical third, giving the surface there a notched appearance, as on 
B. latericollis. There is a row of minute punctures (scarcely visible from most 
directions) on each elytral interstice, but their only distinct ones are on the 
base and sides. 


BARIS PUNCTIVARIA, N. SD. 

6. Black, shining. Front tibiae with a few dark hairs fringing the apical 
half. 

Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded punctures of moderate 
size on basal sides. Prothorax slightly transverse, sides gently decreasing in 
width to beyond the middle, and then strongly to apex; with numerous, but not 
crowded, and rather small punctures on disc, becoming larger on sides. Hlytra 
elongate-cordate, not much wider than prothorax; with two shallow transverse 
impressions, causing the surface to appear faintly undulated; with sharply 
defined striae containing small, deep-set punctures; the interstices with very 
minute (almost invisible) ones, except for a few about shoulders. Under surface 
with fairly large punctures; middle of basal segment with a wide, shallow 
depression, continued on to metasternum. Legs fairly long, front coxae rather 
close together, femora feebly grooved and slightly dentate. Length, 5-6 mm. 

°. Differs in being slightly wider, rostrum thinner, prothoracic punctures 
distinctly larger, elytral interstices with fairly distinct punctures, although still 
small, abdomen evenly convex and legs somewhat shorter. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner); Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. 
McNamara), Bisiatabu (Rev. W. N. Lock). 

Fairly close to the preceding species, but slightly narrower, and elytra 
distinctly, although not very strongly, undulated. The sexual difference in size 
of the prothoracic punctures, and those on the elytral interstices, is quite 
conspicuous, and appears to be constant (there are eleven females before me, but 
only two males); on a female from Mount Lamington the punctures are fairly 
strong on the elytral interstices. On all of them the elytral striae are some- 
what wider on the apical slope than about the middle. There is a short shallow 
groove in the front of the prosternum, but it is difficult to see it before the head © 
is removed. 


Wareo and Hudewa are in the Finsch Haven district, Bisiatabu is a mission 
station near Port Moresby. 


BY A. M. LEA. 141 


BARIS ATROPOLITA, Nn. Sp. 

6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded and fairly large 
punctures on basal sides. Prothorax moderately transverse; with numerous but 
not crowded punctures of moderate size, becoming larger on sides. EHlytra 
oblong-cordate, not much wider than prothorax; with two feeble transverse 
impressions; with sharply defined striae containing small punctures, but these very 
small or absent posteriorly; interstices with a few small punctures about base. 
Under surface with dense and fairly large punctures, becoming small on most of 
abdomen, basal segment shallowly depressed along middle. Front coxae moderately 
separated; femora slightly grooved, each with a small acute tooth and some 
minute denticles. Length, 3:0-4-5 mm. 

©. Differs in having rostrum thinner at base and slightly longer, abdomen 
rather strongly convex, and legs somewhat shorter. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner), St. Aignan (Dr. W. Horn, from 
A. 8. Meek); Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara), Bisiatabu (Rev. W. N. 
Lock). 

Fairly close to the preceding species, but the average size is smaller, the 
depression on the abdomen is shallower, the femora are more acutely dentate, 
and there is no fringe on the front tibiae of the male, the punctures are also not 
sexually different, and the undulation of the elytra is not quite as strong. On 
several specimens the denticle behind the tooth on the front femur is larger 
than usual, causing it to appear bidentate. 


BARIS TRICHOCNEMIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 1. 

6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax, base stout; with crowded punctures 
on sides. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides feebly diminishing in width to 
beyond the middle; with small and rather distant punctures on disc, becoming 
larger, but not crowded, on sides. HElytra subcordate, base rather strongly tri- 
sinuate, not much and not suddenly wider than prothorax; striae sharply defined 
but narrow, the inner ones with a few distinct punctures about base, but not 
elsewhere; interstices impunctate. Under surface with larger punctures than on 
upper surface, but becoming small on most of abdomen; basal segment with a 
shallow median depression. Front coxae rather widely separated; femora 
moderately grooved, the front ones less than the others, each with a small tooth 
and minute denticles; front tibiae with upper edge slightly incurved, the lower 
edge with a conspicuous fringe on apical half. Length, 4-5 mm. 

®. Differs in having the rostrum thinner at base, with smaller punctures, 
abdomen evenly convex, and front tibiae not fringed. 

Aru Island (H. Elgner). 

Very distinct by the apical fringe of the front tibiae, and the distant coxae. 
On one specimen of each sex the rostrum is obscurely reddish in front, and on 
the male the middle tibiae are also obscurely reddish; but on four others no 
part is reddish. 


BARIS LIOSOMA, n. sp. Text-fig. 2. 
6. Black, shining. 
Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax; sides with crowded punctures behind 
antennae. Prothorax moderately transverse; with sparse and minute punctures 


142 ON BARIDIINAE, 


BY A. M, LEA. 143 


on disc, becoming larger, but not crowded, on sides. Elytra oblong-cordate; with 
sharply defined, narrow striae, containing distinct punctures about base, smaller 
and disappearing before middle; interstices with a few small punctures about 
base only. Under surface with fairly large and dense punctures, becoming small 
on most of abdomen, basal segment with a rather wide median depression. Front 
coxae rather close together; femora shallowly grooved, each with a rather small 
acute tooth and denticulate. Length, 4:-5-5-0 mm. 


©. Differs in having rostrum slightly longer and thinner, basal segment of 
abdomen flattened in middle, or very faintly depressed there, with smaller 
punctures, and legs slightly shorter. 


Papua: Mount Lamington and Buna Bay (C. T. McNamara). 


In appearance close to the preceding species, but front tibiae of male not 
fimbriated; the females are distinct by the separation of the front coxae; in 
appearance also close to B. atropolita, but slightly larger and prothoracic punctures 
even smaller. There are two transverse impressions on the elytra, but they are so 
faint that the surface could scarcely be regarded as undulating. The denticles of 
the front femora of the male are somewhat larger than the others, so that on 
several of them the femora appear bidentate or even tridentate. 


BARIS CORDIPENNIS, n. Sp. 


3g. Black, shining; parts of antennae and of tarsi obscurely reddish. 

Rostrum stout, slightly shorter than prothorax; with fairly dense punctures 
on sides towards base. Prothorax slightly transverse, more convex than usual, 
sides rather strongly rounded; with small but sharply defined punctures, becoming 
larger on sides, but nowhere crowded. Elytra cordate; with narrow, sharply 
defined striae, containing distinct punctures only near base, and even those rather 
small; interstices impunctate. Under surface with fairly large dense punctures 
in parts; prosternum with a wide shallow groove almost to base; basal segment 
of abdomen with a shallow median depression. Front coxae moderately separated, 
femora acutely dentate. Length, 3:-4-3-6 mm. 

®. Differs in having the abdomen strongly convex, with smaller punctures 
and legs slightly shorter. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 


Text-figures 1-35. 


1. Baris trichocnemis Lea, front tibia.—2. B. liosoma Lea, front tibia.—3. B. edentata 
Lea, front tibia.—4. B. parvidentipes Lea, front tibia.—5. B. antennalis Lea, front tibia.— 
6. B. convergens Lea, front tibia.—7. B. semipunctata Lea, front tibia.—8&. B. mesoster- 
nalis Lea, front tibia.—9. Acythopeus melas Lea, front tibia.—10. Metanthia granulipes 
Lea, front tibia.—11. M. regularis Lea, front tibia.—12. M. scutellaris Lea, front tibia.— 
13. M. pyritosa Pase., front tibia.—14. M. coxalis Lea, front tibia..—15. M. imitator Lea, 
front tibia.—16. M. coxalis Lea, middle tibia.—17. Ipsichora longipes Lea, front femur 
and tibia.—18. J. tibialis Lea, front femur and tibia.—19. I. piliventris Lea, front femur 
and tibia.—20, 21. Acythopeus wngwiculatus Lea, front tibia and tarsus.—22. Baris 
antennalis Lea, head and rostrum.—23. B. bialbivitta Lea, head and rostrum.—24. B. 
nemorhina Lea, head and rostrum.—25. Acythopeus leweomelas Lea, head and rostrum.— 
26. A. insignis Lea, head and rostrum.—27. Myctides filirostris Lea, head and rostrum.— 
28. Metanthia gagatina Lea, head and rostrum.—29. M. apina Lea, head and rostrum.— 
30. Ipsichora piliventris Lea, head and rostrum.—31. Baris multimaculata Lea, markings 
of upper surface.—32. Acythopeus leucomelas Lea, markings of upper surface.—33. 
Aulacobaris pictipennis Lea, elytron.—34. Degis trigonopterus Pascec., elytron.—35. D. 
trigonopterus. front coxa. 


144 ON BARIDIINAE, 


With the narrow sharply defined striae of some of the preceding species, but 
elytra not at all undulated, prothorax more convex, and rostrum decidedly shorter 
and stouter. Although the elytra are trisinuate at the base, when viewed from 
behind only the median sinus is evident, and the heart-shaped appearance is 
conspicuous. The femoral teeth are small, but acute and well defined, on the 
front pair they are nearer the base than is usual, and there are two on those of the 
type; on the female there are two on the left femur, but only one on the right. 


BARIS TENUICORNIS, nN. Sp. 

©. Black, shining; parts of rostrum, of antennae, and of tarsi obscurely 
diluted with red. 

Rostrum comparatively thin and slightly longer than prothorax. Antennae 
thinner than usual. Prothorax moderately transverse, strongly convex, sides 
strongly rounded; with numerous, but not crowded, and rather small, deep 
punctures becoming larger, but not dense, on sides. EHElytra cordate; with narrow, 
deep striae, containing punctures that are visible from but few directions; inter- 
stices with a few small punctures about base and apex. Under surface with 
larger and more numerous punctures than on prothorax, but becoming sparse 
and small on most of abdomen. Prosternum with a shallow groove from apex 
to base, but with bounding carinae only in front of coxae; abdomen rather 
strongly convex. Front coxae rather widely separated, femora slightly but acutely 
dentate, and minutely denticulate. Length, 4-5 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

A strongly convex species, with the heart-shaped elytra and general outlines 
of the preceding species, but somewhat larger, rostrum decidedly longer and 
thinner, prosternal groove shallower and femoral teeth in the usual positions. 


BARIS EDENTATA, n. Sp. Text-fig. 3. 

6. Black, shining. Sterna and base of abdomen with numerous white setae. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax; with crowded but not very large punctures 
on sides of basal half. Prothorax scarcely wider than long, sides almost evenly 
diminishing in width from base to apex; upper surface with small and sparse 
but rather sharp punctures, becoming larger and denser on sides. Hlytra with 
sides rather rapidly diminishing behind shoulders; with sharply defined but fine 
striae, containing distinct punctures that vanish behind the middle; interstices 
impunctate even at base. Under surface with crowded punctures somewhat as on 
sides of prothorax, but becoming sparse and small on most of abdomen, basal 
segment with a shallow median depression, apical one with a moderately large, 
round fovea. Front coxae fairly close together, femora shallowly grooved and 
edentate. Length, 3-5 mm. 

Papua: Bisiatabu (Rev. W. N. Lock). Unique. 

In general appearance fairly close to B. atropolita, but elytra more rapidly 
narrowed from near the base, and femora edentate. The prosternum has a narrow 
groove, but it is partly concealed by the clothing, even after the head has been 
removed. 


BARIS PARVIDENTIPES, n. Sp. Text-fig. 4. 


6. Black, shining; parts of antennae obscurely reddish. Sterna, base of 
abdomen, under parts of legs and upper surface of middle and of hind femora, 
with stout white setae or scales. 


BY A. M. LEA. 145 


Rostrum at its junction with head with a shallow transverse impression, 
rather strongly curved, slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded and fairly 
coarse punctures on basal sides. Prothorax almost as long as the basal width, 
a shallow transverse impression on the scutellar lobe; with sparse and minute 
punctures, becoming moderately large and numerous, but not crowded, on sides. 
Hlytra cordate, rapidly narrowed behind the shoulders; with fine striae, the 
sutural and marginal ones with a few distinct punctures towards base, but not 
elsewhere; interstices impunctate. Sterna and base of abdomen with dense, 
partly concealed punctures, small on rest of abdomen; basal segment with a 
fairly large depression from base to apex. Front coxae moderately separated, 
femora grooved and edentate, front tibiae with an obtuse median tooth or granule 
on lower surface. Length, 3-5 mm. 


®. Differs in having abdomen evenly convex and legs slightly shorter, with 
the front tibiae unarmed. 


Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 


Distinct by the front tibiae of the male. The white clothing is fairly dense 
on the metasternal episterna, and on the upper surface of some of the femora, 
but is very sparse on the abdomen. 


BARIS OBSCURIPES, Nn. SD. 

®. Black, shining. 

Rostrum moderately stout, slightly shorter than prothorax; with crowded and 
not very large punctures on sides behind antennae. Prothorax slightly transverse, 
a feeble impression across scutellar lobe; with sparse and minute punctures, 
becoming larger on sides. Hlytra cordate; striae fine, but containing distinct 
punctures, becoming smaller posteriorly; interstices impunctate. Under surface 
with sharply defined punctures of moderate size, small on most of abdomen, which 
is evenly convex; pygidium just perceptible. Front coxae moderately separated, 
femora grooved and edentate. Length, 3-5 mm. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner). Unique. 

In appearance fairly close to the preceding species, but without white clothing, 
and the striae with more numerous punctures; it is also close to B. edentata, but 
is slightly more robust, and even the under parts are glabrous. In its rather 
wide rostrum, with series of punctures on elytra it approaches Metanthia, in the 
almost complete concealment of the pygidium Gymnobaris. The prothoracic 
punctures, although minute, are sharply defined. 


BaRIS ANTENNALIS, n. sp. Text-figs. 5, 22. 


6. Black, shining; parts of legs and of rostrum obscurely diluted with red, 
antennae reddish. 

Rostrum almost the length of prothorax, of almost equal thickness through- 
out, base not transversely impressed; with fairly dense punctures on sides behind 
antennae. Antennae inserted slightly nearer base than apex of rostrum. Pro- 
thorax slightly longer than wide, sides evenly decreasing in width from base to 
apex; with sparse and minute punctures, becoming larger, but still sparse and 
small, on sides. EHlytra elongate-cordate; with sharp striae containing distinct 
punctures on basal third (less behind shoulders than towards suture), very fine 
or impunctate elsewhere; interstices impunctate. Metasternum with rather large 
and dense punctures. Abdomen with sparse and small punctures, but becoming 


146 ON BARIDIINAE, 


dense on apical segment, basal one shallowly impressed along middle. Legs 
rather long and thin, femora minutely but acutely dentate. Length, 2-8 mm. 

®. Differs in having rostrum thinner and slightly longer, abdomen rather 
strongly and evenly convex, and femoral teeth even smaller. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

A narrow species, with antennae inserted slightly nearer the base than apex 
of rostrum; on all the other species here named, unless otherwise noted, they are 
inserted from one-third to two-fifths from the apex. The striae towards base of 
elytra are about one-third of the width of the interstices, but (except the sutural 
and marginal ones) they almost vanish posteriorly. From most directions the 
femoral teeth are invisible. 


BARIS MEGALOPS, N. Sp. 

°. Black, shining; antennae reddish, tarsi obscurely reddish. 

Hyes large and almost touching. Rostrum about the length of prothorax, 
upper surface ridged towards base, not transversely impressed at junction with 
head; near eyes with rather dense punctures. Prothorax almost as long as the 
basal width; upper surface with sparse and very minute punctures, the sides with 
some sharply defined ones, but sparse and not very large. Hlytra short and 
cordate; with distinct striae containing punctures about basal third, the sutural 
and marginal striae continued beyond middle, elsewhere neither striate nor 
punctate. Prosternum with a shallow groove in front. Metasternum with crowded 
punctures. Abdomen convex and almost impunctate. Legs rather long and thin, 
femora dentate. Length, 3 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

The elytra have a few striae containing distinct punctures about the base, 
somewhat as on the preceding species, but most of the surface is without either 
striae or punctures. The front femora are scarcely visibly dentate, each of the 
others has two small but acute teeth and some smaller ones. 


BARIS CASTANEICORNIS, 0. Sp. 


°. Black, shining; legs obscurely diluted with red, antennae pale castaneous. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax, slightly dilated to base, not transversely 
impressed at junction with head; with dense and small punctures on sides, 
minute elsewhere. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides rather strongly 
rounded; with scarcely visible punctures, even on sides. Hlytra short and 
cordate, with faint striae, containing small punctures in places. Metasternum 
with distinct punctures towards sides only. Abdomen convex and impunctate. 
Legs long, femora acutely dentate, tibiae with upper edge very feebly incurved. 
Length, 3 mm. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rey. L. Wagner). Unique. 

In appearance close to the preceding species, but eyes not close together, 
metasternum impunctate, except towards sides, and femora sharply unidentate. 
The sutural and marginal striae are fairly distinct, and punctures in striae are 
faintly traceable elsewhere. 


BARIS PUNCTIMEDIA, N. Sp. 
®. Black, shining. 
Rostrum the length of prothorax, with a rather wide but shallow impression 
at its junction with head; with crowded punctures on sides. Prothorax almost 


BY A. M. LEA. 147 


as long as wide, rather strongly convex; with punctures of moderate size and not 
very close together on upper surface, becoming crowded on sides. Elytra very 
little wider than prothorax, parallel-sided to about middle; with narrow but 
Sharply defined striae, containing a few small punctures towards base; inter- 
stices impunctate. Metasternum with crowded punctures as on sides of prothorax; 
abdomen with much smaller and sparser ones. Legs moderately long, femora 
slightly grooved and edentate. Length, 2-5 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

A small species, fairly distinct by the wide depression at base of rostrum, 
and sharply defined and rather distant punctures of pronotum. 


BARIS TENUIPES, Nn. Sp. 

2. Black, shining; tip of rostrum and tarsi obscurely reddish, antennae paler. 

Eyes large and almost touching. Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax, 
somewhat narrowed to apex, not transversely impressed at base; sides with 
crowded punctures behind antennae, minute elsewhere. Prothorax slightly longer 
than wide, sides decreasing in width from base; upper surface impunctate, the 
sides with a few small but fairly sharp punctures. Elytra cordate; striae 
sharply defined throughout, and containing some fairly distinct punctures on 
basal half, ill-defined or absent elsewhere; interstices impunctate. Metasternum 
with crowded punctures. Abdomen evenly convex, with a few well-defined 
punctures about base, sparse and small elsewhere. Legs long and thin, femora 
minutely dentate. Length, 2-3 mm. 

New Guinea: Hudewa (Rev. L. Wagner). Unique. 

The eyes are large and close together, much as on B. megalops, but it differs 
from that species in the regular elytral striae, thinner rostrum and different 
dentition of femora. 


BARIS FOVEATA, N. Sp. 

Black, shining; tip of rostrum and parts of antennae obscurely reddish. 

Rostrum not very stout, slightly shorter than prothorax, not transversely 
impressed at base; with crowded punctures on sides behind antennae. Prothorax 
slightly longer than wide, sides regularly decreasing in width to apex; upper 
surface impunctate; sides with sharply defined and fairly numerous punctures. 
Elytra elongate-cordate; striae sharply defined, except near sides, but traceable 
there, and almost impunctate; interstices impunctate. Metasternum with crowded 
punctures. Abdomen with a few distinct punctures about base, but small else- 
where, basal segment feebly convex in middle, the apical segment foveate. Legs 
moderately long, femora edentate, tibiae with upper edge faintly incurved to 
middle. Length, 2:2 mm. 

Queensland (Dr. W. Horn, from Franklin Miiller). Unique. 

In appearance close to the preceding species, and with similar elytral striae 
and prothoracic punctures, but differs in having the eyes well separated, legs 
slightly shorter and femora edentate. The sex of the type is doubtful, as although 
the basal segment of abdomen is not concave along middle, as on most males, 
the apical one is foveate. 


BARIS MONOBIA, D. SDP. 
Black, shining. i 
Rostrum the length of prothorax, arched at base; sides behind antennae 
with crowded but rather small punctures. Prothorax slightly transverse; with 


148 ON BARIDIINAE, 

sparse and small punctures on upper surface, becoming larger and crowded on 
sides. Elytra subcordate; with sharply defined, fine striae, each with a series 
of small punctures, some of which do not extend much beyond the middle; 
interstices impunctate. Metasternum with numerous but scarcely crowded 
punctures of moderate size, becoming sparse and small on abdomen. Prosternum 
feebly depressed along middle. Legs moderately long, front coxae widely separated, 
femora slightly grooved and acutely dentate. Length, 2-5 mm. 

Torres Straits: Cornwallis Island (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

Close to the preceding species, but rostrum longer and depressed at its 
junction with head. It is fairly close to B. vulnerata in appearance, but on that 
species the head is conspicuously foveate in front. There is a faint depression 
at the apex of the basal segment of abdomen, but the type is probably a female. 


BARIS CONVERGENS, nN. sp. Text-fig. 6. 

6. Black, somewhat shining. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax; with crowded punctures, becoming rather 
small in front. Prothorax moderately transverse; with dense punctures of moderate 
size. Elytra cordate, with sharp striae containing deep-set inconspicuous 
punctures; interstices with fairly large punctures about base, smaller posteriorly, 
but distinct throughout. Under surface with crowded punctures, smaller on 
abdomen than elsewhere, the latter with a feeble depression on two basal segments. 
Femora slightly dentate. Length, 3 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

Close to B. porosa from Queensland (and like that species it should possibly 
be referred to Acythopeus), but the elytra are more shining and with smaller 
punctures. It is about the size of B. sororia, but is slightly more convex, and there 
is no clothing on the scutellar lobe. 


BARIS SEMIPUNCTATA, Nn. Sp. Text-fig. 7. 

6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax, upper surface obtusely ridged near base; 
sides with crowded punctures behind antennae. Prothorax moderately transverse, 
sides almost evenly decreasing in width to apex; with sharply defined punctures 
of moderate size, becoming crowded on sides. Elytra cordate; with series of 
punctures in regular striae, the punctures rather large at base and decreasing 
in size to apex; interstices impunctate. Metasternum and base of abdomen with 
crowded and deep punctures, basal segment feebly depressed in middle. Front 
coxae moderately separated, femora edentate, lower surface of front tibiae with 
an obtuse swelling at apical fourth. Length, 2 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

In size and with outlines much as B. angophorae or small B. sororia, but 
prothoracic punctures not crowded on disc (although quite numerous), and elytral 
interstices impunctate; the punctures in the striae are almost as wide as the 
interstices at the base, but rapidly decrease in size. ‘The eyes are fairly close 
together, although not as close as on B. megalops and tenwipes. The slight 
swelling of the front tibiae could be easily overlooked; it is considerably nearer 
the apex than on B. parvidentipes. 


BARIS VIGILANS, Nn. sp. 
®. Black, shining; antennae and tarsi obscurely diluted with red, abdomen 
reddish. 


BY A. M. LEA, 149 


Eyes large and almost touching. Rostrum not very stout, slightly shorter 
than prothorax, not transversely impressed at base. Prothorax slightly wider 
than head, rapidly diminishing in width from base to apex; upper surface with 
sparse and minute punctures, becoming larger, but not crowded, on sides. EHlytra 
cordate; with rows of distinct punctures in feeble striae, the punctures becoming 
feeble posteriorly and on the sides, but the striae more distinct there. Metasternum 
with sharply defined punctures of moderate size and not dense. Abdomen evenly 
convex, with sparse and minute punctures. Legs not very long, femora feebly 
grooved and edentate, upper edge of tibiae gently arched, more strongly at base. 
Length, 2 mm. 

New Guinea: Finsch Haven (Rey. L. Wagner). Unique. 


The eyes are much as on B. megalops and tenwipes, from each of which the 
species differs in the punctures of elytra, shorter legs, and edentate femora. The 
outlines of the head and prothorax, from above, are almost equilaterally triangular. 
The abdomen of the type is distinctly reddish, but this may be due to immaturity. 


BARIS MESOSTERNALIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 8. 


6. Black, shining; antennae obscurely diluted with red. A narrow white 
vitta on each elytron towards apex, prosternum, sides of metasternum, tip of 
abdomen, sides of rostrum and legs (including upper surface of femora), with 
stout white setae or scales. 


Rostrum the length of prothorax; sides with moderately dense punctures, 
partly concealed by clothing. Prothorax almost as long as wide, rather strongly 
convex; with very minute punctures, even on sides. Hlytra subcordate, outlines 
continuous with those of prothorax; with fine, regular, and almost impunctate 
striae; interstices impunctate. Metasternum with punctures of moderate size 
and not very dense; side pieces of mesosternum almost impunctate. Abdomen 
with crowded punctures on apical segment, and moderately dense towards base, 
elsewhere sparse and minute; basal segment with a wide depression from base 
to apex. Legs moderately long, femora feebly grooved, dentate and minutely 
denticulate, front tibiae slightly armed on under surface, at about one-third 
from apex. Length, 4:0-4:-5 mm. 


°. Differs in being slightly larger, rostrum thinner, slightly longer than 
prothorax, abdomen more convex, punctures on basal segment sparser and smaller, 
and front tibiae simple. 


New Guinea: Finsch Haven (Rev. L. Wagner); Papua: Mount Lamington 
(Cc. T. McNamara). 


This and the next species are very distinct by the almost complete absence 
of punctures from the side pieces of the mesosternum, except for a few minute 
submarginal ones. The elytra from behind appear truly cordate, as the sublateral 
Sinuations of the base disappear when so viewed; from some directions the striae 
appear to have a few minute punctures, but they are invisible from most directions. 
The vitta on each elytron of two males (which were trapped by sticky seeds of a 
Pisonia) is not confined to the fifth interstice, but is partly on the fourth as 
well, but the only female is entirely without vittae, although quite evidently it 
belongs to the same species. The projection on the front tibiae of the male is 
somewhat as on B. semipunctata, but that species is much smaller, with normal 
punctures on the mesosternum. 


150 ON BARIDIINAE, 


BaARIS LAEVISSIMA, Nl. Sp. 


Black, shining. 

Rostrum about the length of prothorax; with strong crowded punctures on 
sides behind antennae. Prothorax moderately transverse; with sparse and minute 
punctures, no larger on sides than elsewhere. Elytra subcordate, outlines 
continuous with those of prothorax; with fine, sharply defined striae, containing 
minute punctures, but the first three on each side of the suture with fairly distinct 
ones towards base; interstices impunctate. Under surface with sparse and minute 
punctures except for a few about coxae, and on side pieces of metasternum. 
Prosternum with a wide shallow depression in front. Front coxae widely 
separated, femora edentate, the middle and hind ones distinctly grooved. Length, 
4-0-4-5 mm. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner); Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. 
McNamara). 

In appearance close to the preceding species, and with similar mesosternum, 
but slightly more robust, sparser punctures on under surface (notably on the 
metasternum and apex of abdomen), femora edentate and more distinctly grooved. 
The type is possibly a male, as the basal segment of its abdomen is flat or feebly 
depressed in the middle, the other specimens (two) have the abdomen more 
convex, but as there are no sexual differences in the front tibiae, all three are 
probably females. 


BARIS SIMPLICIPENNIS, Nn. Sp. 


6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum rather thin, slightly longer than prothorax; punctures small and not 
crowded, even near base. Prothorax slightly transverse, strongly narrowed near 
apex; with sparse and minute punctures, even on sides. Elytra cordate; with a 
fairly distinct subsutural row of punctures on basal half, and shorter rows of 
smaller punctures near base. Under surface with sparse but sharply defined 
punctures. Basal segment of abdomen with a shallow depression in middle, 
clothed with setae slightly longer than on legs. Legs rather long, coxae widely 
separated, the front ones more than the others, femora with a small but acute 
tooth, followed by small denticles. Length, 3 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

The prosternum is shallowly depressed along the middle, but could scarcely 
be regarded as grooved, and the front coxae are too widely separated for the 
species to be referred to Metanthia, to which, from the upper surface, it would 
appear to belong. In general appearance it is fairly close to B. mesosternalis and 
laevissima, from each of which it is distinct by the sharply defined, although not 
abundant punctures on side pieces of the mesosternum, and abdominal clothing, 
which, however, is probably confined to the male; the former has fairly distinct 
striae and bivittate elytra, the latter has edentate femora. Faint remnants of 
striae are traceable only near the suture and sides, and the seriate punctures, 
except that the subsutural row is fairly distinct, are also very feeble. 


BaARIS BIALBIVITTA, n. Sp. Text-fig. 23. 


3. Black, shining; antennae reddish, tarsi darker. Hach elytron with a long 
thin white vitta on the fifth interstice beyond the middle, and a few setae at the 
apex; legs with distinct white setae, and a few on parts of sterna. 


BY A. M. LEA. IL 


Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded and fairly strong 
punctures on sides behind antennae. Prothorax with fairly dense but not crowded 
punctures of moderate size, becoming slightly larger on sides. Elytra subcordate; 
with sharply defined striae containing distinct but not large punctures; inter- 
stices with very minute punctures. Metasternum with dense and fairly large 
punctures, becoming smaller and sparser on the following segment (which has a 
wide shallow depression), and still smaller and sparser on rest of abdomen. Front 
coxae moderately separated, femora rather stout, feebly grooved and feebly 
dentate, tibiae straight. Length, 4 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

The elytra are conspicuously bivittate. The prosternum has a narrow groove 
bounded by a fine carina on each side, but to see it clearly the head must be 
removed. 


BARIS INUSITATA, N. SD. 


°. Black, shining; antennae and tarsi obscurely diluted with red. Hach 
elytron with a narrow white vitta on the fifth interstice, at about one-fifth from 
the apex. 


Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded punctures on sides — 
behind antennae. Prothorax slightly transverse; with dense and fairly large 
punctures on middle and sides, a fairly wide space towards each side polished and 
with sparse and very minute punctures. Elytra subcordate; with sharply defined 
striae containing small, deep-set punctures; interstices impunctate, except the 
marginal one at apex. Prosternum with a slight pectoral canal. Metasternum 
with crowded punctures in middle and on episterna, the interspaces highly 
polished and impunctate. Abdomen gently convex, the basal segment and part 
of the second with punctures about as large as on metasternum, but much 
sparser, elsewhere with sparse and minute ones. Front coxae moderately separated, 
femora feebly grooved and acutely but not strongly dentate, upper edge of tibiae. 
gently incurved in middle. Length, 4-5 mm. 


New Guinea: Manumbo (Madang district). Unique. 


In appearance fairly close to the preceding species, but with remarkable pro- 
thoracic and metasternal punctures, setae of legs much smaller, femora more 
strongly dentate, and upper edge of tibiae different. 


BARIS STICTOPTERA, 0. SD. 


®. Black; most parts with a bluish gloss. Elytra with four white spots or 
two incomplete fasciae, sides of metasternum with fairly dense white setae, the 
legs with a small white seta in each puncture. 

Rostrum rather thin, slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded but not 
very large punctures on sides behind antennae, which are inserted just percep- 
tibly in advance of the middle. Prothorax scarcely wider than long, sides almost 
parallel to near apex; with dense but not crowded punctures of moderate size. 
Elytra thin, parallel-sided to beyond the middle; with sharp striae containing 
small, deep-set punctures; interstices with small sharp punctures, not confined 
to a single row on each. Under surface with crowded punctures about as large 
as on pronotum, but becoming sparser and smaller on abdomen, basal segments 
flattened in middle. Legs rather long, femora edentate. Length, 4 mm. 

New Guinea: Caprivizipfel (Dr. W. Horn, from — vy. Bennigsen). Unique. 


152 ON BARIDIINAE, 


A rather narrow, bluish species, with distinct elytral markings, which consist 
of a fairly large white spot on each side of the base close to the scutellum, and 
another at the apical third, from the second interstice to the sixth. 


BARIS BIMACULIBASIS, n. Sp. 

6. Black, shining. Each elytron with a conspicuous white spot on the third 
interstice at base, under surface in places with fairly distinct whitish setae, 
becoming minute on legs. 

Rostrum rather stout, the length of prothorax; with crowded punctures on 
sides behind antennae. Prothorax slightly transverse, sides rather strongly 
rounded; with numerous but not crowded punctures of moderate size, becoming 
larger on sides. Elytra subcordate; with sharply defined striae containing distinct 
punctures on basal half, becoming fairly large close to base; interstices impunctate. 
Metasternum with crowded punctures, sparser on basal segment of abdomen 
(which is feebly depressed along middle), and still smaller and sparser elsewhere. 
Femora feebly grooved and edentate. Length, 2 mm. 

®. Differs in having abdomen evenly convex. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

A small species, with two white spots at the base of the elytra. 


BARIS EURYSTERNA, Nl. SD. 

d. Black, shining. Third interstice on each elytron at base, under surface 
and legs with white scales. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax; with crowded and rather coarse punctures 
on sides behind antennae, smaller but still dense elsewhere. Prothorax very 
little wider than long, rather strongly convex; with dense but not crowded, 
sharply defined punctures of moderate size. Elytra oblong-cordate; with sharply 
defined striae containing a few deep-set punctures; interstices with a few small 
punctures at base and about apex. Under surface with dense punctures, becoming 
smaller and sparser on parts of abdomen, two basal segments with a wide shallow 
depression. Front coxae widely separated, femora moderately grooved and 
edentate, front tibiae fimbriated on apical half of lower surface. Length, 
4-5-5-:2 mm. 

©. Differs in having the rostrum slightly longer and thinner, abdomen evenly 
convex, front coxae less widely separated and front tibiae not fimbriated. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

The front coxae are more widely separated than is usual in the genus. The 
basal clothing of the elytra forms two feeble spots on each of three specimens 
under examination, but could be easily abraded, on the under surface and legs 
there is a single scale in each puncture, but the metasternal episterna and upper 
parts of the femora are rather densely clothed; there are also a few scales at the 
basal sides of rostrum. 


BARIS MULTIMACULATA, n. sp. Text-fig. 31. 

6. Black, shining. With numerous spots of snowy-white scales. 

Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax; with crowded punctures on sides 
behind antennae, which are inserted at apical fourth, and smaller, but still 
numerous, elsewhere. Prothorax not much wider than long, sides evenly 
diminishing in width to apex; with sharply defined but not very large or dense 
punctures, becoming crowded on sides. Elytra cordate; with sharply defined 


BY A. M. LEA. 153 


striae containing punctures of moderate size towards base, but small elsewhere; 
about five of the lateral interstices with fairly distinct punctures, absent else- 
where. Basal segment of abdomen depressed along middle. Femora moderately 
grooved and edentate. Length, 3 mm. 

Malay Peninsula: Kuala Lumpur (A. M. Lea). Unique. 

The snowy spots on the upper surface are almost evenly distributed; there 
are four on the pronotum, sixteen on the elytra, and one on the upper surface of 
each femur: twenty-six in all; in addition there are some white setae scattered 
about on the under surface and legs and fairly dense on parts of the metasternum. 


BARIS NEMORHINA, n. sp. Text-fig. 24. 


6. Black, shining; parts of antennae and of legs somewhat reddish. With a 
small seta in each puncture. 

Rostrum thin, slightly longer than prothorax. Antennae inserted in middle 
ef sides of rostrum. Prothorax slightly wider than long, disc but feebly convex; 
with numerous but not crowded punctures of moderate size on disc, and leaving 
an impunctate median line, the sides with crowded punctures. Elytra subcordate; 
with comparatively wide striae containing deep-set punctures; the interstices each 
with a row of small punctures. Sterna with dense punctures, becoming smaller 
and sparser on abdomen, basal segment with a shallow depression along middle. 
Femora feebly grooved and edentate. Length, 2:7 mm. 

Fiji (Dr. W. Horn, from — Kraatz). Unique. 

In shape approaching B. angophorae and sororia, from Australia. The setae 
scarcely differ in length on the body and legs, on the elytra they form a row on 
each interstice. Seen from above the rostrum appears much thinner than the 
femora. 


BARIS BASIPENNIS, Nn. Sp. 


9. Dark brown and somewhat shining. With a few setae scattered about. 

Rostrum almost the length of prothorax; with fairly coarse punctures on 
sides behind antennae. Prothorax moderately transverse; with crowded 
punctures, in places becoming transversely confluent. Elytra subcordate; with 
sharply defined striae containing deep-set punctures; interstices each with a 
row of punctures. Sterna with crowded punctures, becoming smaller and sparser 
on abdomen, especially on the intermediate segments. Femora feebly grooved 
and edentate. Length, 2 mm. 

Fiji: Viti Levu (A. M. Lea). Unique. 

A small species, with rather coarse punctures on prothorax. There is a wide 
shallow depression on the elytra at the basal third, causing the base, from the 
sides, to appear slightly gibbous. 


BARIS VITIENSIS, nN. sp. 


©. Blackish and shining, rostrum, antennae, and legs obscurely diluted with 
red. HElytra with a few small white spots, under parts sparsely clothed. 

Hyes rather large. Rostrum moderately thin, the length of prothorax, not 
depressed at its junction with head. Prothorax moderately transverse; with 
sparse and small punctures on upper surface, becoming larger and crowded on 
sides. Elytra cordate; with sharply defined striae, containing deep-set punctures; 
interstices with fairly distinct ones, but almost impunctate in middle. Sterna 


154 ON BARIDIINAE, 


with dense punctures, smaller and sparser on abdomen. Femora feebly grooved 
and edentate. Length, 2 mm. 

Fiji; Viti Levu (A. M. Lea). Unique. 

The outlines are somewhat as on B. angophorae and sororia, but the punctures 
and clothing are very different. 


BaRIs POROSA Lea. 
Mr. G. F. Hill took six specimens of this species, at Darwin, on Careya 
australis. 


BARIS SORORIA Lea. : 
This species occurs in Papua (Port Moresby) and Aru, as well as in 
Queensland. 


ZENA. 
Pase., Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen., 1885, p. 295. 


ZENA VITTIPENNIS, nN. Sp. 


3. Black, shining. With rather dense clothing in parts, the elytra vittate. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax; with crowded, partly concealed punctures 
on sides behind antennae. Prothorax moderately transverse; with sharply defined 
but rather small and not crowded punctures on disc, becoming larger and denser 
on sides, and leaving a narrow impunctate median line. Elytra oblong-cordate; 
with acute striae containing deep-set punctures, larger about base than else- 
where; interstices with fairly large but partly concealed punctures about base 
and sides, smaller elsewhere. Two basal segments of abdomen _ shallowly 
depressed along middle. Femora edentate. Length, 4-5 mm. 

©. Differs in having the rostrum slightly longer than the prothorax, and 
abdomen evenly convex. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara); New Guinea: Finsch Haven 
(Rev. L. Wagner), Manumbo (Madang district). 

Allied to Z. cynethioides, but smaller; on two specimens of the type series 
of that species there is a white vitta on the fourth interstice of each elytron, 
adjacent to a longer one on the fifth, and with another small one at the base of 
the third. On eight specimens of the present one the fourth interstice is non- 
vittate. Each side of the prothorax is rather densely clothed, but has a fairly 
large glabrous space, partly visible from above; on each elytron there are 
scattered scales on the sides and apex, and two small vittae on the third inter- 
stice, one at the base, the other at the middle, adjacent to the latter on the fifth 
interstice there is a longer vitta, occupying rather more than the median third, 
on the under surface and legs the clothing is dense, especially on the metasternal 
episterna; there are also a few scales on the sides of the rostrum. On three 
specimens parts of the elytra and of the legs are somewhat reddish. 


ZENA MEGAPHOLA, N. Sp. 


9. Piceous-brown and _  subopaque. With conspicuous spots of large, 
stramineous scales. 

Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax, gibbous at base; with crowded and 
rather coarse punctures on sides behind antennae (these inserted slightly nearer 
base than apex), small and sparse in front. Prothorax slightly transverse; with 


BY A. M. LEA. 155 


dense punctures of moderate size. Hlytra subcordate, not much wider than pro- 
thorax; punctate-striate, the interstices each with a series of fairly large punctures, 
becoming crowded at base. Metasternum with punctures as on pronotum, small 
and sparse on abdomen, but dense on apical segment. Femora with a row of 
granules on each side of a shallow groove. Length, 4 mm. 


Malay Peninsula: Kuala Lumpur (A. M. Lea). Unique. 


Very distinctively clothed with large, stramineous scales, which form a vitta 
on each side of the base of the prothorax, and a small spot (invisible from 
above) on each side in front; on each elytron they form two vittae on the fourth 
interstice, one at the base, the other in the middle, and a small spot at the apex; 
on the under surface the scales are fairly dense between the front coxae, form a 
curved row from the hind to middle coxae, and between the latter, are dense on 
the metasternal episterna, and form six spots on the abdomen: four on the second 
segment, and one on each side of the first. 


SOLENOBARIS. 
Lea, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1906, p. 102. 


This’ genus was known only from Queensland, but several species are now 
before me from New Guinea and Fiji; its species all have the prosternum sharply 
grooved (as in many Cryptorhynchinae). The head usually has a small inter- 
ocular fovea or large puncture, but is without the transverse depression at its 
junction with the rostrum that so many species of Baris have; the elytra are 
usually seriate-punctate, and usually without continuous striae, or only near 
suture and sides. 


SOLENOBARIS INSIGNIROSTRIS, nN. Sp. 


6. Black, shining. 

Head with a small interocular fovea. Rostrum slightly curved, about one- 
fourth longer than prothorax; with dense punctures, often confluent behind 
antennae; apical half ridged along middle. Antennae inserted almost in exact 
middle of sides of rostrum, scape about half the length of funicle and club 
combined. Prothorax slightly transverse, upper surface with sparse and minute 
punctures, becoming slightly larger close to base, and distinctly larger on sides 
near legs. Elytra cordate; almost non-striate, with regular series of punctures 
of moderate size about base, but rapidly diminishing posteriorly; interstices with 
sparse and minute punctures. Metasternum with crowded punctures, becoming 
sparser on basal segment of abdomen, and still sparser and smaller on the others; 
basal segment with a wide depression along middle. Legs moderately long, 
femora feebly grooved, slightly but acutely dentate, and with a few minute 
denticles. Length, 4-5-5-0 mm. 

®. Differs in having slightly smaller eyes, thinner rostrum, and abdomen 
evenly convex. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner). 

The largest known species of the genus. The ridge on the apical half of the 
rostrum is quite acute, each side of it being obliquely flattened, so that the 
rostrum there, in transverse section, is equilaterally triangular. 


SOLENOBARIS DENTICULATA, 0. SD. 


6. Black, moderately shining. 
B 


156 ON BARIDIINAE, 


Rostrum slightly longer than prothorax, slightly ridged along middle; with 
crowded but not large punctures behind antennae, and at base of upper surface. 
Antennae inserted slightly nearer base than apex of rostrum. Prothorax 
moderately transverse, rather strongly convex; with dense but not crowded and 
rather small but sharply defined punctures. Elytra with regular rows of punctures 
of moderate size, becoming much smaller posteriorly; the striae very feeble. 
Metasternum with crowded punctures, slightly larger than on pronotum. Basal 
segment of abdomen widely depressed along middle, with punctures about as 
large as on metasternum, but sparser, apical segment with crowded punctures, 
the third and fourth each with a single row across middle. Femora each with 
an acute tooth, followed by a row of denticles. Length, 3:5—-4:0 mm. 

°. Differs in having slightly smaller eyes, longer rostrum, abdomen evenly 
convex and with more crowded punctures on two basal segments. 

Aru Islands (H. Elgner). 

Smaller than the preceding species, rostrum less acutely ridged, pectoral 
canal deeper, and femora with more numerous denticles. 


SOLENOBARIS ORTHORRHINA, ND. SD. 

©. Black, shining. 

Rostrum about one-fourth longer than prothorax, almost straight, upper 
surface flattened near apex; with dense punctures on sides behind antennae 
(these inserted almost in exact middle of sides). Prothorax slightly transverse; 
with sparse and minute punctures on upper surface, becoming numerous and 
moderately large on sides. Elytra subcordate; with rows of fairly large punctures 
about base, rapidly becoming smaller and vanishing before the middle, striation 
very faint. Metasternum and base of abdomen with crowded punctures, the 
abdomen evenly convex. Femora each with a small acute tooth and small 
denticles. Length, 2:4-2-6 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

In general appearance close to S. decipiens (from Queensland), but narrower, 
rostrum longer and straighter, and femora acutely dentate. 


SOLENOBARIS HAMATA, N. SDP. 


do. Black, shining; antennae and tarsi obscurely reddish. 

Rostrum rather wide, parallel-sided, strongly curved and no longer than pro- 
thorax; with dense punctures on sides towards base, small and sparse elsewhere. 
Antennae inserted slightly nearer apex than base of rostrum. Prothorax with 
scarcely visible punctures, even on sides. Hlytra rather short, with basal incur- 
vature only about scutellum; nonstriate, but with rows of small punctures, 
vanishing posteriorly. Metasternum with some coarse punctures between coxae, 
its episterna, as also those of the mesosternum, each with a row of strong 
punctures, curved at the end like a hook. Abdomen shallowly depressed along 
middle of basal segment, with a few distinct punctures about base, apical segment 
with small but numerous ones. Femora grooved and edentate. Length, 3-5 mm. 

New Guinea: Hudewa (Rev. L. Wagner). Unique. 

The front femora are moderately grooved, but the groove on each of the 
others is rather wide, the rostrum is also wider and shorter than usual, but as 
the pectoral canal is wide, deep and sharply defined, it does not appear desirable 
to propose a new genus for the species. In some respects it approaches 
Metanthia. 


BY A. M. LEA. 157 


A specimen from Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara) possibly belongs to 
this species, but has the rostrum distinctly longer, thinner, and less curved; it is 
evidently also a male, as the metasternum and abdomen are identical with the 
type; the punctures on the mesosternal episterna are sparse but do not form a 
hook. 


SoOLENOBARIS PARVIPUNCTATA, Nl. SD. 

6. Black, shining; antennae reddish. ; 

Rostrum not very stout, the length of prothorax; with numerous but not 
crowded punctures behind antennae (which are inserted nearer apex than base). 
Prothorax slightly transverse, sides rapidly decreasing in width to apex; with 
sparse and minute punctures, even on sides. Elytra cordate, outlines continuous 
with those of prothorax, sides from near base more rapidly diminishing in width 
to apex than usual; with short rows of small punctures, two rows near suture 
more distinct and longer than the others. Metasternum with numerous distinct 
punctures. Basal segment of abdomen with a fairly deep median depression, 
continued on to second, with a few small punctures about base, the apical segment 
rather densely punctate. Legs rather long, femora grooved and edentate. Length, 
3-5 mm.” 

Queensland: Dunk Island (H. Hacker). Type (unique) in Queensland 
Museum. 

On removing the head the pectoral canal is seen to have well defined walls 
between the front coxae, but it is rather shallower in front than is usual in the 
genus. From the preceding species it differs in being slightly narrower, rostrum 
distinctly longer, basal segment of abdomen conspicuously depressed along middle, 
and femora less widely grooved. 

The elytra are nonstriate, and the series of punctures are so small and short, 
that most parts are practically impunctate. 


SOLENOBARIS INERMIS, Nn. Sp. 

¢6. Black, shining; parts of antennae reddish. Head between eyes, base of 
rostrum, and under surface with whitish or yellowish clothing. 

Head scarcely impressed between eyes. Rostrum rather wide, moderately 
curved, the length of prothorax. Antennae inserted slightly nearer apex than base 
of rostrum. Prothorax slightly transverse, sides slightly rounded and decreasing 
in width from base to apex; with sharply defined but not very large or dense 
punctures, becoming slightly larger on sides. Elytra subcordate; with rows of 
fairly large punctures in feeble striae about base, smaller but in more distinct 
striae posteriorly. Metasternum with crowded punctures, becoming smaller on 
most of abdomen, basal segment widely depressed along middle. Legs rather thin, 
femora edentate. Length, 2 mm. 

°. Differs in having slightly thinner rostrum, shorter legs and abdomen evenly 
convex. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

Smaller and somewhat narrower than S. edentata, and with somewhat thinner 
legs. There are fairly distinct striae on the elytra, but they are feeble where the 
seriate punctures are largest. One male has the ahdomen partly reddish. 


SOLENOBARIS CRYPTODON, 0. sp. 
Black, shining; tip of rostrum and parts of antennae and tarsi obscurely 
reddish. 


158 ON BARIDIINAE, 


Eyes large and close together. Rostrum moderately wide, curved and slightly 
shorter than prothorax; with crowded punctures behind antennae, minute else- 
where. Antennae inserted in middle of sides of rostrum. Prothorax slightly 
longer than wide; with numerous but not crowded punctures of moderate size, 
becoming larger on sides. Elytra elongate-cordate, distinctly wider than pro- 
thorax; with rows of fairly large punctures, vanishing beyond the middle, striae 
fairly distinct near suture and sides. Metasternum with crowded punctures. 
Basal segment of abdomen shallowly depressed in middle. Legs rather thin, 
femora edentate. Length, 2 mm. 

°. Differs in having the rostrum slightly thinner, with smaller punctures on 
sides, and abdomen evenly convex. 

Queensland: Cairns district (F. P. Dodd), Dunk Island (H. Hacker). 

Very close to S. inermis, but the elytral striation more evident; it is narrower 
than S. edentata, and without the least tinge of blue. On one specimen the 
prothorax has been detached, and the trochanters of the legs are very prominent, 
so as to suggest the coxal armature of the males of Degis trigonopterus, but it is 
a female; on two males, not dismembered, the trochanters are not specially 
evident. The interocular space appears as a narrow Shining line, without an 
impression. 


SOLENOBARIS MINOR, N. Sp. 


d. Black, somewhat shining. Under surface and legs with fine white setae, 
rather conspicuous on the metasternal episterna. 

Rostrum about the length of prothorax. Prothorax about as long as wide; 
with numerous, sharply defined, but not large, punctures, becoming crowded on 
sides. Elytra elongate-cordate, not much wider than prothorax; with fine striae 
throughout, on basal half with rather small punctures, vanishing beyond the 
middle. Metasternum and two basal segments of abdomen with a wide shallow 
depression. Legs rather thin, femora edentate. Length, 1-8 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

A rather narrow species, the smallest of its genus, and of the subfamily from 
New Guinea. The eyes are rather large, but the interocular space has numerous 
punctures, and does not appear as a narrow shining line as on the preceding 
species; the elytral punctures are also smaller and the striae are more evident. 


SOLENOBARIS CASUARINAE, 0. Sp. 

®. Black, shining. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax; with crowded punctures behind antennae 
(which are inserted slightly nearer apex than base) and at base. Prothorax as 
long as wide; with numerous but not crowded punctures of moderate size, 
becoming small at apex, and crowded on sides. Elytra elongate-cordate; with fine 
striae throughout, containing fairly large punctures on basal half, disappearing 
beyond the middle. Metasternum with punctures as on sides of prothorax, becoming 
smaller and sparser on abdomen, and almost absent from intermediate segments. 
Femora slightly dentate. Length, 2:2 mm. 

New Guinea: Finsch Haven, on Casuarina sp. (Rev. L. Wagner). Unique. 

Fairly close to the two preceding species, but larger, rostrum slightly longer 
and femora dentate, the tooth on each is small, but sufficiently distinct from 
certain directions. The elytral striae are more distinct than is usual in the 
genus. 


BY A. M. LEA. 159 


SOLENOBARIS SPATHULIROSTRIS, Nn. SD. 

6. Black, shining; tip of rostrum and parts of antennae and of legs obscurely 
reddish. Each puncture of under surface and of legs with a small whitish seta. 

Rostrum the length of prothorax, sides dilated in front; sides with crowded 
punctures behind antennae (which are inserted slightly nearer apex than base). 
Prothorax as long as wide; with sparse and minute punctures, becoming larger 
near coxae. Elytra elongate-cordate; with fine but distinct striae throughout, 
containing small punctures on basal half, absent elsewhere. Metasternum with 
crowded punctures, continued on to base of abdomen, the latter with a shallow 
depression along middle of two basal segments. Legs rather thin, femora edentate. 
Length, 2 mm. ‘ 

©. Differs in having rostrum slightly longer, with smaller punctures, and 
abdomen evenly convex. 

Fiji: Viti Levu (A. M. Lea). 

In general appearance fairly close to S. inermis, and with similar striae and 
femora, but slightly narrower, and rostrum distinctly dilated in front of antennae. 


SOLENOBARIS NITIDIVENTRIS, Nl. SD. 
6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum moderately curved, not very thin, the length of prothorax; with 
crowded punctures, except in front. Antennae inserted about two-thirds from 
apex of rostrum. Prothorax moderately transverse, somewhat flattened, sides 
rather strongly narrowed from base to apex; with numerous rather small but 
sharply defined punctures, becoming crowded on sides. Elytra with sharply 
defined striae throughout, containing small punctures about base only. Meta- 
sternum with crowded punctures on sides, but not very dense in middle. Abdomen 
shining, two basal segments feebly depressed along middle, the apical one with a 
large shallow depression. Femora edentate. Length, 2 mm. 

Fiji: Viti Levu (A. M. Lea). Two males. 

Fairly close to the preceding species, but less convex, more robust, with more 
distinct punctures on rostrum and prothorax, and smaller on under surface, and 
elytral striae sharper and almost impunctate. 


GYMNOBARIS. 
Lea, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1906, p. 96. 


GYMNOBARIS LATERALIS, N. Sp. 


©. Black, shining; parts of antennae obscurely reddish. . 

Rostrum moderately stout, the length of prothorax; with fairly dense 
punctures on sides behind antennae (these inserted one-third from apex), smaller 
elsewhere. Prothorax moderately transverse; upper surface with sparse and 
minute punctures, becoming moderately large but not crowded on sides. Elytra 
cordate, slightly wider than prothorax; with series of rather small punctures in 
feeble striae, the punctures vanishing posteriorly, but the striae more distinct 
there; interstices impunctate. Metasternum with crowded punctures of moderate 
size, becoming sparser on basal segment of abdomen, and sparser and smaller 
posteriorly. Femora slightly grooved and with minute denticles. Length, 3-5 mm. 

Key Island (Dr. W. Horn, from — Pape). Unique. 

The denticles of the femora are even smaller than on G. politus, and could 
be easily overlooked, the seriate punctures on the elytra are somewhat larger 


160 ON BARIDIINAE, 


than on that species, but on the sides of the prothorax they are much more 
distinct, although they are practically absent from the upper surface. 


AULACOBARIS, nN. gen. 

Eyes large and fairly close together. EHlytra cordate, deeply and widely 
striated, the interstices acutely ridged throughout. Prosternum with a rather 
deep and wide depression, abruptly terminated between front coxae. Pygidium 
almost concealed. Femora dentate. 

Very distinct from all other genera of the subfamily known to me by the 
deep striae, decidedly wider than the interstices, all of the latter being acutely 
ridged throughout. In catalogues it may be placed near Gymnobaris. 


AULACOBARIS PICTIPENNIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 33. 

©. Brownish-black; rostrum and legs somewhat paler, basal two-fifths of 
elytra and antennae red. A narrow vitta of white scales on fourth interstice on 
each elytron, between middle and apex, a small spot on each Side piece of 
mesosternum, and a smaller one on each side of abdomen. 

Rostrum moderately curved, rather thin, slightly longer than prothorax, 
feebly depressed at its junction with head; with crowded and rather small 
punctures on sides behind antennae, sparse and minute elsewhere. Antennae 
inserted slightly nearer base than apex of rostrum, scape almost attaining eye, 
basal joint of funicle large. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides gently 
rounded and decreasing in width from base to apex; with rather dense but not 
crowded punctures, of moderate size and sharply defined. Scutellum slightly 
transverse. Elytra cordate, base distinctly wider than prothorax; striae contain- 
ing deep-set, regular punctures. Sterna with dense punctures, slightly larger 
than on prothorax. Abdomen evenly convex, with much smaller punctures than 
on sterna. Legs moderately long, femora feebly grooved and acutely dentate, 
tibiae thin, claws small and close together. Length, 4 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

A beautiful species, one of the few Australasian ones with derm of elytra 
bicoloured. . 


ACYTHOPEUS. 
Pascoe, Journ. Linn. Soc., xii, p. 61. 


ACYTHOPEUS LEUCOMELAS, n. sp. Text-figs. 25, 32. 

3. Black; some parts moderately shining. Upper surface with four spots of 
white scales, under parts also with white spots at sides, and fairly numerous 
seales on sterna, parts of abdomen, and of legs. 

Rostrum strongly curved, slightly longer than prothorax, considerably 
thickened towards base; with crowded and rather coarse punctures on thickened 
portion, becoming small in front. Antennae inserted almost in middle of sides of 
rostrum. Prothorax distinctly transverse; with crowded punctures of moderate 
size. EHlytra oblong-cordate, not much wider than prothorax; with conspicuous 
striae, containing deep-set, inconspicuous punctures; interstices with crowded 
punctures of moderate size about base, smaller but quite sharp posteriorly. 
Abdomen with a shallow depression along middle of two basal segments, punctures 
smaller and sparser than on metasternum, crowded and small on apical segment. 
Femora grooved and edentate. Length, 4-5 mm. 


BY A. M. LEA. 161 


©. Differs in having the rostrum slightly longer, less dilated towards base, 
apical half polished and almost impunctate, abdomen evenly convex and legs 
somewhat thinner. 

Aru Islands (H. Elgner); New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner); Papua: 
Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

The rostrum seems too stout at the base for the species to be referred to 
Zena. Only one species of Acythopeus (bigeminatus) with elytral markings was 
described by Pascoe, and that also was from Aru, but was noted as having base 
of the rostrum “profunde inciso et valde gibboso’’, and so figured. The present 
species has the base of rostrum thick, but it is not suddenly uplifted, and is 
separated from the head by a shallow groove, instead of an acute notch. There is 
a white spot on each side of the base of the prothorax, and two small ones on 
each side in front (but invisible from above), on each elytron the spot is on 
the third interstice beyond the middle; the metasternal episterna are densely 
clothed, and there is a spot on each side of the first and third segments of 
abdomen. On two of the specimens, from Wareo, the elytra are almost immaculate, 
and on one of them the abdomen also is immaculate; on another there is a 
small spot at the base of the third interstice on each elytron, and a small one on 
the fourth beside the postmedian one on the third; on another there are two 
very small spots on the third interstice. On the only specimen from Mount 
Lamington there are two spots on the third interstice, the postmedian one being 
long and narrow. From some directions the pronotum appears to be covered 
with granules instead of punctures. 


AOCYTHOPEUS MELAS, n. sp. Text-fig. 9. 

6. Black and slightly shining. 

Rostrum moderately curved, slightly longer than prothorax, slightly 
thickened towards base, junction with head marked by a transverse impression; 
with crowded punctures of moderate size, becoming small in front. Antennae 
inserted one-third from apex of rostrum. Prothorax slightly transverse; with 
dense punctures of moderate size, becoming confluent on parts of sides. Elytra 
cordate; with conspicuous striae, containing deep-set punctures, interstices with 
rather large punctures about base, smaller posteriorly, but all distinct. Meta- 
sternum with punctures as on sides of prothorax, less crowded and smaller on two 
basal segments of abdomen, which are shallowly depressed along middle. Femora 
feebly grooved and slightly dentate, front tibiae with a slight incurvature towards 
apex of under surface. Length, 5-5 mm. 

New Guinea: Fergusson Island (Dr. W. Horn, from — Pape). Two males. 

Structurally near A. aterrimus, but considerably larger, less opaque, junction 
of head and rostrum more conspicuous, and punctures of upper surface somewhat 
different. 


ACYTHOPEUS INSIGNIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 26. 


Black, slightly shining. Upper surface with dense and fine blackish setae, 
slightly longer on prothorax than on elytra, the latter with a narrow white 
vitta at base of third interstice. 

Rostrum with a strong ridged crest at base, suddenly and strongly uplifted 
at its junction with head, then rapidly narrowed in front; behind antennae (which 
are inserted slightly nearer base than apex) with crowded and fairly large 
punctures. Prothorax transverse, parallel-sided to near apex, which is suddenly 


162 ON BARIDIINAE, 


narrowed and not half the width of base; punctures transversely confluent, and 
separated by numerous fine ridges. Elytra subcordate, shoulders slightly produced, 
with fine striae, containing distinct punctures only near base, where the interstices 
have crowded ones. Sterna with crowded punctures, sparser on basal segment 
of abdomen, and still sparser and smaller on the other segments. Front coxae 
widely separated, femora slightly grooved and edentate. Length, 3-5 mm. 

Papua: Bisiatabu (Rev. W. N. Lock). Unique. 

A remarkable species, for which it may be necessary to propose a new genus. 
The toucan-like crest occupies about two-fifths of the base of the rostrum. The 
punctures of the transversely oblong prothorax are so confluent that the surface 
appears traversed by numerous fine carinae; the sides, however, appear granulate. 
The basal segment of the abdomen is flattened along middle, and as there are no 
masculine features on the front tibiae the type is probably a female. 


ACYTHOPEUS UNGUICULATUS, n. sp. Text-figs. 20, 21. 


6. Velvety-black. With dense and extremely minute setae. 

Head with crowded punctures. Rostrum moderately stout and curved, the 
length of prothorax, the sides parallel to in front of antennae (which are inserted 
about one-third from the base) and then incurved, a faint depression at its 
junction with head; basal half with crowded punctures and opaque, apical half 
shining and with smaller but sharply defined punctures. Prothorax moderately 
transverse, rather strongly convex, hind angles produced, sides rapidly decreasing 
in width to apex; with crowded and fairly large punctures, in places obliquely 
confluent. EHlytra oblong-cordate; with regular rows of large, subquadrate 
punctures, the interstices narrower than the rows, and each with a series of small 
granules. Sterna with large thimble punctures. Basal segment of abdomen feebly 
depressed along middle, its sides with punctures as on metasternum, but much 
smaller elsewhere, and shining. Front coxae moderately separated; femora 
slightly grooved and edentate, tibiae with lower edge slightly sinuous, an acute 
notch near apex, the apical hook unusually long; tarsi rather short, claw joint 
strongly dilated (but not thickened) to apex, with the claws small. Length, 
5-5 mm. 

Malay Peninsula: Gap, on Fraser’s Hill (A. M. Lea). Unique. 

The clothing of the upper surface is so short that even from the sides it is 
visible with difficulty. The rostrum from directly above appears parallel-sided, 
but from other directions the sides are seen to be incurved between the middle 
and apex. The granules on the elytra are invisible from some directions, but 
from others appear shining and distinct. Each claw joint from the side appears 
very wide, but from directly above appears normally thin. 


ACYTHOPEUS RUDIS, nN. Sp. 

®. Black, shining. With a few dark setae. ° 

Head smooth. Rostrum rather strongly curved, slightly longer than prothorax, 
somewhat dilated to base, its junction with head traversed by a shallow groove; 
with crowded and rather coarse punctures behind antennae (which are inserted 
slightly nearer apex than base). Prothorax moderately transverse, sides almost 
evenly rounded, apex about half the width of base; with coarse, crowded punctures, 
in places confluent, with short bounding ridges. Elytra cordate; with fairly wide 
striae, containing deep-set punctures; interstices with large punctures about base, 
smaller posteriorly. Sterna with crowded punctures, somewhat smaller than on 


BY A. M. LEA. 1638 


prothorax. Abdomen evenly convex, shining; with sparse and minute punctures, 
becoming somewhat larger and crowded on apical segment, and forming a row 
across the middle of the third and fourth. Femora feebly grooved and edentate. 
Length, 4 mm. 

Java: Buitenzorg (A. M. Lea). Unique. 

The punctures on the upper surface are coarser than on any other species 
of the subfamily before me, but on the head they are so minute as to be prac- 
tically invisible. The elytra, from the sides, appear subtuberculate towards the 
apex, the interstices about the base are flattened, with seriate punctures occupying 
almost their ertire width, but posteriorly they become ridged, narrower than the 
striae, with the punctures small and on their sloping sides. 


ACYTHOPEUS BIGEMINATUS Pasce. 
Baris praemorsa Lea, var. 


Ten specimens from Mount Lamington probably belong to this species; each 
has a deep incision at the junction of the head and rostrum, exactly as figured, 
and each elytron has two snowy spots on the third interstice; in addition, however, 
there is a small spot at about the basal third on the ninth interstice, and usually 
a few white scales about the apex. On each side of the prosternum, concealed from 
above, there is also a small. white spot. The length varies from 3-0 to 4:5 mm. 

Baris praemorsa, from Torres Straits, appears to be a slight variety of the 
species. 


MYCTIDES. 
Pascoe, Journ. Linn. Soc., xii, p. 59. 


MYCTIDES FILIROSTRIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 27. 

©. Black, shining, scape obscurely reddish. Legs with small white setae, 
becoming longer on parts of under surface. 

Rostrum very long, thin, and evenly curved, a feeble depression at its 
junction with head; with fairly dense but small punctures on sides behind antennae 
(these inserted about one-third from base), minute elsewhere. Prothorax 
moderately transverse; with rather small and sparse punctures on disc, but 
leaving a shining impunctate median line, and becoming crowded on sides. Elytra 
cordate; with sharp striae containing distinct punctures about base and suture, 
but feeble elsewhere; interstices with small punctures about base and apex. Under 
surface with dense punctures. Legs rather long, femora slightly but acutely 
dentate. Length, 4-5 mm. 

New Guinea (Dr. W. Horn, from — Kraatz). Unique. 

The rostrum is much longer than on any previously described species of 
the genus, extending to the apex of the elytra. 


MYCTIDES BARBATUS Pasc. 


Numerous specimens from Aru, Port Moresby and Finsch Haven appear to 
belong to this species, but have the upper surface somewhat brassy. 


METANTHIA. 
Pascoe, Journ. Linn. Soc., xii, p. 57. 
The species of this genus are fairly numerous in New Guinea and adjacent 
islands. Their elytra are slightly wider near the base than elsewhere, but with 


164 ON BARIDIIN AE, 


outlines continuous with those of prothorax; the elytral punctures are seriate in 
arrangement, but are not set in striae, which are usually completely absent. The 
front coxae are rather close together, and there is a shallow pectoral groove, 
although to see this clearly it is necessary to remove the head. The rostrum is 
fairly stout on M. pyritosa (the first named and so presumably the typical species) 
but is longer and thinner on some of the others. Most of the species are deep 
shining-black, but several are metallic (pyritosa brilliantly so). 


METANTHIA GRANULIPES, n. sp. Text-fig. 10. 


6. Black, with a purplish or bluish gloss, absent from most of rostrum, 
antennae, and under surface of legs. 

Rostrum slightly dilated to base, the length of prothorax; with moderately 
large punctures on sides behind antennae. Prothorax moderately transverse, 
sides rapidly diminishing in width from base to apex, scutellar lobe transversely 
depressed; with sparse and minute punctures, even on sides. Elytra elongate- 
cordate; with rows of small punctures, larger near suture than elsewhere, the 
interstices with scarcely visible ones. Metasternum with fairly dense and large 
punctures, somewhat similar on basal and apical segments of abdomen, on the 
others sparse and minute; two basal segments depressed along middle, the apical 
one with a fairly large fovea. Legs moderately long, front coxae rather close 
together, femora grooved and edentate, front tibiae with an obtuse projection on 
lower edge near apex. Length, 7-8 mm. 


9. Differs in having the rostrum thinner and distinctly longer (about one- 
fourth longer than the prothorax), abdomen evenly convex, except for a small 
medio-apical depression on the basal segment, and front tibiae simple. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rey. L. Wagner); Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. 
McNamara). 

The shorter distance separating the front coxae and the complete absence 
of elytral striation (although the series of punctures are distinct) have induced 
me to refer this species to Metanthia rather than to Ipsichora. The rostrum is 
longer than on M. pyritosa (especially on the female) and is not raised at the 
base on the male, and but little on the female. The blue is more evident on the 
female than on the male, but is not brilliant. The femora, although not denticu- 
late, are margined on each side of the groove with a row of small granules. 


METANTHIA REGULARIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 11. 

Black, shining. 

Rostrum moderately stout, about the length of prothorax; with crowded 
punctures of moderate size on sides behind antennae. Prothorax scarcely wider 
at base than the median length, sides evenly decreasing in width to apex; 
scutellar lobe not depressed; with rather sparse and small, but sharply defined, 
punctures, becoming larger on sides. Elytra with regular series of rather small 
punctures, the interstices with minute ones. Under surface with crowded 
punctures, smaller and sparser on parts of abdomen than elsewhere, basal segment 
depressed along middle, apical with a fairly large fovea. Legs moderately long, 
femora grooved and edentate, front tibiae with a small tooth close to the apical 
hook. Length, 4:5-5-:0 mm. 

2. Differs in having rostrum slightly thinner, abdomen evenly convex, and 
front tibiae simple. 


BY A. M. LEA. 165 


Aru Islands (H. Elgner). 
Structurally close to M. pyritosa, but slightly smaller, and deep-black, although 
with a faint metallic gloss. 


METANTHIA GAGATINA, n. sp. Text-fig. 28. 

6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum rather stout, the length of prothorax; with small punctures, more 
crowded behind antennae than elsewhere. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides 
rapidly diminishing in width to apex, scutellar lobe transversely depressed; 
punctures sparse and minute, even on sides. Elytra elongate-cordate, with rows 
of small distant punctures, those forming the row near suture larger than the 
others. Metasternum with crowded punctures, almost as large on basal segment 
of abdomen but sparser there, that segment with a rather wide median depression, 
apical one with a large median fovea and rather dense punctures. Front coxae 
close together, femora shallowly grooved and edentate, front tibiae with a distinct 
tooth on lower surface one-third from apex. Length, 5-0-5-5 mm. 

°. Differs in having rostrum slightly longer, abdomen evenly convex, except 
for a slight depression on apical segment, and front tibiae simple. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rev. L. Wagner). 

Structurally close to M. pyritosa, but deep-black; the tooth on the front 
tibiae of the male, and the depressed scutellar lobe, readily distinguish it from the 
preceding species. 


METANTHIA SCUTELLARIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 12. 

3g. Black, shining. 

Head with a small but deep interocular impression. Rostrum not very stout, 
slightly longer than prothorax, a feeble depression at its junction with head; with 
crowded punctures on sides behind antennae, small elsewhere. Prothorax distinctly 
transverse, apex scarcely half the width of base; with sparse and minute punctures, 
becoming larger near coxae, and forming a fairly distinct row across a slight 
subapical depression. Elytra cordate; with rows of small punctures, the row 
near suture distinct, the others slight; interstices scarcely visibly punctate. 
Metasternum with fairly dense punctures, continued on to basal segment of 
abdomen, the latter with a shallow median depression. Legs rather long, femora 
slightly grooved and edentate, front tibiae with a distinct tooth on lower surface 
about one-fourth from apex. Length, 4-5 mm. : ; 

°. Differs in having the rostrum somewhat longer and thinner, abdomen 
evenly convex, and front tibiae simple. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

Slightly stouter than the preceding species, rostrum thinner, antennae inserted 
not as close to apex of rostrum, tooth of front tibiae of male slightly nearer the 
apex, and apical segment of abdomen nonfoveate. The scutellar lobe has a feeble 
depression, and the scutellum itself is distinctly transverse. 


METANTHIA APINA, n. Sp. Text-fig. 29. 

®. Black, shining; scape reddish. 

Rostrum comparatively thin, gently curved, the length of prothorax, scarcely 
depressed at its junction with head; with crowded and rather small punctures 
on sides behind antennae (these inserted almost in middle), smaller and sparser 
elsewhere. Prothorax moderately transverse, sides rapidly diminishing in width 


166 ON BARIDIINAE, 


to apex; with sparse and minute punctures, even on sides. Elytra cordate; with 
rows of small punctures, becoming minute in places; interstices impunctate. 
Metasternum with fairly large but not crowded punctures, becoming smaller and 
sparser on basal segment of abdomen, dense on apical one, and sparser elsewhere. 
Legs rather long, front coxae close together, femora widely and shallowly grooved 
and edentate. Length, 5 mm. 

New Guinea: Wareo (Rey. L. Wagner). Unique. 

The rostrum is rather thin and less curved than on other species of the 
genus, but the other generic characters are not aberrant. The type differs from 
the female of M. gagatina in having the rostrum decidedly thinner, scutellar lobe 
not at all depressed, and abdomen with somewhat different punctures. From the 
female of the preceding species, it differs by the rostrum, elytral punctures smaller, 
and those of apical segment of abdomen larger. The upper surface has a slight 
metallic gloss, which becomes more distinct when wetted. 


METANTHIA PYRITOSA Pase. Text-fig. 13. 

One of the most brilliantly metallic weevils in New Guinea and widely 
distributed. “Dorey, Saylee,’ Madang, Mount Lamington, and Aru. Pascoe 
described the rostrum as “sparse subtiliter punctato”. This is true of its upper 
surface, but its sides on the basal half are rather coarsely and densely punctate. 
The male differs from the female in having the rostrum somewhat stouter, with 
stronger punctures on the sides, basal segment of abdomen longitudinally impressed 
in the middle, legs slightly stouter, and the front tibiae with a small projection 
one-third from the apex. The specimens before me are all smaller, up to 5 mm., 
than the type, 3% lines, but Pascoe often measured his specimens with the 
rostrum extended. 


IPSICHORA. 
Pascoe, Journ. Linn. Soc., xii, p. 58. 


IPSICHORA LONGIPES, n. sp. Text-fig. 17. 

6. Bright metallic-blue; antennae and tarsi blackish. 

Rostrum thin, moderately curved, about one-fourth longer than prothorax, a 
shallow depression at its junction with head; with rather sparse punctures on 
sides behind antennae (these inserted one-third from apex), sparser and smaller 
elsewhere; under surface with two rows of minute granules. Prothorax moderately 
transverse; with small and rather sparse punctures. Elytra subcordate, outlines 
continuous with those of prothorax; with series of small punctures in fine striae, 
the punctures absent from parts, but the striae complete; interstices with minute 
punctures. Sterna with sharply defined but not very large punctures, larger (but 
irregular) on side pieces of mesosternum than elsewhere. Abdomen with small and 
sparse punctures, the basal segment with a large, slightly clothed median depres- 
sion. Legs long, especially the front ones, front coxae widely separated, femora 
with a row of granules terminating in acute denticles on one side of a shallow 
groove, very feeble on the other side, front tibiae with a row of minute granules 
on lower edge; front tarsi with long black hair on each side of three basal joints. 
Length, 6-0-8-5 mm. 

9%. Differs in having the rostrum thinner, more evenly curved, and black or 
mostly black, antennae inserted less close to apex, prothorax smaller, abdomen 
evenly convex, front legs but slightly longer than the others, and front tarsi 
clothed as the others. 


WAY A IME, IRAY 167 


New Guinea: Finsch Haven (Rev. L. Wagner). Abundant. 

Apparently close to J. cupido (presumably the type of the genus) but the 
rostrum in the male is usually metallic throughout, and the pronotum is not 
suleate. The femora are grooved, apparently the main distinction from 
Pseudocholus; the typical species of that genus was described as having 
“orosterno antice abdomineque basi rugosis’. P. viridimicans was described as 
having head, rostrum and legs black, prothorax foveate, and the front tarsi with 
two joints clothed with long hair; on the present species three joints are so 
clothed. On many specimens parts of the under surface and legs are greenish, 
the elytra are often purplish, on the male the rostrum is occasionally blackish 
about the apex, on the female it is sometimes entirely black. The front sides of 
the prothorax, invisible from above, are fairly densely covered with small granules 
on the male, but not on the female. 


IPSICHORA TIBIALIS, n. sp. Text-fig. 18. 

6. Metallic-blue; part of rostrum, antennae and tarsi black. 

Rostrum moderately curved, distinctly longer than prothorax, a wide but 
shallow depression at its junction with head; with crowded, but not very large, 
punctures on sides behind antennae (these inserted about two-fifths from apex), 
minute elsewhere. Prothorax moderately transverse, with small and sparse 
punctures, becoming larger and denser near coxae. HElytra subcordate, with rows 
of distinct punctures in fine striae, the punctures becoming very small posteriorly; 
interstices with scarcely visible punctures. Side pieces of mesosternum with 
larger punctures than on rest of sterna. Abdomen with smaller punctures, except 
at sides of base, than on metasternum, basal segment shallowly depressed in 
middle. Legs not very long, front coxae widely separated, femora with a row of 
granules terminating in minute denticles on each side of the groove, front tibiae 
with a conspicuous fringe of grey hairs on apical half of lower surface, three 
basal joints of front tarsi also fringed. Length, 7 mm. 

°. Differs in having rostrum longer, thinner, more strongly curved, antennae 
inserted nearer base than apex of rostrum, abdomen rather strongly convex, and 
front tibiae and tarsi simple. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

In general appearance close to the preceding species, but front legs of the 
male much shorter, front tibiae with the apical half fimbriated, front tarsi with 
shorter and paler clothing, and antennae somewhat shorter; the female has more 
pronounced elytral striae, with larger, although not very large, punctures in the 
striae. On the type the under parts are of the same shade as the upper ones, but 
on the female they are bluish-green. 


IPSICHORA CARINICOLLIS, n. Sp. 


d. Dark purplish-blue; most of under surface, legs and rostrum black, in 
parts with a slight metallic gloss, head dark-brown. 

Rostrum about one-third longer than prothorax, thin in front, moderately 
dilated to base; with fairly dense but not large punctures behind antennae (these 
inserted about two-fifths from apex). Prothorax (with head) subtriangular; 
with rather sparse and small punctures, even on sides; with a fine continuous 
median ridge. Hlytra with outlines continuous with those of prothorax, but 
considerably wider near base; with comparatively small even punctures, in sharp 
striae; interstices with sparse and small, but sharp, punctures. Sterna with 


168 ON BARIDIINAE, 


comparatively sparse and small punctures, even on side pieces of mesosternum, and 
absent from most of abdomen, two basal segments with a wide and shallow median 
depression. Legs rather long and thin, front coxae widely separated, femora 
with a few granules and denticles on each side of a feeble groove, front tibiae 
with a sparse fringe on apical half of lower surface. Length, 8 mm. 

New Guinea (Dr. W. Horn, from — Kraatz). Unique. 

The elytral striation and punctures are more pronounced than on the other 
species before me, and the prothorax has a fine and continuous median carina. 
There is a slight projection near the front coxae on each side of the breast, but 
it could be easily overlooked. The club of the antennae has a shallow oblique 
groove. 


IPSICHORA PILIVENTRIS, n. sp. Text-figs. 19, 20. 

6. Black, shining. 

Rostrum moderately thin, about the length of prothorax; with crowded 
punctures on sides behind antennae (these inserted one-third from apex), sparse 
and minute elsewhere. Prothorax feebly convex, rather strongly transverse, apex 
suddenly and strongly narrowed; with sparse and minute punctures, even on 
sides. Elytra subcordate; with small punctures in fine striae, the interstices 
searcely visibly punctate. Sterna with fairly dense punctures of moderate size, 
larger on mesosternum than elsewhere. Abdomen, except about base, with smaller 
and sparser punctures than elsewhere; two basal segments with a shallow median 
depression, clothed with fairly long depressed hairs. Legs comparatively short, 
front coxae widely separated, femora grooved and acutely dentate, front tibiae 
with upper edge gently incurved, lower edge fringed on apical half, three basal 
joints of front tarsi fringed. Length, 6-5 mm. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 

A highly polished, jet-black species, with front tibiae and tarsi fringed much 
as on I. tibialis. 


PSEUDOCHOLUS. 
Pseudocholus, Lacordaire, Gen. Col., vii, p. 253. 


PSEUDOCHOLUS FIMBRITARSIS, n. Sp. Text-fig. 36. 


6. Black, with a faint coppery gloss. 

Head with a small, deep, interocular puncture, its junction with rostrum 
flattened. Rostrum thin, about half as long again as prothorax; with fairly large 
punctures on sides behind antennae, small elsewhere. Antennae inserted slightly 
nearer apex than base of rostrum, scape the length of funicle and club combined. 
Prothorax slightly dilated from base to near middle, and then rapidly narrowed 
to apex; with fairly large and dense punctures about base, smaller and irregular 
elsewhere. Scutellum transverse. Elytra cordate, with striae containing almost 
regular punctures of moderate size, becoming larger at base; interstices with 
crowded and rather coarse punctures about base, a few distinct ones at apex, 
absent elsewhere. Sterna with irregular punctures, sparse and small in places, 
larger on side pieces of mesosternum than elsewhere; prosternum widely and 
shallowly depressed in front of legs. Abdomen with rather small punctures, basal 
segment shallowly depressed in middle. Legs very long and thin, front coxae 
widely separated, femora with small denticles, front tibiae with numerous acute 
denticles on under surface, front tarsi with a conspicuous fringe of pale hairs on 


BY A. M. LEA. : 169 


each side of the three basal joints, the first of these longer than the rest 
combined. Length, 9-10 mm. 


Text-fig. 36.—Pseudocholus fimbritarsis Lea. 
Text-fig. 37.—P. cinctus Pasc. 


®. Differs in having rostrum thinner, more evenly curved, with smaller 
punctures, antennae shorter, and inserted almost in exact middle of sides of 
rostrum, abdomen rather strongly convex, legs shorter, but still decidedly long, 
front tibiae not denticulate and front tarsi not fimbriated. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 

Distinct from all previously described species by the front legs of the male. 


PSEUDOCHOLUS CINCTUS Pase. Text-fig. 37. 
Hight specimens, from the Finsch Haven district, probably belong to this 
species, distinct by the stramineous vitta continuous on each side from apex of 


170 ON BARIDIINAE, 


prothorax to apex of elytra; but they differ from the description in having the 
under surface black with a slight metallic gloss, not “fusco castaneo”’ (probably 
the type was immature). The rostrum was described as being “vix latiore”’ than 
the prothorax, no doubt in error for ‘“vix longiore’’. 

The male differs from the female in having the rostrum somewhat stouter, 
with coarser punctures towards the base, antennae inserted nearer its tip, 
metasternum with a deeper and wider longitudinal depression, continued on to 
basal segment of abdomen, and partly clothed, and longer legs. 


PSEUDOCHOLUS QUERULUS Pasc. 


Nine specimens from Mount Lamington belong to this species, of which there 
is one of the original specimens, from Yule Island, before me. 


The male differs: from the female in having the rostrum stouter, with coarser 
punctures, its under surface finely serrated, metasternum with a deeper and wider 
longitudinal depression, continued on to basal segment of abdomen, and partly 
clothed, legs longer, and basal joints of front tarsi fimbriated. 


DEGIS. 
Degis, Pascoe, Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen., 1885, p. 294. 


DEGIS COXALIS, n. sp. Text-figs. 14, 16. 
3. Black, shining; prothorax subopaque, antennae reddish. 


Rostrum not very stout, slightly longer than prothorax, its junction with 
head traversed by a shallow depression; with crowded but not very large punctures 
on sides behind antennae, sparser and smaller elsewhere. Prothorax moderately 
transverse, sides strongly narrowed at apex; with rather dense but not crowded 
punctures, of moderate size or rather small, becoming sparser and smaller on 
sides. Hlytra oblong-cordate; with sharp and almost impunctate striae, the 
interstices with almost invisible punctures. Metasternum with punctures as on 
sides of prothorax, becoming sparser and smaller on basal segment of abdomen, 
which has a wide and shallow depression, intermediate segments almost impunctate. 
Legs moderately long, front coxae slightly armed, femora acutely dentate, middle 
tibiae rather strongly arched at base. Length, 5-0-5-5 mm. 


®. Differs in having the rostrum slightly longer and thinner, abdomen evenly 
convex and front coxae simple. 

Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara); New Guinea: Wareo (Rey. 
L. Wagner). 

There is a small conical projection on the front coxae of the male, but it is 
much smaller, although quite distinct, than the conspicuous projection on D. 
trigonopterus, its prosternum is almost glabrous and the femora are acutely 
dentate, the hind ones less strongly than the others. The prothoracic punctures 
are smaller and sparser on the sides than on the upper surface, an unusual feature 
in the subfamily. The specimen from Wareo has most of the under surface 
reddish, probably from immaturity. 

The type has a conical process projecting downwards from the tip of the 
rostrum; it is possibly deciduous, as it is not present on a second male, or on the 
female. 


BY A. M. LEA. 171 


DEGIS IMITATOR, n. sp. Text-fig. 15. 


®. Black, shining; prothorax subopaque, antennae obscurely reddish. Upper 
surface of hind femora with rather dense white clothing, rest of legs and 
under surface inconspicuously setose. 


Rostrum the length of prothorax, feebly depressed at its junction with head. 
Elytra with sharply defined striae, the interstices with minute punctures. 
Metasternum with punctures as on sides of prothorax. Abdomen with sparse and 
small punctures, basal segment feebly depressed in middle of apex. Femora 
grooved and edentate. Length, 5 mm. 


Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). 


Strikingly close to the preceding species, but with edentate femora. I have 
named this species, although there are but two females before me, as the species 
is so like the preceding one, that I had them placed as belonging to it. In 
addition to the femora, however, the tibiae are also different; on that species 
each tibia at the base is convex outwardly; on the present species its outer edge 
has a slight inward curve. The prothoracic punctures are also slightly larger 
than on that species and on the sides are slightly larger still, although not crowded. 
The elytral striae appear minutely serrated, owing to the punctures slightly 
encroaching on their sides; this appearance, however, vanishes posteriorly and 
laterally. 


DEGIS RESIDUUS, DN. Sp. 
3. Black, shining; prothorax subopaque, antennae obscurely reddish. 


Rostrum about the length of prothorax, a shallow depression at its junction 
with head; with crowded punctures on sides behind antennae, small elsewhere. 
Prothorax slightly transverse; with crowded punctures of moderate size or rather 
small. Elytra sharply striate, the interstices without punctures, except a few 
on sides at apex. Metasternum with crowded punctures. Abdomen with smaller 
and sparser punctures, the two basal segments depressed along middle. Legs 
rather long, femora acutely dentate, the hind ones less noticeably than the others, 
upper edge of tibiae feebly incurved. Length, 3 mm. 


Papua: Mount Lamington (C. T. McNamara). Unique. 


Considerably smaller than the two preceding species. There is a minute 
projection on each of the front coxae, but it could be easily overlooked, and is 
invisible from most directions. The prothoracic punctures and elytral striae, 
however, are typical of the genus. 


DEGIS TRIGONOPTERUS Pase. Text-figs. 34, 35. 


Hight specimens, from Mount Lamington, Finsch Haven, and the Port Moresby 
and Madang districts, appear to belong to this species, but have the scutellum 
slightly longer than wide, instead of transverse. The males have a conspicuous 
tooth on each front coxa, clothed with white hair in front, and most of the 
prosternum is similarly clothed. Each shoulder has a conspicuous swelling 
that, with the insect on its back, appears as a large obtuse tubercle (this is not 
shown in the original figure), and the basal segment of the abdomen is 
longitudinally impressed. The female is without coxal armature, the prosternum 
is almost glabrous, and the abdomen is evenly convex. Both sexes have two rows 
of minute teeth on the femora, the teeth terminating at the subapical notch. / 

Cc 


THE LIFE HISTORY OF CALLIPHORA OCHRACEA SCHINER (DIPTERA, 
CALLIPHORIDAE). 


By Mary HE. Furr, B.Sc., 
Junior Entomologist, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 
Canberra, F.C.T. 


(Two Text-figures. ) 
[Read 27th May, 1931.] 


1. Introduction. 


The earliest reference to Calliphora ochracea, other than purely systematic, 
occurs in a pamphlet by W. W. Froggatt, published in 1914, in which he gives a 
coloured plate including this species, and states that nothing is known about its 
life history. In 1915 he noted, in another publication, that it appears to frequent 
shaded gullies and timbered country, but has never been found breeding in 
carcases or live sheep. He kept specimens in captivity in an attempt to induce 
them to oviposit on meat, but without success. Hardy, in 1926, also mentions the 
fact that no one has succeeded in breeding Calliphora ochracea, but in 1930 claims 
that it is a notorious blower of blankets. These facts seem difficult to reconcile. 

Attempts to breed the fly here under insectary conditions having been 
successful, the present paper gives the life history and description of the various 
stages. 


2. Systematics and Synonymy. 


Calliphora ochracea Schiner is separated, along with the closely related 
C. nigrithorax Mall. from all other Australian species of Calliphora by the hairi- 
ness of the eyes. In general form it is also very distinctive, so that Brauer and 
Bergenstamm made it the type of a new genus Neocalliphora, and Surcouf later 
transferred it to the subgenus Adichosia. 

Calliphora ochracea was described by Schiner in 1868 from females collected in 
Sydney. Macquart, in 1850, had described Ochromyia hyalipennis from a female 
from Tasmania. In 1914 Surcouf added further details to Macquart’s description 
from the type females. 

Johnston and Hardy, in 1922, placed the two species ochracea and hyalipennis 
in the genus Neocalliphora of Brauer and Bergenstamm. In 1925 Patton included 
the hairy-eyed blowflies in the genus Calliphora, and stated that C. hyalipennis 
Macq. is the well-known reddish-brown blowfly of Australia. He stated that the 
types of hyalipennis are typical specimens of ochracea, and so the former name 
must replace Schiner’s. 

Hardy, in 1926, also included all the species under Calliphora and pointed 
out the difference between the two species hyalipennis and ochracea. He noted 
Patton’s sinking of ochracea as a synonym of hyalipennis, but the fact remains 
that two valid species occur; one in Tasmania and one on the mainland. Hardy 


BY MARY E. FULLER. WB 


also pointed out in this paper that Macquart had used the name hyalipennis 
earlier for another species. 

Malloch, in 1927, was of the opinion that the Tasmanian and mainland forms 
were distinct species, but owing to scantiness of material would come to no 
definite conclusion. He called the Tasmanian one nigrithorax and listed it as a 
form of ochracea. 

In a paper published just previous to that of Malloch, Bezzi stated that he 
had a female of a species, which he called Calliphora (Adichosia) hyalipennis 
Macq. 1850, nec 1834, from Sydney, that it is recorded from Australia and 
Tasmania, and that ochracea Schiner is a synonym. 

The descriptions of Macquart and Schiner, applied respectively to long series 
of C. nigrithoraz and C. ochracea before me, leave no doubt as to the validity of 
these two species. With the exception of one female in the Australian Museum, 
all the nigrithorar are from Tasmania. This specimen, labelled Barrington Tops, 
N.S.W., appears to be the first record of the species from the mainland. 

The work embodied in this paper was carried out on Calliphora ochracea 
Schiner. 


3. Distribution. 


According to all the records and collections, this species occurs along the 
coast and tablelands of New South Wales and Queensland. It does not appear 
to extend west of the Main Divide, and as far as I know there are no records of 
it from Victoria. The most northerly record noted is near Mackay, N.Q. Although 
there are few accounts of its occurrence south of Sydney, it has recently been 
collected at Pambula not far distant from the Victorian border, but farther south 
it was not seen. 

Although it occurs right on the coast, Calliphora ochracea seems to be most 
abundant in elevated, timbered country. It has been collected by the writer at 
Sydney and Barrington Tops at the same time of the year, and the difference 
in abundance was very noticeable. So, although C. ochracea has been referred 
to as a somewhat rare blowfly, this is not true for certain localities where 
conditions are apparently most suitable for it. It has not been found in the 
Federal Capital Territory, this region being too far west and doubtless too dry 
for the species. 

C. ochracea has an early spring and autumn cycle. The writer has taken 
it in numbers only in the early spring, at the end of July and in August, but a 
few odd specimens have been caught in certain localities in summer. The great 
majority in collections, however, are labelled March and April. 


4. Method of Breeding the Fly. 


In July and August, 1929, several females of C. ochracea were caught in 
company with C. stygia on the windows of a house in Northbridge, Sydney. It 
was decided to use such a favourable opportunity to try to discover some facts 
about its hitherto unknown life history. With this object in view two females 
were confined in a jar containing a piece of moistened meat wrapped in muslin. 
Jam was smeared on the side of the jar as food for the adults, which were 
observed to feed from this immediately. The top of the jar was covered with 
muslin. The following day one of the flies was observed ovipositing on the jar 
cover by thrusting the ovipositor right through the muslin and placing the eggs 
on the outside. Two days later the eggs hatched and both flies died. 


174 LIFE HISTORY OF CALLIPHORA OCHRACEA, 


On 7th August another female was put into a jar containing fresh beef 
wrapped in muslin and moistened with cabbage water. A piece of rabbit fur was 
placed on top of this. The fly was fed on sugar-water, jam and boiled sweets. 
Three days later it deposited a batch of eggs in the fur. The same evening the 
fly and the two jars were taken to Canberra. The same fly was given a jar in 
the blowfly insectary containing meat, muslin and fur. On 4th September it 
produced a fresh batch of eggs and died the next day. Since this particular fly 
had lived thirty days and oviposited twice since being captured, a note on the 
method of keeping it alive in captivity may be of interest. A comparatively large 
proportion of carbohydrate food seemed essential. It was observed to feed for 
quite long intervals on honey and jam, and although it was occasionally noticed 
sucking juices from the meat and cabbage, this food was definitely not sufficient 
to support it alone. Quite large pieces of sugar were absorbed by this fly at one 
meal, and it was found necessary to provide it with a fresh supply of such food 
each day. Each day it was released from the jar and allowed to fly round the 
insectary in the sunlight for a time. 

At the end of August, 1930, a female was caught in Northbridge and brought 
to Canberra. It readily oviposited on rabbit fur placed on a piece of steak. This 
fly produced one batch of eggs only, and died in a few days. 

Early in September, another female was received from the same locality. 
Five days later it produced a batch of eggs. The cold weather seemed to affect 
this fly seriously, but on removing it from the insectary to a constant temperature 
chamber at 23° C. it revived and, four days after producing the first mass of eggs, 
it oviposited again and died soon afterwards. 

In every batch the larvae fed to full size on the decomposing beef present 
when the eggs were deposited. 

When more than four hundred adults emerged from these last two batches 
every effort was made to induce this generation of flies to breed. Jt became 
evident that the heat and humidity of the constant temperature room suited 
them better than conditions in the insectary, doubtless approaching more closely 
their natural environment. They lived for lengthy periods under these conditions, 
feeding readily from the materials provided, including a variety of carbohydrate 
and nitrogenous foods. But mating was never observed, and females dissected 
at different periods showed no signs of egg development. Eventually, however, 
some eggs were deposited in fur but these failed to develop. 


5. Length of Stages in Life Cycle. 


The following observations were made on the flies bred in 1929. The eggs 
took two days to hatch. In Batch 1 the maggots hatched on 6th August and were 
still feeding on 29th. By 3rd September they were prepupal, on 16th the first 
puparium was seen, and on 20th several had pupated. The first emergence took 
place on 2nd November. In Batch 2 the maggots hatched on 12th August, and all, 
with the exception of some which appeared unhealthy, were prepupal on 20th 
September. Puparia were present on 27th, and on 28th October the first adults 
emerged. In Batch 3 the maggots hatched on 6th September. They increased 
in size very slowly and when six days old were not much larger than when 
hatched. In warm weather other species will grow to full size and pupate in this 
time. Obviously the cold weather during which it breeds retards the larval develop- 
ment of ochracea. During the next three days they increased noticeably in size. 
On 2nd October most of the maggots in this batch had disappeared into the sand 


BY MARY E. FULLER. 175 


to pupate, and by 17th all had pupated. Ten adults emerged on 4th November. 
The last fly from these three batches died on 17th December. 


The average larval life, that is the active feeding stage, was 30 days. The 
prepupal period occupied about 13 days, but the pupal period varied a good deal 
in duration. Those larvae which pupated early, that is about the middle of 
September, emerged at the same time as those which had not reached the pupal 
stage until the middle of October. The rapidity of development of the fly in the 
puparium was dependent on temperature, so that those which had pupated some 
time earlier than the others did not develop any more quickly owing to the cold 
weather. Thus there were flies emerging from all three batches at the same time 
in the first two weeks of November. 


Altogether from the three batches of maggots produced by two females 74 
flies emerged, 46 males and 26 females. In addition there were 60 dead prepupal 
maggots, 47 aborted puparia and 34 puparia containing dead flies. Thus on an 
average there were 72 eggs produced in each batch. The flies of this generation 
lived from four to six weeks in the insectary, but with one exception did not 
Oviposit. One female laid eggs on a guinea pig. They were attached close to 
the skin on the hairs, were very pale in colour and did not hatch. 


6. Effect of Temperature and Humidity on Rate of Development. 


Since the rate of development of C. ochracea is slower than most blowflies, 
an experiment was carried out to see if this is correlated with the low temperature 
conditions of the season during which it breeds. 


A batch of eggs produced on 28th August, 1930, was divided into two lots; one 
lot was kept in the insectary and the other in a higher temperature chamber. The 
developing maggots were kept under close observation and a record of the dates 
at which they reached the various stages made for comparison. There was a 
striking difference in the maggots of the two batches after four days. Those in 
the insectary were a few millimetres long, whilst those in the warm room were 
in their third instar. 

The temperature in the warm room, except for very slight fluctuations, 
remained at 23° C. during the whole period. The humidity was higher than that 
in the insectary, but varied somewhat. It was always above 70% and generally 
between 70% and 80%. The insectary temperature was not controlled and 
fluctuated considerably, becoming higher as the season advanced. The minimum 
ranged from -—1:6° to 9° C. in September and reached 11° C. in October. The 
maximum rose from 12° to 31° C. whilst the fly was breeding. 


A comparison of the periods of development in the two cases is as follows: 


Constant Temp. Insectary. 

Room. 
Egg to end of third instar (feeding stage) .. 4 days 27 days 
Prepupal stage sige Ph RENT Hola Teed Raa kee eee 5 days 12 days 
Pupal stage Nes ia ae Ar ail By gh ta elt ah 16 days 21 days 


Total period from egg to adult oh ae ae 25 days 60 days 


176 LIFE HISTORY OF CALLIPHORA OCHRACEA, 


So marked was the effect of temperature and humidity on development that 
adults were present under warm, moist conditions, whilst maggots from the same 
batch of eggs were still feeding under normal outdoor conditions. The difference 
in the length of the larval stage was the most pronounced, that in the prepupal 
stage less so, whilst that in the pupal stage was the slightest. This was no doubt 
partially due to the fact that the insectary temperature was increasing as the 
weeks passed. 


The adults also live longer and are more vigorous under warmer, moister 
conditions than the normal Canberra climate. Flies kept in the insectary died in a 
few days. Those in the constant temperature room lived from four to six weeks. 
A female kept in the insectary took 25 days to mature a second batch of eggs, 
whilst one in the warm room produced two batches within five days. In the 
latter case there were more than 200 eggs in each batch, and in the former there 
were only about 75. Moreover, the progeny of the second female had completed 
their life cycle in 24 days, whilst those of first took more than two months. 


7. Description of the Early Stages. 


(a) The Egg.—The egg is 2-5 mm. in length. It is creamy in colour. The 
shape is a long ellipse, slightly curved and narrowed and flattened at the 
micropylar end. In eggs which are near to hatching the young maggot can be 
seen shrunken away from the transparent chorion and with the pointed head 
towards the micropylar end. 


(0) First Stage Larva—The maggot at this stage is 4 mm. long. It is 
sharply pointed at the head end, and broad and truncated posteriorly. The 
maggot has a pseudocephalon, three thoracic, and eight normal and two very 
reduced abdominal segments. The head is divided, as in all blowfly larvae, into 
two distinct lobes, each bearing a maxillary palp and a smali papillate antenna on 
the dorsal surface. There are two well-marked but unbranched oral grooves 
present. The two lateral hooks of the bucco-pharyngeal armature are strongly 
chitinized and conspicuous. 


The anterior border of the first thoracic segment bears a row of strongly 
chitinized black spines which are short, stout and closely set all round the margin. 
They are smaller and less heavily chitinized on the dorsal surface. This segment 
sheathes round the head and has a slightly bilobed flap projecting forward. In 
this region it bears several sinuous rows of small dark spines more or less 
projected backwards, and becoming smaller in the more posterior rows. The 
second and third thoracic segments have a couple of rows of spines on the 
anterior borders all round, and these are more chitinized and conspicuous on the 
ventral surface. 

Each abdominal segment also bears rows of spines on the anterior border. 
These widen out on the ventral median surface to several rows where they form a 
distinct patch behind the junction of each segment. Unlike the other segments 
the first abdominal segment has in place of the lozenge-shaped area two rows of 
spines. Towards the middle of each iozenge-shaped spiny area there is a clear 
space devoid of spines. This space is placed slightly posteriorly, that is, there 
are about five rows of spines in front of the clear space and two behind, so that 
it does not lie in the centre of the spiny area. The posterior rows of spines are 
the largest and most heavily chitinized and are directed backwards. The spiny 
areas project downwards making a ventral bulge on each segment. 


BY MARY E. FULLER. 107 


The posterior spiracles are in the form of dorsal stigmatic plates on the 
eighth abdominal segment. They are very pale and seem to be hardly more 
chitinized than the skin of the larva. Two slits are present, which are short, wide 
and close together. The felt chambers are noticeable through the thin skin, and 
the tracheal trunks can be seen from the dorsal surface diverging as they pass 
inwards. There are no other spiracles present in the larva at this stage. 

(c) Second Stage Larva.—The following description is from a larva ten days 
old. The two-lobed structure of the head and the antenna and maxillary palp 
are the same as in the previous stage. The lateral hooks are both the same size 
and bear small thin spines. 

The anterior border of the three thoracic segments has very small and incon- 
spicuous spines. Ventrally at the anterior margin each of the abdominal 
segments bears a wide band of rows of small spines directed backwards. They 
form a band right across the ventral surface instead of a median patch as in the 
previous stage larva. The clear space towards the centre is, however, still present. 

As in the first-stage maggot the spiny bands from a lateral view appear as 
distinct swellings on the ventral surface of the abdominal segments. Dorsally 
the band is not as wide or conspicuous as on the ventral surface. It is 
distinguishable on the first four segments and then fades away, and is again 
noticeable on the last four. On the ninth segment ventrally there are two large 
projections, and the anus, representing the tenth segment, is situated between 
and a little behind these. The posterior spiracles are in a hollow on the dorsal 
surface of the eighth segment. The plate bears two slits which are short and 
wide with chitinous sinuous edges, and the outside slit has a distinct bend in the 
centre. The peritreme or chitinous border of the plate is very thin and incon- 
spicuous. There are six papillae round the edge of the hollow, behind the 
spiracles and beneath them. These papillae form the most posterior extremity of 
the maggot, projecting backwards over the last two segments. 

One maggot was killed and preserved just at the ecdysis between the second 
and third instars. The body of the maggot had shrunk away from the last two 
segments of the previous skin leaving it quite transparent, so that the old 
spiracular plates with two slits were plainly visible. The new posterior spiracular 
plates were seen on the new maggot through the transparent old skin. They 
were faint and not chitinized, being the same colour as the skin of the maggot. 
The three slits, however, were distinct and plainly visible. 

(ad) Third Stage Larva.—The following description is from a larva nineteen 
days old. The full-grown maggot is 16 mm. in length. The head is relatively 
much smaller than in the previous instars, having not increased in the same 
proportion as the rest of the body. The first thoracic segment overlaps the head 
slightly on the dorsal surface and is very spiny at this point. The anterior 
spiracles are conspicuous on the first segment of the thorax and are fan-like, 
ending in nine papillae. The general structure of the maggot is similar to those 
already described. The body segments are well marked, more swollen and 
annulated at the junctions than in previous instars. The junctions are marked 
by bands of spines, which are most numerous and conspicuous on the ventral 
surface where the band widens. The last four large abdominal segments have the 
junctions less swollen, especially dorsally where there is practically no annulation. 

The posterior spiracles lie in a deep hollow on the dorsal surface of the eighth 
segment. There are six little papillae on the anterior dorsal rim of this hollow, 
and two outer larger and two inner smaller ones on the posterior lower margin. 


178 LIFE HISTORY OF CALLIPHORA OCHRACEA, 


Two more papillae are situated outside and below these, but also on the rim of the 
depression. Below this depression there is a ventral protrusion, the ninth segment, 
which is covered with small spines above and has the anal opening in the middle. 

Spines are present around the lower edge of this also. The ninth segment 
bears a pair of large papillae, one on each side of the anus projecting laterally. 

Posterior Spiracles—The distance between the spiracular plates is, on an 
average, 0:27 mm. The general conformation and structure of the spiracles is 
typically Calliphorine, being very similar to that of all other Calliphoras examined. 
The plates are almost round in outline but slightly projecting at the button or 
external scar, and showing a slight scalloping or bulging where the upper end 
of the slit reaches the peritreme. The peritreme is strongly chitinized, but not 
very wide, and has inward projections between the slits. The button is completely 
enclosed in the peritreme. 

The three slits are narrow and elongated, running the full length of the plate, 
and making bulges in the peritreme at their upper ends. The slits are equal 
distances apart at their bases near the button. They diverge from here, but are 
still about equal distances apart at the apex near the peritreme. The lower or 
outer slit is a little shorter than the other two and has a slight curve upwards 
at the middle. The middie slit curves downwards at the centre, and the upper or 
inner one’curves upwards. Thus there is a space between the inner and middle 
slits which is occupied by the “intermediate structure’ of Froggatt, whilst the 
outer and middle slits come close together at the middle. The lower slit runs 
straight outwards, whilst the other two run outwards and upwards. 

There are four openings of perispiracular glands. These are in the form of 
small round, clear spaces. One is situated on the top of the “intermediate 
structure’, between the inner and middle slits, one is on the upper margin of 
the inner slit at its middle, one is on the lower margin of the middle slit 
towards its outer end, and the fourth is on the lower margin of the outer slit 
about its middle. From the openings of the perispiracular glands a series of fine, 
chitinous hairs radiates in a fan-shaped fashion, reaching the peritreme. In most 
preparations these appear as lines on the ground membrane of the spiracular 
plate and are referred to by Froggatt as “sun-ray effects’. The slits bear thick 
chitinous borders which are sinuous or scalloped, leaving only a narrow cleft 
down the centre of the slit which is crossed by a network of chitinous bars running 
from one border to the other. The peritreme is paler round and near the button. 
The inward projection of the peritreme between the middle and inner slits is often 
bifid, one point running each side of the perispiracular gland opening in this 
situation. : 

Some features of the spiracles are variable. There is practically no inward 
projection of the peritreme between the slits in some cases, and occasionally the 
slits do not run the full length of the plate and cause bulges in the peritreme, 
but end short with quite a space between their upper ends and the peritreme. 
The shape of the slits and other features are constant. 

Anterior Spiracles.—The tracheal trunk ends in a wide felt chamber which 
terminates in-a variable number of short papillae, from nine to eleven in most 
cases, but one example had only eight. They are well separated from each 
other, and the openings at the ends of each are large, with thick chitinous rims. 
The papillae spread out in a fan-like manner, and in the specimen with eight 
only they were farther apart and more spread out than usual. The top of the 
felt chamber just below the papillaé has numerous large, clear spaces in it. 


BY MARY E. FULLER. 179 


Buccopharyngeal Armature.—The pharyngeal sclerite is similar to that of all 
other Calliphorine larvae examined. There is the usual deep incision in the 
posterior end, and the dorsal cornua are long and have the inner edges very 
strongly chitinized. The ventral cornua also have the inner edges most heavily 
chitinized. Along the ventral margin of this sclerite runs the ribbed ventral wall 
of the pharynx. According to Keilin, this feature is characteristic of all 
Cyclorrhaphous dipterous larvae which are saprophagous. At the anterior end of 
the pharyngeal sclerite there is a pair of narrow chitinous rods projecting forwards 
from it, and with the ends hooked sharply upwards like a ladle. 


Text-fig. 1.—Posterior spiracles of third stage larva of C. ochracea. x 95. 
c, chitinous hairs; e, external opening of perispiracular glands; i, “intermediate 
structure”; s, external scar. i 


Text-fig. 2.—Buccopharyngeal armature of third stage larva of C. ochracea. 
x 42%. ad, dorsal cornua; o.h., oral hooks; vr, longitudinal ridges; v, ventral 
ecornua. 


The middle or hypopharyngeal sclerite is very heavily chitinized and articu- 
lated posteriorly with the pharyngeal sclerite and anteriorly with the base of the 
oral hooks. This sclerite is small, the whole armature being narrowest at this 
point. The oral hooks are very chitinous and black, with wide triangular bases 
which have a small hole in the centre. The hooks are of equal length, long and 
pointed. There is a short chitinous rod, wider at the posterior end, projecting 
forwards between the oral hooks. Ventrally, at the base of each hook there is a 
small thick, crescent-shaped sclerite, heavily chitinized, with the posterior horn 
narrowing to a tail. In the ventral curve of the hooks, projecting ventrally, there 
is a pair of yellowish, lightly-chitinized, curved disc-like structures, which are 
behind the median rod. 

D 


180 LIFE HISTORY OF CALLIPHORA OCHRACEA, 


The maggot of C. ochracea is a typical Calliphora larva. On comparing it 
with the maggot of C. stygia they are found to be remarkably similar in detail. 
The only real distinction lies in the spiracles. C. stygia has more papillae in the 
anterior spiracles, usually twelve. These are longer and narrower than in 
ochracea, and the whole structure is larger and more robust. The posterior 
spiracles, however, offer the most reliable distinguishing characters. In 
C. ochracea the plates are almost round, and in stygia they are elongated at right 
angles to the slits, becoming broadly pyriform. Also in stygia they possess strong 
projections of the peritreme between the slits and corresponding concavities in 
the outline, giving a definitely scalloped, shell-like appearance. The peritreme is 
thicker and stronger, and the distance between the plates is greater. Moreover, 
the slits are wider, shorter and closer together in stygia. 


The Puparium.—The puparium is dark-brown in colour, and 10 mm. in 
length. It has eleven segments marked off by a thin greyish band which repre- 
sents the band of spines in the maggot. These bands have a forward curve on 
the ventral side and, as in the larva, they are distinctly wider on the ventral 
surface of the puparium. The posterior spiracular plates are the same dark-brown 
colour as the puparium and the three slits appear as small shiny ridges. The 
anterior spiracles appear as stiff, yellowish fan-shaped structures with ten fingers 
directed outwards and slightly backwards. They occur one on each side of the 
middle line of the first segment. The small papillae surrounding the hollow in 
which the posterior spiracles lay are still present as small hard projections. The 
puparium is more convex on the dorsal than the ventral side. At the posterior 
edge of the third thoracic segment on the dorsal surface and to the side are two 
tiny horn-like projections. They are also dark-brown and are directed forwards. 
The puparium has a slight concavity where these horns arise. 


8. Conclusion. 


An interesting feature of this work lies in the fact that C. ochracea, whilst 
very distinctive in the adult stage, is so remarkably like other Calliphoras in the 
earlier stages. Unfortunately, no indication has been gained of its breeding habits 
in nature. Although the maggots thrive in carrion under experimental conditions, 
they have never been found in carcases in the field, so it seems not unlikely, as 
the flies readily oviposit in thick fur, that they are restricted to the dead bodies 
of some particular native animal. Thus similarity in the larval environment to 
that of other Calliphoras may account for the identity of the maggots, the adult 
environment and habits being different from other species. 


Bibliography. 


Buzzi, M., 1927.—Some Calliphoridae from the South Pacific Islands and Australia. Bull. 
Ent. Res., xvii, 3, pp. 231-247. 


FroeeGatr, W. W., 1914.—Sheep Maggot Flies. Agr. Gazette N.S.W., pp. 756-758. 
———.,, 1916.—- Sheep Maggot Flies No. 2. Dept. Agr. N.S.W., Farmers’ Bulletin No. 110. 


FroeeGatt, J. L., 1918.—A Study of the Hxternal Breathing Apparatus of the Larvae of 
some Muscoid Flies. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., xliii, 3, pp. 658-667. 


Harpy, G. H., 1926.—Notes on Australian Flies of the Genus Calliphora. Proc. Roy. 
Soc. Q’land, xxvii, pp. 168-173. 


, 1930.—The Queensland Species of Calliphora Subgenus Neopollenia. Bull. Ent. 
Res., xxi, 4, p. 443. 
JOHNSTON, T. H., and Harpy, G. H., 1922.—A Synonymic List of some Described Aus- 
tralian Calliphorine Flies. Proc. Roy. Soc. Q’land, xxxiv, pp. 191-194. 


BY MARY E. FULLER. 181 


KeiIniIn, D., 1915.—Recherches sur les Larves de Diptéres Cyclorrhaphes. Bull. Scien- 
tifique de la France et de la Belge, xlix, pp. 15-198. 


, 1919.—On the Life History and larval anatomy of Melinda cognata Meig. 
Parasitology, xi, Nos. 3 and 4, pp. 4380-454. 


MACQUART, J., 1850.—Mem. Soc. Sci. Agric. Arts Lille (Dipt. Exot., suppl. 4, p. 245). 


MatiocH, J. R., 1927.—Notes on Australian Diptera. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., lii, 3, 
p. 308. 


PaTTon, W. S., 1925.—Diptera of Medical and Veterinary Importance. ii. The More 
Important Blowflies—Calliphorinae. Philippine Journ. Sci., xxvii, 3, p.. 399. 


SCHINER, J. R., 1868.—Reise Novara, Dipt., p. 307. 


THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA. XI. 
THE PHALLALES, PART II. 


By G. H. CUNNINGHAM, 
Mycologist, Plant Research Station, Palmerston North, N.Z. 


(Plates viii—x.) 
[Read 27th May, 1931.] 


This paper is a continuation of Part I of the Phallales (in which the family 
Phallaceae was discussed) and covers the Australian and New Zealand species 
included in the families Clathraceae and Claustulaceae. 


Family II. CLATHRACEAE, 


Peridium obovate or subglobose, at first submerged, becoming superficial or 
almost so; rupturing from the apex downwards to form several lobes, exposing 
the receptacle and persisting as a volva supporting this structure; gelatinous 
layer broken into plates by bands of intermediate tissue corresponding with the 
arms of the receptacle. Receptacle completely free within the volva, of various 
types, stipitate or sessile, clathrate, columnar, or of apically united, connivent or 
free arms arising from the apex of the stipitate base, chambered, pseudoparen- 
chymatous. Gleba borne on the arms of the receptacle or upon some modified 
portion of these. Basidia bearing 4-8 sessile, elliptical, smooth, continuous spores. 

The family may be separated into 3 distinct tribes, and contains the following 
11 genera: 


Key to the Tribes and Genera. 


Tribe I. STELLATEAE: Receptacle stipitate, of simple arms borne on the apex of a simple 
hollow stem; arms either apically organically united, connected by a membrane, free 
and connivent, or laterally expanded from the discoid apex of the stem. 

Arms apically organically united or united by a membrane. 
Glebiferous layer composed of irregular pseudoparenchymatous processes ...... 
oh PA Ge ns rat aati PTS tae ne en etn i A Al ie ne 1. (*Mycopharus} ) 
Glebiferous layer consisting of walls of the chambers of the arms ............ 


Arms apically free, connivent or expanded. 
Arms connivent (usually), attached to the apex of a simple cylindrical stem 
Brice oe oo aa 3 Fes 2. Speayda esa sire ielyesigsh co celiek- ee errs cole Meme arerohtebeatette Nees orci t agree so eel AU SCG TROLS = 
Arms attached laterally to a horizontal discoid expansion of the apex of the 
Cylindrical: ‘Stem, Seige aie Gree oe LISLEAC cer ERROR ete reeasaaee 4. Aseroe. 
Tribe II. CoLUMNATEAE: Receptacle without a stipitate base, of simple columnar arms 
organically united apically, but free basally. 


* Genera not occurring in Australia or New Zealand are placed in brackets. 

{ Mycopharus Petch (1926, p. 281) was proposed by Petch to replace Pharus (Petch, 
1919, p. 59) which was erected to contain “Lysurus Gardneri’; Pharus being pre- 
occupied by a genus of the Gramineae. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 183 


Gleba attached to the inner surfaces of the columns. 


Columns transversely rugose or smooth .............0..20e0000: 5. Linderia. 
Columns with lateral winged expansions ................... 6. (Blumenavia). 
Gleba attached to a pendent pulvinate structure attached to the ventral surface of 
the capes of mene sunitediecolumn sy ress ae ene cia ee eae 7. (Laternea). 


Tribe III. CLATHRATEAE: Receptacle of arms anastomosing to form a globoid, hollow, 
sessile clathrate sphere, of arms clathrately arranged above, but columnar below 
and/or basally united to form a short cylindrical stem, or clathrate and supported 
upon a definite stem. 

Receptacle with a definite cylindrical stem. 


Receptaclewarmse NOt. VOD) wince 9 siege cee cee arel Sateen ar lies Seeacestayetensas 8. (Simblum). 
Receptacle arms with numerous lateral capitate or clavate lobes attached 

EXE CHIOLL Ye. ee O ee ce Se oe EE ena UT ets 9. (Kalchbrennera). 
Receptacle clathrate above, arms below columnar and united basally to form a short 
eyind Ti cali shasembsn 3 Saws aS & Bees Cee Fels Se eel te eat Peer apa s 10. Colus. 
Receptacle sessile or practically so, clathnate .3-5.-4.4-45--+-ose5ees- 11. Clathrus. 


I have rearranged this family, dividing it into three tribes on account of the 
arrangement of the arms of the receptacle. 

In the tribe Stellateae are placed the four genera Mycopharus, Anthurus, 
Lysurus and Aseroe, since all show a close resemblance one to another, consisting 
essentially of a receptacle, the base of which is a definite stipe, the apex divided 
into arms. In Anthurus (as emended below) the arms are organically united 
apically, in Mycopharus held together apically by a fine membrane, in Lysurus 
free apically but usually connivent (in occasional plants two or three of the arms 
may be united organically, cf. L. sulcatus and L. mokusin), and in Aseroe are 
laterally expanded and attached to the horizontal discoid apex of the stem of the 
receptacle. The arms of Mycopharus differ in the structure of the glebiferous 
layer from the other three genera included in the tribe, consisting of a series of 
thin processes or contorted plates closely compacted together. 

In the tribe Columnateae I have placed the genera Linderia, Blumenavia and 
Laternea. All three possess a receptacle of simple columnar arms, apically united 
organically, but basally free. In Linderia the columns are smooth or trans- 
versely rugulose and bear the gleba on their inner surfaces; in Blumenavia the 
columns have strongly developed winged expansions, but otherwise the genus is 
similar to Linderia; and in Laternea the gleba is restricted to a pendent, pulvinate 
structure attached to the apices of the united columns. 

In the tribe Clathrateae are placed the genera Colus, Simblum, Kalchbrennera 
and Clathrus. In all, the receptacle is composed of arms anastomosing to form a 
clathrate receptacle. In Clathrus the receptacle is clathrate throughout, and 
sessile, though in certain forms the lower arms tend to assume a columnar 
position, and occasionally are basally united to form a short tubular stem (upon 
this feature has been erected the genus Clathrella), approaching closely the genus 
Colus. This latter typically consists of a receptacle apically clathrate (that is, 
the arms in the upper portion anastomose to form a latticed structure), but below 
the arms assume a columnar position and fuse basally into a tubular flaring stem. 
Simblum has the appearance of a clathrate globoid receptacle carried at the apex 
of a cylindrical, hollow stem; and Kalchbrennera is of a similar structure, but in 
addition there arise exteriorly from the arms of the receptacle numerous clavate 
or capitate lobes. In all genera placed in the Clathrateae the arms form a closed 
receptacle, being united apically and basally, and this distinction is sufficient, 
in my opinion, to show that they are not closely related to the Columnateae. 

The geographic distribution of genera of the family is interesting. Mycopharus 
is confined to Ceylon; Blumenavia to Brazil; Laternea to the West Indies; 


184 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


Kalchbrennera to Africa; Colus is found in the Mediterranean region and Aus- 
tralia (possibly, too, in New Caledonia); Simblum in the West Indies and warmer 
regions of North and South America; Linderia in the south of North America, 
Hawaii, Ceylon, Japan and New Zealand; Anthurus in Australia, New Zealand, 
North and South America, Java and Ceylon; Lysurus in Europe, Asia, North 
America, Africa and Australia; Aseroe in Australia, New Zealand, Asia, Ceylon, 
India, South America and East Indies; and Clathrus has a _ world-wide 
distribution. 


Development. 


The development of Clathrus ruber has been worked out by Fischer (1890, 
p. 3). As in the Phallaceae the primordium arises from the rhizomorph as a 
small clavate body composed of an outer cortical and an inner medullary layer 
(Pl. viii, fig. 1). The medullary tissue enlarges rapidly and assumes a broadly 
pyriform appearance. It then becomes lobed (PI. viii, fig. 2) and the lobes continue 
to enlarge unequally, being more numerous apically (where the arms in the 
mature receptacle are more numerous) and expand peripherally to form 
(ultimately) the gelatinous plates of the middle layer of the volva. Between 
the lobes lies undifferentiated tissue of the cortex, and as the lobes increase in 
size peripherally, this undifferentiated tissue becomes compressed between them 
to form the so-called intermediate tissue (Zwischenflecht) of Fischer (Pl. viii, 
figs. 1, 2, c). Where the lobes tend to flatten near the periphery, compression of 
the intermediate tissue leads to the formation of the thin peridial plates (PI. viii, 
fig. 3, e); but towards the central part of the plant the undifferentiated cortical 
tissue occupies small cleft-like cavities, and in these spaces arise thickened hyphal 
knots, which are the fundaments of the arms of the receptacle (PI. viii, fig. 3, @). 
These shortly become enclosed within a palisade of hyphae. The wall of the 
medullary tissue enclosing these clefts likewise becomes lined with palisade 
tissue, and between them a cavity appears, indicating the beginning of glebal 
formation, this being the first glebal chamber (PI. viii, fig. 3, f). By radial 
elongation of the lobes of medullary tissue (which begin to gelatinize peripherally 
about this time) these cavities increase in size; the walls then become covered with 
hymenium, develop lateral expansions, which increase in size and number, and 
ultimately form the labryinth of cavities and tramal plates of the gleba (PI. viii, 
fig. 5, g). Development continues progressively towards the centre of the plant, 
until the whole of the medullary tissue lying within the zone indicated by the 
appearance of the first glebal cavities is converted into gleba. 

Where the intermediate tissues come in contact with the gleba, the hyphae 
grow into certain of the glebal chambers and fill them with a luxuriant growth of 
hyphae. This, together with the palisade surrounding the hyphal knots, is then 
converted into pseudoparenchyma, giving rise to the walls of the arms of the 
receptacle. Those portions of intermediate tissue enclosed within the pseudo- 
parenchyma gelatinize and in this manner are formed the chambers of the arms 
of the receptacle. 

The labyrinth of glebal tissue then produces basidia and spores, and 
ultimately becomes gelatinized. Gelatinization of the peripheral portions of the 
lobes of the medullary tissue continues until the whole of the peripheral region 
is converted. In this manner is formed the middle layer of the peridium, which 
is broken into numerous areas by the peridial plates, which correspond in number 
and position to the arms of the receptacle (Pl. ix, fig. 18). The exterior layer of 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 185 


the peridium is derived from the but slightly differentiated cortex (Pl. viii, fig. 
5, i}, and the inner layer is bounded by the peripheral zone of the gleba and 
arms of the receptacle. 

As the receptacle develops its walls become thrown into folds (Pl. ix, fig. 18) ; 
and at maturity, increased turgour of the arms (and possibly, too, of the now 
gelatinized gleba) causes rupture of the peridium (along the sutures formed by 
the peridial plates), the receptacle expands considerably and becomes free, the 
peridium remaining then as a volva at its base (PI. x, fig. 19). 

In Linderia columnata, according to Burt (1896), development proceeds in a 
similar manner, save that only a few lobes of the medullary tissue are developed, 
due to the simplified nature of the receptacle. In this species development of the 
columns of the receptacle is continuous over the apical part (leading to the arms 
being organically united in the mature plant) but is interrupted basally, so that 
at maturity the columns are free from one another. 

The development of these two species differs considerably from that described 
for members of the Phallaceae. For in Mutinus and Ithyphallus it was shown that 
the cortex gave rise to the outer layer of the peridium alone, all other tissues 
arising from the medulla. In Clathrus (and Linderia) tke cortical tissue not 
only produces the outer layer of the peridium, but in addition the walls of the 
receptacle and peridial plates of the volva. A second feature of the Clathraceae 
is that so far as their development has been studied critically, the gleba develops 
interiorly to the tissues of the receptacle, whereas in the Phallaceae it develops 
externally to the pileus (or modified apex of the receptacle in Mutinus). These 
differences are sufficient to maintain these two families as distinct, and tend to 
show, moreover (since no intermediate forms are known) that they have had a 
different, though probably parallel, line of evolution. 


1. ANTHURUS Kalchbrenner. 


Grev., ix, 1880, p. 2. Hmend.—Pseudocolus Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 1907, p. 356. 

Peridium of 3 layers, the outer furfuraceous and thin, the middle one thick 
and gelatinous. Receptacle a short, cylindrical or flaring, hollow stem, bearing 
apically a variable number (3-8) of simple, brittle arms organically united 
apically (though often breaking free at maturity). Gleba borne on the inner 
surfaces of the arms, mucilaginous, fetid, olivaceous. Spores tinted or hyaline, 
continuous, smooth, elliptical. 

Habitat—Growing on the ground or on decaying wood. 

Type species, Anthurus Archeri (Berk.) Fisch. 

Distribution.—France; North and South America; Island of Reunion; Java; 
Ceylon; Japan; Australia; New Zealand. 

This genus is characterized by the receptacle, which consists of a hollow, 
cylindrical or flaring stem bearing apically several simple arms united at their 
apices. In one species (A. Rothae) the stem is often considerably reduced, some- 
times not projecting beyond the volva. 

The genus was erected by Kalchbrenner upon a plant from Richmond River, 
New South Wales. The specimen no longer exists, consequently most subsequent 
workers have had to attempt identification of the species (and genus) from 
Kalchbrenner’s description and crude illustration (PI. 3, fig. 3). The latter does 
not resemble any known Phalloid (see Pl. viii, fig. 7), and would appear to be a 
composite sketch of Aseroe rubra and a plant Fischer (1890, p. 67) labelled 
Anthurus Muellerianus f. aseroeformis, collected by Bauerlen at Quiedong, Gipps- 


186 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


land. Fischer’s illustration is based on a plant which McAlpine later named 
A. aseroeformis. 

In 1860 Berkeley described Lysurus Archeri from a plant collected in South 
Tasmania. His description and illustration (see Pl. viii, fig. 8) show a plant 
resembling A. Muellerianus f. aseroeformis, but differing in that the apices of the 
five arms are united. Recent collections made in Australia and New Zealand 
have shown that Berkeley’s plant is not uncommon, and that when the receptacle 
emerges from the peridium the arms are (usually) united apically (as his figure 
has shown them), but after exposure for a short time they tend to become 
detached (being decidedly brittle when fresh), the plant then assuming the form 
of Fischer’s A. Muellerianus f. aseroeformis. It is obvious, therefore, that both 
are conditions of the same species, and that as Berkeley’s name has priority, the 
specific name becomes A. Archeri. 

Reference to Kalchbrenner’s figure (PI. viii, fig. 7) shows his 4. Muellerianus 
to be a plant with eight free arms, attached to a short hollow stem; and as 
Berkeley’s figure shows a plant with five united arms (PI. viii, fig. 8), it may 
be thought that two different species are involved. But as in New Zealand forms 
with seven arms are not uncommon, it is evident Lysurus Archeri, Anthurus 
Muellerianus, and A. Muellerianus f. aseroeformis (= A. aseroeformis McAlp.) are 
but names for the same species. 

Kalchbrenner’s description of his genus Anthurus covers plants with 
“Receptacle stipitate, or with a very short stem, divided above into erect patent 
laciniae, free at the apices, but running down direct into the stem, and not 
distinct from it’. And subsequent workers have had difficulty in determining 
the differences, if any, separating it from Lysurus. But as I have shown, the 
type species is a plant with the arms organically united apically, and that 
Kalchbrenner’s figure refers to a weathered plant in which the arms had broken 
free. It is clear therefore that the concept of the genus has become changed, and 
that several species placed under it must be referred to Lysurus. 

In 1907 Lloyd erected Pseudocolus to contain plants with arms organically 
united apically, and attached basally to a hollow stem; in other words to contain 
species placed under Anthurus as now defined. Thus Pseudocolus is but a synonym 
of Anthurus. 

In the genus as emended, there are four species. Of these Anthurus Garciae 
(A. Moell.) n. comb. (= Colus Garciae A. Moell., Braz. Pilz., 1895, p. 35) occurs 
only in Brazil, and differs from the others in its white receptacle; A. javanicus 
(Penz.) n. comb. (= Colus javanicus Penz., Ann. Jard. bot. Buit., xvi, 1899, p. 160) 
is a red species with three arms, found in Java, Island of Reunion (as Colus 
fusiformis Fisch., 1890, p. 64), Japan (Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 1916, p. 586) and North 
America (as Colus Schellenbergiae Sumst., Mycologia, viii, 1916, p. 183); A. 
Archeri (Berk.) Fisch. is a red species with five to eight arms, and occurs in New 
Zealand, Australia, Tasmania, Mauritius, Malay Archipelago and France; and 
A. Rothae (Fisch.) n. comb. is confined to Australia. 


1. ANTHURUS ARCHERI (Berkeley) Fischer. Pl. viii, fig. 6. 


Jahrb. bot. Gart. wu. Mus. Berlin, iv, 1886, p. 81.—Lysurus Archeri Berk., 
Fl. Tas., ii, 1869, p. 264—L. pentactinus Berk., lc., tab. 184—Anthurus 
Muellerianus Kalch., Grev., ix, 1880, p. 2—A. Muellerianus f. aseroeformis Fisch., 
Denskr. Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxii, 1890, p. 68.—A. aseroeformis (Fisch.) McAIp., 
in Lloyd’s Myc. Notes. 1908, p. 408.—Pseudocolus Archeri (Berk.) Lloyd, Letter 47, 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 187 


1913, p. 14—? Anthurus MacOwani Marl., ex Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 1916, p. 570.— 
Pseudocolus mauritianus Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 1917, p. 689.—Anthurus surinamensis 
Fisch., Ann. Myc., xxv, 1927, p. 471. 

Peridium obovate, to 4 cm. diameter, but usually smaller, exterior furfuraceous, 
dingy-white. Receptacle with a short, hollow, usually flaring stem, to 5 cm. long, 
but often much less, 1-2-5 em. diameter, attenuate and white below, slightly 
expanded, open and red above; divided directly into 5-8 simple arms, which 
are red, transversely rugulose on the interior, sutured longitudinally externally, 
chambered, apically united (usually) when freshly expanded, but commonly break- 
ing away in older plants, varying from 3 to 7 cm. in length, occasionally bifurcate 
at the extremities. Gleba borne on the inner surfaces of the arms, fetid, olivaceous. 
Spores hyaline, elliptical, 6-7-5 x 2-2-6 pu. 

Type locality— South Tasmania. 

Distribution.—Australia; Tasmania; New Zealand; Mauritius; Malay 
Archipelago; ? South Africa; ? France. 

Tasmania: Type locality (Berkeley, IJ.c.)—N.S.W.: Richmond River (Kalch- 
brenner, U.c.); Mt. Royal Range; Yarrowitch; Squdgy Creek, near Bulli Pass 
(Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 207).—Vic.: Quiedong, Gippsland (Fischer, lI.c.); 
Upper Owens River (Fischer, /7.c.); Melbourne (McAlpine, J/.c.).—N.Z.: Unknown 
locality (Lloyd, Letter 59, 1915, p. 1); Peel Forest, Canterbury (Lloyd, Letter 47, 
1913, p. 14); Cromwell, Otago, G.H.C.; Nelson, Dun Mt., G.H.C. 


This is a red species somewhat uncommon in Australia and New Zealand. The 
arms vary in number from five to eight, plants with five arms being most 
frequently collected; they may be organically united, held together by a fine 
membrane (Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 207), or occasionally free, though the 
last two conditions are rare in freshly expanded plants; and may be entire at 
their apices (when broken away) or occasionally bifid. This last condition is rare 
and has been recorded but twice (by Berkeley, J.c., and Cleland and Cheel, 1915, 
p. 206), and would appear to be limited to those arms which are organically free 
in unexpanded plants. 

The variable nature of the species has led to considerable speculation as to 
its identity, with the result that it is found in literature under many names. 
As has been shown, it was first named in 1860 by Berkeley as Lysurus Archeri 
(and his illustration as L. pentactinus); in 1880 by Kalchbrenner as Anthurus 
Muellerianus; and by McAlpine in 1908 as A. aseroeformis. Then Lloyd (Letter 
47, 1913, p. 14) recorded receipt of a specimen in which two of the six arms were 
united apically and concluded they were all so joined originally. The following 
year (Letter 51, 1914, p. 4) he received a coloured drawing from C. C. Brittlebank 
(Melbourne) showing a plant with all arms organically united apically, and 
accordingly renamed the species Pseudocolus Archeri. Then in 1917 Lloyd 
received from Mauritius a plant which he named Pseudocolus mauritianus. This 
had the five apically united arms and short stem of our plant and is accordingly 
considered to be the same species. In 1925 Lloyd (Myc. Notes, p. 1361) recorded 
the species (under the name of Anthurus aseroeformis) from France, and, judging 
from his illustration, his record would appear to be based on an authentic 
specimen. Finally Fischer recorded the species (as A. surinamensis) from 
Surinam, Malay Archipelago. His plant had the same five arms, red colour, short 
stem and organically connected arms (though some are broken apart in his 
illustration) and so must be regarded as the same species. I have examined three 
collections from Otago and Nelson and find that the number of arms varies, as 


188 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


has been shown; for of the seven specimens examined, three possessed five arms, 
one had six, and three had seven. 


2. ANTHURUS ROTHAE (Berk. ex Fischer), n. comb. (PI. viii, fig. 9.) 


Colus Rothae Fisch., Denskr. Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxiii, 1893, p. 23, nom. 
nudum.—Pseudocolus Rothae (Fisch.) Lloyd, Phall. Aws., 1907, p. 19. 

Peridium white or greyish, subglobose, 1:-5-2 cm. diameter, externally fur- 
furaceous. Receptacle variable in size, 3-5 mm. tall, of 3 or 4 triquetrous or 
quadrate arms organically united apically, basally contracted to form a short, 
cylindrical, hollow stem; arms cream-coloured basally, orange or orange-red above, 
transversely rugulose, hollow, attenuate above and slightly arched outwards. 
Gleba olivaceous, borne on the inner surfaces of the upper parts of the arms, 
mucilaginous, fetid. Spores tinted, elliptical, smooth, 3-4 x 1-5-2 uw. 

Type tocality.—Brisbane, Queensland. 

Distribution.—Australia. 

Queensland: Brisbane (Herb. Kew, Fischer, J.c.).-—N.S.W.: Moonan Brook 
(Herb. Kew, Fischer, J.c.); Bulli Pass, 4/14, J. B. Cleland.* 

This species is characterized by the three or four angular arms of the 
receptacle. The number of the arms varies, for out of eight specimens collected 
by Dr. Cleland, two had four arms, and the others had three, but in one of the 
latter, one arm was thicker and divided into two in its upper part. Another 
feature is that the stem of the receptacle is often reduced, when the plant is liable 
to be mistaken for a specimen of Linderia; but the organically united bases of 
the arms would show that such plants were of this species. 

At Kew, according to Fischer (l.c.), the original collections forwarded by 
Bailey were labelled Clathrus triscapus and Anthurus Rothae; and a second 
collection from Moonan Brook labelled Laternea triscapa; which explains Cooke’s 
reference (1892, p. 214) to the occurrence of Laternea triscapa in Australia. 


2. Lysurus Fries. 


Syst. Myc., ii, 1822, p. 285 —Aseroephallus Lepr. et Mont., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 
3, iv, 1845, p. 360. 

Peridium of 3 layers, the outer thin and furfuraceous, the middle layer thick 
and gelatinous. Receptacle a hollow cylindrical stem bearing apically several 
arms, distinct from the stem, and free apically. Gleba olivaceous, mucilaginous, 
fetid, borne on the surfaces of the arms. Spores elliptical, smooth, continuous. 

Habitat—Growing upon the ground. 

Type species, Lysurus mokusin (L.) Fr. 

Distribution.—Kurope; Asia; North and South America; Africa; Australia. 

The genus is characterized by the receptacle, which consists of a well 
developed cylindrical stem bearing apically a variable number of short arms 
which are apically free. It has regularly been confused with Anthurus (which is 
not surprising, since as that genus was originally defined there was no real 
difference between the two), and numerous efforts have been made to separate 
these two genera; as by Patouillard (1890), who attempted to define them upon 
the manner in which the gleba was borne on the arms. As Lysurus mokusin 
carries the gleba upon the exterior of the arms, Patouillard assumed that Anthurus 


* Specimens marked thus are in the herbarium of Dr. J. B. Cleland, The University, 
Adelaide. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 189 


had the gleba borne internally on the inner surfaces of the arms, and made this 
the character of the two genera. Lloyd in his various papers attempted to show 
that Lysurus possessed a cylindrical, and Anthurus a flaring stem, and considered 
this to be the distinguishing feature. 

Of the fifteen species which have been described, but four are valid, the others 
being synonyms either of these or of species of Anthurus. Lysurus mokusin (L.) 
Fr. has been recorded from China, Japan, Australia and California; L. sulcatus 
(Cke. et Mass.) n. comb. is known from Hurope, North America and Australia; 
L. cruciatus (Lepr. et Mont.) Lloyd is based on a collection from French Guiana; 
and L. Woodii (MacOwan) Lloyd is confined to Africa. 


1. LYSURUS MOKUSIN (L.) Fries. 

Syst. Myc.. ii, 1822, p. 286 —Mutinus pentagonus Bailey, Queensland Bot. Buil., 
x, 1895, p. 35.—-Lysurus Beauvaisii Moll., Rev. Gen. Bot., xii, 1900, p. 61.—Mutinus 
pentagonus var. Hardyi Bailey, Queensland Agr. Journ., xvi, 1906, p. 494.—WM. 
Hardyi Bailey, Comp. Cat. Queensland Pl., 1910, p. 747.—Lysurus sinensis Lloyd, 
Myc. Notes, 1917, p. 718. 

Peridium subglobose, to 3 cm. diameter, white. Receptacle to 8 x 1:5 cm., 
stem white, fluted and 4-6 angled, hollow, coarsely chambered, acuminate below, 
bearing apically 4-6 arms, which are usually strongly connivent, to 25 mm. long, 
acuminate, rugulose, orange. Gleba olivaceous, fetid, borne on the exterior of the 
arms. Spores tinted, elliptical, 4-5-5 x 1-8-2-2 uw. 

Type locality—Province of Mokusin, China. 

Distribution.—China; Japan; California; Australia. 

Queensland: Brisbane (F. M. Bailey, Hardy, J. H. Simmonds, Bailey, I.c.). 

The species is characterized by the strongly fluted and angled stem of the 
receptacle, strongly connivent arms, and by the gleba being carried on the outside 
of the arms. 

The Australian record is based on specimens collected in Queensland by 
Bailey and others. These were placed under Mutinus and described as new, 
two species and one variety being erected by Bailey according to whether the 
stem was four, five or six angled. Bailey’s illustrations show all to be forms of 
LL. mokusin. ULloyd’s L. sinensis was based on a specimen from Japan, in which 
two of the arms were organically united at their apices. But as this feature is not 
uncommon in L. sulcatus and L. Woodii it has no specific import. Lloyd (Myc. 
Notes, 1916, p. 586) recorded the occurrence of the species in a glasshouse in 
California, where it doubtless has been introduced accidentally with plants or 
soil brought from the Orient. It is possible that it has been introduced similarly 
from China to the north of Australia. 


2. LySuRUS SULCATUS (Cooke and Massee), n. comb. 


Lysurus texensis Ellis, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vii, 1880, p. 30, nomen nudum. 
Mutinus sulcatus Cke. et Mass., Grev., xvii, 1889, p. 69.—Lysurus australiensis 
Cke. et Mass., Grev., xviii, 1889, p. 6—Anthurus australiensis (Cke. et Mass.) 
Fisch., Denskr. Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxiii, 1893, p. 27—A. borealis Burt, Mem. 
Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., iii, 1894, p. 504.—Lysurus borealis (Burt) P. Henn., Hedw., 
xli, 1902, p. 167; var. Alitzingii P. Henn., I.c., p. 173.—L. tenuis Bailey, Comp. Cat. 
Queensland Pl., 1910, p. 745. 

Peridium subglobose, white, to 3 cm. diameter. Receptacle to 15 x 2 cm., 
stem white below, cream-buff above, cylindrical, or acuminate below, hollow, of 1-3 


190 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


layers of chambers, divided apically into 5-7 arms which are erect, hollow, narrowly 
lanceolate, 10-30 mm. long, apically attenuate, transversely rugulose, pallid-orange 
and differing in context from the stem. Gleba borne on the inner surface and 
edges of the arms, sometimes completely surrounding them, brownish, mucilaginous, 
fetid. Spores elliptical, smooth, hyaline or tinted, 45-5 x 1-5-2 uy. 

Type locality.—Brisbane, Queensland. 

Distribution.—Germany; England; North America; Australia. 

Queensland: Brisbane (Cooke and Massee, l.c., Bailey, I.c.) —N.S.W.: Killara; 
Penshurst; Wahroonga; Botanic Gardens, Sydney; Woolwich; Milson Island; 
Cronulla Beach; Campsie; Richmond; Neutral Bay (Nat. Herb., Sydney, Cleland 
and Cheel, 1915, p. 206); Palm Beach, Sydney, 4/18*; Byron Bay, 4/16*, J. B. 
Cleland—S. Aust.: Grange, 2/24, J. B. Cleland*; same loc., 4/24, Mrs. Kelly*; 
same loc., 4/25, A. J. Garfield Williams*; Millswood, 6/28, J. B. Cleland*. 

This appears to be one of the most abundant Phalloids in Australia, judging 
from the number of collections recorded. It is identical in all particulars with 
L. borealis, as I have satisfied myself after examination of numerous collections 
from America and Australia. This has been previously pointed out by Lloyd 
(1909, p. 38). It differs from L. Woodii only in the orange colour of the arms, 
those of the latter being white, according to van der Bijl (1921, p. 192). Petch 
has shown (1919) that Mycopharus Gardneri differs in the structure of the arms 
of the receptacle. I have examined the microscopic structure of the arms of 
LL. sulcatus and find they are composed of strongly convoluted folds of pseudo- 
parenchyma arranged in parallel series, forming a close palisade similar to that 
described (in part) by Petch. 

Cleland and Cheel (1915, p. 204) have shown that the number of the arms 
varies from five to seven; and that forms with two or more of the arms 
organically united apically, laterally or by a delicate membrane are not uncommon. 
These forms show the close relationship of the genus to Anthurus. The dis- 
position of the gleba is by no means constant; for it may be spread over the 
whole of the arms, and is quite common on the lateral surfaces of these structures. 
This shows the fallacy of delimiting genera upon the disposition of the gleba 
alone, as has been attempted by Patouillard, Fischer and others. 


3. ASEROE La Billardiére. 


Ex Fries, Syst. Myc., ii, 1822, p. 285—Calathiscus Mont., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 2, 
xvi, 1841, p. 278. 

Peridium of 3 layers, the outer thin and furfuraceous, the middle one thick 
and gelatinous. Receptacle a hollow cylindrical stem bearing apically a horizontal 
discoid expansion, to the margin of which are attached a variable number of 
horizontally arranged arms, which may be simple or bifurcate. The apex of the 
stem is often covered with a diaphragm, usually with a small central perforation. 
Gleba mucilaginous, olivaceous, fetid, imposed upon the upper surface of the disc 
and proximal portions of the upper surfaces of the arms. Spores smooth, con- 
tinuous, elliptical. 

Habitat— Growing solitary upon the ground or on rotting wood. 

Type species, Aseroe rubra Lab. ex Fr. - 

Distribution.—China; Japan; Ceylon; South America; East Indies; Australia; 
New Zealand. 

The genus is characterized by the manner in which the numerous, usually 
awl-like arms are laterally inserted into the discoid expansion of the apex of the 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 191 


stem, and presence of a diaphragm (an inward continuation of the disc) covering 
its apical aperture. Its relationship to Anthurus is indicated by occasional plants 
of Anthurus Archeri which possess apically free, shortly bifurcate and awl-like 
arms. ; 

There are but three valid species in the genus, the many others described 
being synonyms of these. A. arachnoidea Fisch. is known from Cochin China and 
Java, and differs from the others in its white colour and the fact that the arms 
are inserted singly into a barely perceptible disc; A. ceylanica Berk. occurs in 
Ceylon and Tonkin and is a red species differing from A. rubra in the much 
broadened apical disc of the receptacle; and A. rubra Lab. ex Fr. is restricted to 
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand and New Caledonia. 


1. ASEROE RUBRA La Billardiére. Plate viii, fig. 10; Pl. ix, figs. 11, 12. 


Ex Fries, Syst. Myc., ii, 1822, p. 285—A. pentactina Endl., Icon. Gen. Pi., 
Pl. 1, 1838.—A. viridis Berk. et Hook., in Hook. Journ. Bot., iii, 1844, p. 192.— 
Lysurus aseroeformis Cda., Icon. Fung., vi, 1854, p. 22.—Aseroe actinobola Cda., 
L.c., p. 23.—A. Hookeri Berk. Fl. N.Z., ii, 1855, p. 187.—A. corrugata Col., Trans. 
N.Z. Inst., xvi, 1883, p. 362.—A. lysuroides Fisch., Jahrb. bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin, 
iv, 1886, p. 89—A. rubra a. typica Fisch.; b. pentactina (Endl.) Fisch.; c. 
actinobola (Cda.) Fisch.; d. Muelleriana Fisch.; in Sace. Syll. Fung., vii, 1888, 
p. 26——A. Hookeri a. miniata Fisch.; b. viridis Fisch., 1.c—A. Muelleriana (Fisch.) 
Lloyd, Syn. Phall., 1909, p. 46—A. pallida Lloyd, l.c., p. 47.—A. poculiforma 
Bailey, Comp. Cat. Queensland Pl., 1910, p. 746. 

Peridium obovate, to 3 cm. diameter, dingy-white. Receptacle stem cylindrical 
or flaring, hollow, chambered, to 6 x 2 em., white and attenuate below, pink and 
expanding above into a broad, horizontal, orbicular disc, to 3-5 cm. diameter, to 
which the arms are attached laterally. Diaphragm usually well developed, smooth 
or definitely rugulose, sometimes almost wanting. Arms in 5-9 pairs, conniving, 
to 3-5 em. long, 6 mm. wide near the base, longitudinally grooved basally, rugose 
on both surfaces, but more deeply on the upper, or almost smooth, bifurcate at 
about 15 mm. from the base (sometimes bifurcate only near the apices), subulate 
towards the tips, which are often twisted. Gleba covering disc, diaphragm and 
upper surfaces of the lower portions of the arms, fetid, mucilaginous, olivaceous. 
Spores tinted, often hyaline, elliptical, smooth, 4-5:5 x 1:5-2 uw. 

Type locality—South Tasmania. 

Distribution.—Tasmania; Australia; New Zealand; New Caledonia. 

Tasmania: No locality (Nat. Herb., Sydney, Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 209; 
La Billardiére, ex Fries, J.c.)—Queensland: Brisbane (Bailey, l.c., as A. pocuwli- 
forma).—N.S.W.: Byng; Peakhurst; Turramurra; Camperdown; Penshurst; 
Killara; Woollahra; Croydon; Parramatta; Chatswood; Lismore; Rookwood; 
Weston; West Maitland; North Sydney; Neutral Bay (Nat. Herb., Sydney, Cleland 
and Cheel, 1915, p. 212).—Victoria: East Gippsland (herb. Berlin, Fischer, 1890) ; 
Dandenong (Berk., Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., xiii, 1872, p. 170).—New Zealand: 
Common throughout the lowland forests of both Islands. ; 

This is an abundant species throughout New Zealand, for I have collected it 
in all Provinces; and it appears to be equally abundant in Hast Australia and 
Tasmania. It is decidedly variable as to size, colour, number of arms, diameter 
of the discoid expansion of the stem, and degree of roughening of the disc, 
diaphragm and arms. Thus it is not surprising to find the species has many 
synonyms. A. pentactina Endl. was erected on a species with five bifid arms; 


192 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


A. viridis Berk. et Hook. was supposed to be a metallic-green (!) colour. Later 
Berkeley re-named it A. Hookeri Berk. on account of its supposed small size. 
I have examined the type at Kew and find it to be identical with one of our many 
forms. Lysurus aseroeformis Cda. and A. lysuroides Fisch. are names for a form 
from Tasmania in which the stem is longer and the base of the arms broader 
than in the original plant. Fragments of the “type” are, according to Fischer 
(1890, p. 73) in herb. Delessert in Geneva. A. corrugata Col. differs slightly 
from the typical form in the surfaces of the arms being more rugulose; but this 
is a condition so variable as to possess no significance. A. Muelleriana (Fisch.) 
Lloyd is a form in which the disc is much broader, more roughened interiorly, 
and the arms shorter than in the typical form, and on this account may possibly 
be worthy of a varietal name (PI. ix, fig. 13). A. pallida Lloyd was based on a 
specimen from New Caledonia with a white stem and pale-rose disc. It appears 
to be identical with our plant. A. poculiforma Bailey was based on a specimen 
in which the arms were less expanded than usual, a not uncommon condition 
where plants are growing among grass or partially buried in dead leaves and 
other debris on the forest floor. 

The colour of the plant varies somewhat, pink or bright-scarlet forms being 
the most common. I have collected on two occasions (Weraroa, May, 1919, and 
York Bay, Sept., 1927) plants with a perfectly white receptacle, the only colour 
present being that of the gleba. These specimens were identical in all other 
respects with the red form and were found on rotting wood. The number of 
the pairs of arms varies from five to nine. In typical plants they are bifurcate 
for about three-fourths of their length, but even this condition varies, for in some 
specimens the arms may be bifurcate only near their extremities, or from their 
junction with the disc. Several may fuse together, or become twice bifureate at 
their apices. 


4. LINDERIA, Nn. gen. 


Peridium subglobose, of 3 layers, the outer furfuraceous, the middle one thick 
and gelatinous. Receptacle of simple columns, organically united apically, but 
free and tapering basally. Columns chambered, pseudoparenchymatous, smooth 
or transversely wrinkled, but not winged; bearing on their upper parts of the 
inner surfaces the mucilaginous, olivaceous gleba. Spores elliptical, smooth, 
continuous. 

Habitat—Growing upon the ground. 

Type species, Clathrus columnatus Bose. 

Distribution.—North America; West Indies; Hawaii; Japan; New Zealand. 

This genus has been erected to contain those species possessing a columnar 
receptacle and arms organically united apically, but free basally. That this is a 
characteristic feature is evident when it is remembered that all genera placed 
in the tribe Columnateae (Linderia, Laternea and Blumenavia) possess this same 
feature. 

Earlier workers have had considerable difficulty in placing species belonging 
to this genus, for we,find them scattered equally through Clathrus, Colus or 
Laternea. Fischer (1890, p. 55), for example, considered Laternea triscapa, 
Linderia pusilla, Linderia columnata and Clathrus ruber to be forms of the same 
species. As these are valid species, belonging to three different genera, it is 
evident Fischer had but a scant knowledge as to the generic limits of the 
Clathraceae. Most subsequent workers have followed Fischer, and placed several, 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 193 


if not all, of the valid species of Linderia under Clathrus or Colus; save Lloyd 
(1909), who placed them under Laternea. 

Linder (1928, p. 109) has shown that the genus Laternea was erected upon a 
species possessing simple columns which subtend from the junction of the apices 
an angular, subobovate structure to which the gleba is restricted. The presence 
of this specialized glebiferous structure leaves those species with the gleba carried 
upon the inner surfaces of the columns without a generic name, and for this reason 
I have erected Linderia, in honour of David H. Linder, Mycologist to the Missouri 
Botanic Gardens, who has so clearly defined the characters of the genus Laternea. 
Linder suggested that Rafinesque’s proposed name Colonnaria be used. But as 
Rafinesque did not describe or illustrate his genus, nor indicate a type species 
(his contribution (1808) being ‘“‘Colonnaria (urceolata, truncata, etc.) divided into 
four pillars, united at the top, which bear the seeds in the margin. Found in 
Penn.”), it is evident that it is mere guesswork to assume he was dealing with 
any of the species under consideration, or in fact with a fungus at all. 

As defined, the genus contains the following three species: Linderia columnata 
(Bosc), n. comb.; Linderia bicolumnata (Lloyd), n. comb. (= Laternea bicolumnata 
Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 1908, p. 405); and Linderia pusilla (Berk. et Curt.) n. comb. 
(= Laternea pusilla Berk. et Curt., Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot., x, 1869, p. 343). The 
distribution of the first is given below; the second is confined to Japan; and the 
third to Cuba. 


1. LINDERIA COLUMNATA (Bosc.), n. comb. Plate ix, figs. 14, 15. 


Clathrus columnatus Bose., Mag. Gesell. nat. Freunde Berlin, v, 1811, p. 85.— 
C. colonnarius Leman, Dict. Sci. Nat., ix, 1817, p. 360—Laternea columnata Nees 
et Henry, Syst. d. Pilze, ii, 1858, p. 96.—Clathrus cancellatus ce. columnatus Fisch., 
Denskr. Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxii, 1890, p. 56—Clathrus trilobatus Cobb, Rept. 
Exp. Stn. Hawaii Sugar Pl. Assn. Bull. 5, 1906, p. 209. 

Peridium subglobose, to 3 cm. diameter, rupturing irregularly from the apex 
downwards. Receptacle of 3-5 (commonly 3-4) columnar arms, basally free and 
acuminate, apically united, arched slightly outwards, chambered, transversely 
rugulose or papillate interiorly, longitudinally striate exteriorly, shading from 
pallid-orange below to ruby-red at the apex. Gleba spread over the inner surfaces 
of the upper portions of the arms, olivaceous, mucilaginous, strongly fetid. Spores 
tinted, elliptical, smooth, 3-8-6 x 1:5—-2°5 uw. 

Type locality.—South Carolina. 

Distribution.—North and South America; West Indies; Hawaii; New Zealand. 

New Zealand: Lynton Downs, Canterbury (Herb. Kew, Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 
1906, p. 298); Kaituna, Canterbury, Miss Watson, 5/21 (Herb. Canterbury 
Museum). 

The presence of the species in New Zealand is based on the two records 
cited above. The Kaituna specimen forms the subject of our illustration, and 
differs from typical forms of the species in the more slender, more coarsely 
cellular arms; but in this highly variable plant this is scarcely of specific 
significance. Occasionally the arms where apically united, form a flattened dome, 
and in extreme forms there may be present distinct perforations giving the plant 
a somewhat clathrate appearance (cf. Fischer’s illustration of Clathrus cancellatus 
e. Fayodi, 1890, Pl. 5, f. 87; Coker and Couch, 1928, Pl. 1), and for this reason 
it has been included under Clathrus by most workers; but the free bases of the 
arms of the receptacle show that it is not closely related (PI. ix, fig. 15). 


194 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


5. CoLtus Cavalier and Sechier. 

Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 2, iii, 1835, p. 251—Clathrella Fisch., Nat. Pflanzenfam., 
i, 1900, p. 284, pro parte. 

Peridium obovate, smooth externally, of 3 layers. Receptacle with arms 
anastomosing apically to support a clathrate dome, below forming several short 
columns which unite basally to form a hollow, flaring, tubular, stem-like base. 
Gleba borne on the inner surfaces of the upper portions of the arms, olivaceous, 
fetid, mucilaginous. Spores smooth, elliptical, continuous. 

Habitat.—Growing on sandy soil or on dung. 

Type species, Colus hirudinosus Cav. et Sech. 

Distribution.—Southern HEurope (France, Spain, Portugal); North Africa; 
Ceylon; Australia. 

The genus is characterized by the receptacle which typically consists of a 
clathrate dome supported on arms arranged in columnar fashion and produced 
basally to form a short, cylindrical, stem-like base. Thus defined, it closely 
resembles certain species of Clathrus, especially those placed by Fischer in 
Clathrella. Notwithstanding the fact that the genus was based on a species 
possessing a receptacle of the type described, numerous workers have referred to 
it plants which belong to Anthurus, Mycopharus, or Clathrus. The following is 
the only species usually recognized (which really belongs to the genus), but as is 
shown under Clathrus, it is possible other species exist. 


il, CoLus HIRUDINOSUS Cav. et Sech. PI. ix, fig. 17. 

Clathrus hirudinosus Tul., Expl. Sci. Alg., 1849, p. 435. 

Peridium obovate, to 2-5 em. diameter, white or dingy-grey externally. Recep- 
tacle to 6 cm. tall, apically sparsely clathrate, centrally of 5—7 (or in rare cases 
more) slender columnar arms united basally into a short cylindrical stem. Arms 
angled, transversely rugulose, red above, orange below. Gleba olivaceous, borne 
on the inner surfaces of the arms of the upper portion of the receptacle, fetid. 
Spores tinted, elliptical, smooth, 5-6 x 1:5-2:2 wu. 

Type locality.—Toulon, France. 

Distribution.—Southern Hurope; North Africa; Australia. 

N.S.W.: Milson Island, Hawkesbury River, 3/16, J. B. Cleland*; Byron Bay. 
4/16, J. B. Cleland*. 

The collections made by Dr. Cleland are exactly as the plant was figured by 
Tulasne (l.c.) as our figure (based on a water-colour in the possession of Dr. 
Cleland) shows; but differs from the photograph of specimens from Portugal 
published by Lloyd in being less clathrate and the stem-like base less developed. 
Cooke (1892, p. 215) recorded the species from Western Australia and illustrated 
it with a copy of Tulasne’s figure (Pl. 23); but according to Fischer (1890, p. 63) 
this record was based on a plant he (Fischer) named Colus Muelleri, which is in 
my opinion merely a specimen of Clathrus pusillus with a rudimentary stem- 
like base. 


5. CLATHRUS Micheli. 
Ex Persoon, Syn. Meth. Fung., 1801, p. 241.—Clathrus§Clethria Fr., Syst. Myc., 
ii, 1822, p. 287.—Ileodictyon Tul., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, ii, 1844, p. 114.—Clathrella 
Fisch., Nat. Pflanzenfam., i, 1900, p. 284, pro parte. 
Peridium globose or obovate, exterior thin and furfuraceous, middle layer 
thick and gelatinous. Receptacle of several arms organically united to form a 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 195 


hollow latticed sphere; sometimes arms arranged in columnar fashion below, 
and in extreme forms prolonged into a short cylindrical stem-like base; arms 
smooth or rugulose, in section elliptical, angled or rounded, cellular or tubular. 
Gleba borne on the inner surfaces of the arms, mucilaginous, olivaceous, fetid. 
Spores elliptical, smooth. 


Habitat.—On the ground or on decaying wood. 
Type species, Clathrus ruber Mich. ex Pers. 
Distribution.—W orld-wide. 


The genus, as defined above, contains plants in which the arms are organically 
anastomosed to form a clathrate spherical receptacle. In several species there 
occur forms with the lower arms arranged in columnar fashion, and projected 
basally to form a short, hollow, stem-like base. These last closely approach Colwus, 
and indeed have led Fischer and others to a misinterpretation of the latter genus. 
For they have referred to Colus plants placed by myself under Anthurus, or by 
Lloyd under Pseudocolus. And to make the position more confusing, Fischer 
erected Clathrella to contain these intermediate forms. 


Anthurus contains species in which the simple arms are borne on a distinct 
stem, and apically organically united; Colus possesses a flaring stem bearing 
apically a few columnar arms which apically branch and anastomose to form a 
clathrate dome (cf. the type species); if these points are borne in mind, little 
confusion should arise, and it will become apparent moreover that Clathrella is 
untenable. 

Many workers have also confused Linderia (as Colus or Laternea) with 
Clathrus but this confusion cannot arise if it is remembered that in Linderia the 
bases of the arms are free, whereas in Clathrus they are organically united. 


Tulasne erected Ileodictyon to contain those species with tubular arms, as 
opposed to the cellular arms of such species as Clathrus ruber. But as the type 
of his genus (C. cibarius) contains plants which are either tubular or coarsely 
chambered (small specimens being tubular, large ones chambered) this distinction 
cannot be considered as of generic value. 

There would appear to be ten valid species in the genus (Clathrus delicatus 
Berk. et Br. being in my opinion a Colus) which can be divided into sections 
according to the colour of the receptacle, cellular or tubular nature and degree 
of roughening of the arms. Of the red species C. crispus Turp. occurs in the West 
Indies, and North and South America; C. crispatus Thwaites is confined to Ceylon; 
C. ruber Mich. ex Pers. is common in Hurope, southern North America, South 
America and North Africa; C. pusillus Berk. is confined to Australia; and C. 
Treubii (Bern.) Lloyd to Java. Of the white species C. Preussii (Fisch.) Lloyd is 
known from a single collection from Hast Africa; C. chrysomycelinus A. Moell. is 
confined to Brazil; C. gracilis (Berk.) Schlecht. is confined to Australia; and 
C. cibarius (Tul.) Fisch. to Australia and New Zealand. Lastly C. camerunensis 
P. Henn., recorded from Africa, is said to differ in possessing an olivaceous recep- 
tacle, which seems improbable. 


1. CLATHRUS OIBARIUS (Tulasne) Fischer. PI. ix, fig. 18; Pl. x, figs. 19, 20. 


Jahrb. bot. Gart. u. Mus. Berlin, iv, 1886, p. 74.—Ileodictyon. cibarium Tul., 
Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, ii, 1844, p. 114.—Clathrus Tepperianus Ludw., Bot. Centralbl., 
xliii, 1890, p. 7—Ileodictyon giganteum Col., Trans. N.Z. Inst., xxv, 1892, p. 324.— 
Clathrus Higginsii Bailey, Queensland Ag. Jour., xxix, 1912, p. 487. 

E 


196 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


Peridium obovate or subglobose, dingy-white, to 7 cm. diameter. Receptacle 
sessile, white, subglobose or commonly obovate, to 15 x 10 cm., composed of 
numerous obliquely anastomosing arms, which are transversely rugulose, in section 
elliptical, tubular or more often coarsely cellular, not or scarcely thickened at the 
interstices (though in some forms attaining a thickness twice that of the arms). 
Gleba covering the inner surfaces of the arms, olivaceous, mucilaginous, fetid. 
Spores tinted, elliptical, smooth, 4-6 x 1:8-2°5 uw. 

Type locality—Waitakei, Otago, New Zealand. 

Distribution—New Zealand; Australia. 

N.S.W.: Arncliffe; Gladesville; Yarrangobilly (Nat. Herb., Sydney, Cleland 
and Cheel, 1915, p. 216).—South Australia: Blackwood, 7/30, H. Ashby*.— 
New Zealand: Common throughout the lowland areas of both Islands. 

This is the only Clathrus known to occur with certainty from New Zealand, 
where it is exceedingly common in certain seasons, being found in spring and 
autumn on the edges of forest clearings, or freshly-turned earth at roadsides or 
tracks cut through the forest. It occurs sparingly in Australia, but its distribu- 
tion is not certainly known since the species has been confused by earlier workers 
with the following one. Fischer recorded it from Chile, West Africa (1890, p. 53) 
and Hast Africa (1893, p. 19). I believe, however, that the species is confined to 
this biologic region, and that Fischer has confused it with plants later named 
C. Preussii, C. chrysomycelinus or C. camerunensis. 

The receptacle varies greatly in size (5-15 em.) and in the number and 
arrangement of the arms. In many plants the arms are numerous, and form a 
close mesh, in which the polygonal interspaces are small; in others the arms may 
be few and the meshes large and angular. The arms may anastomose in such a 
regular manner that in plants detached from the volva it is not possible to 
determine the apex from the base; or in others the arms towards the base may 
be arranged in columnar fashion, or in rare cases produced to form a small 
basal tube-like stem. The surfaces of the arms may be smooth, finely transversely 
wrinkled, or exteriorly longitudinally grooved. In section they may be tubular or 
coarsely cellular, both conditions being not infrequent in the same plant. 

The receptacle is not attached to the volva in any way, consequently it may 
be readily detached and carried by wind for some distance from its place of origin. 
The appearance of these latticed structures without visible means of attachment 
to the substratum was a potent source of mystification to the Maori. Forced to 
find some explanation of their (to him) mysterious appearance, and guided no 
doubt by their characteristic odour he came to the conclusion (according to Mr. 
Elsdon Best) that they were tutae kehua or tutae whetu (‘“Faeces of ghosts or 
of the stars’). The specific name (cibarius = edible) was applied to the species 
under the impression that the unexpanded plant was used as an article of food 
by the Maori. But this is improbable as it is scarcely likely he would meddle with 
a plant obviously (to him) of supernatural origin. This view is supported by 
Mr. Best, who has advised me that the plant was not included among those fungi 
considered edible by the Maori. 


2. CLATHRUS GRACILIS (Berkeley) Schlechtendal. 


Linnaea, xxxi, 1862, p. 166.—Zleodictyon gracile Berk., in Hook. Lond. Journ. 
Bot., iv, 1845, p. 69.—Clathrus albidus Lothar ex Fisch., in Sace. Syll. Fung., vii, 
1888, p. 20. COC. intermedius Fisch., Denskr. Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxiii, 1893, 
p. 20. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 197 


Receptacle white, sessile, variable in size and shape, 4-20 cm. diameter, arms 
smooth, often longitudinally sulcate externally, in section flattened, to 5 mm. thick, 
tubular, or with 2 or more tubes welded, expanded at the interstices. Gleba borne 
on the inner surfaces of the arms, olivaceous, fetid, mucilaginous. Spores hyaline 
or tinted, elliptical, smooth, 4-5-6 x 1:8-2:5 un. 

Type locality—Swan River, Western Australia. 

Distribution.—Australia; Tasmania. 


Western Australia: Swan River (Berkeley, 7.c.). Perth, W. M. Carne, 7/26.— 
South Australia: Barossa Range (Fischer, 1893, p. 19); Greenhill Road, 7/22, 
J. B. Cleland*; Mt. Charles, Charleston, 7/30, J.B.C.*; Adelaide, 6/23, M. Bailey*; 
Salisbury*; Kinchina, 7/23, J.B.C.*; Encounter Bay, 5/28, J.B.C.*; Kalangadoo, 
5/28, J.B.C.*; Monash, 7/22, H. G. Taylor*—N.S.W.: Richmond River (Fischer, 
Le., as C. intermedius); Sydney Botanic Gardens; Centennial Park; Botany; 
Mosman; Manly; Artarmon; Roseville; Cheltenham; Concord; Rookwood; Parra- 
matta; Milson Island; Jerilderie; Armidale; Gostwyck, Uralla; Geeron, Forbes; 
Clareval, Stroud; Ingleburn; Springbrook; Deepwater; Moss Vale (Nat. Herb., 
Sydney, Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 217); Sydney, 6/15, J. B. Cleland*; National 
Park, 7/16, J.B.C.*; Wahroonga, 7/16, W. B. Stokes*.—Victoria: Melbourne 
(Fischer, 1890, p. 53).—Tasmania: Penginte (Nat. Herb. Sydney, Cleland and 
Cheel, 1915, p. 217). 

This is somewhat similar to C. cibarius as to size and colour, but is quite a 
distinct plant, though the differences are difficult to define; and for this reason it 
was considered as a synonym by Fischer (1890, p. 53). In typical plants the arms 
are much thinner, are smooth (invariably rugulose or wrinkled in C. cibarius), 
flattened and composed of one or two (rarely more) continuous tubes. Another 
feature is that glebal development is frequently so copious as to coat the whole 
surface of the arms with the sage-green spore mass. In dried plants the arms 
usually assume the appearance of very fine and narrow ribbons, often only 1 mm. 
or so in diameter, and are characteristic on this account. It is the most abundant 
species in Australia, but does not occur in New Zealand. 


3. CLATHRUS PUSILLUS Berkeley. Plate x, fig. 21. 


In Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot., iv, 1845, p. 67.—Colus Muelleri Fisch., Denskr. 
Schweiz. nat. Gesell., xxxii, 1890, p. 61—Olathrella pusilla (Berk.) Fisch., Nat. 
Pflanzenfam., i, 1900, p. 284.—Simblum Muelleri (Fisch.) Lloyd, Syn. Phall., 1909, 
p. 64. 

Peridium obovate, to 20 mm. diameter. Receptacle red, obovate, to 4 cm. 
diameter, clathrate, the arms somewhat columnar below, sometimes united into a 
stem-like base, or in certain forms clathrate above and below, columnar 
equatorially; arms transversely rugulose, exteriorly iongitudinally sulcate, 
tubular. Gleba borne on the inner surfaces of the arms, fetid, olivaceous, 
mucilaginous. Spores hyaline, elliptical, smooth, 4:5-5-5 x 1:5-2-2 w. 

Type locality—Swan River, Western Australia. 

Distribution.—Australia. 


Western Australia: Swan River (Berkeley, l.c.); Gilgering (Cleland and 
Cheel, 1915, p. 215, in Nat. Herb. Sydney); Tammin, 10/26, W. M. Carne.— 
Queensland: Wide Bay (Berkeley, Journ. Linn. Soc., xiii, 1873, p. 172); Burnett 
District (Herb. Brit. Mus., Fischer, 1893, p. 22).—N.S.W.: Swanbrook; Milson 
Island (Cleland and Cheel, 1915, p. 215); Byron Bay, 4/16, J. B. Cleland*.— 


198 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi, 


Victoria: Upper Murray River (Fischer, l.c., as Colus Muelleri); Gippsland 
(Fischer, 1893, p. 22). 

This small red species appears to be not uncommon, and fairly widely though 
scantily distributed. Fischer (1890, p. 54) recorded the species from New 
Caledonia, basing his record upon a specimen in the herbarium Mus. Nat. Paris, 
which Patouillard (Bull. Soc. Myc. Fr., iii, 1887, p. 173) referred to Colus 
hirudinosus; so that its geographic range (if this record is authentic) includes 
New Caledonia. 

The plant may be truly clathrate, or the basal arms may be arranged below 
in columnar fashion; and in one collection (Upper Murray River) these columnar 
arms are produced into a short tubular base. This extreme form has been named 
Colus Muelleri by Fischer, and Simblum Muelleri by Lloyd, which well illustrates 
the danger of erecting species upon single specimens... 


Doubtful and Excluded Species. 


a.—Clathrus crispus Turp.—This was recorded from Rockingham Bay, Queens- 
land, by Berkeley (Journ. Linn. Soc., xiii, 1873, p. 172), but from his description 
I should say that this was a misdetermination of C. pusilluws; and this is supported 
by the fact that C. crispus has not been recorded subsequently or elsewhere from 
this region. 

b.—Clathrus ruber Mich. ex Pers.—Fischer (1893, p. 25) stated that at Kew 
there is a specimen of this species from New Zealand collected by Colenso. This 
Lloyd (Myc. Notes, 1906, p. 296) claimed to be C. cibarius, which is probable, for 
there is no other record of a red species of the genus being present in the 
Dominion. It may be Linderia columnata, for it will be remembered that Fischer 
confused the two species. 


Family III. CLAUSTULACEAE, n. fam. 

Peridium of 2 layers, the inner layer thick, gelatinous and forming a con- 
tinuous layer, peridial plates being absent. Receptacle a hollow, indehiscent 
sphere, wall chambered and pseudoparenchymatous. Gleba covering the interior 
of the receptacle wall, confined to a single layer of glebal chambers, mucilaginous 
matrix wanting. Spores continuous, smooth, elliptical. 

This family has been erected to contain the solitary genus Claustula. The 
presence of the typical peridium (although only 2-layered) and chambered recep- 
tacle shows it to belong to the Phallales; but the indehiscent receptacle, absence 
of the mucilaginous matrix and fetid odour of the gleba show it differs sufficiently 
from the Phallaceae and Clathraceae to warrant the erection of an additional 
family. 


1. CLAUSTULA Curtis. 

Ann. Bot., xl, 1926, p. 476. 

Peridium of 2 layers, the outer thin and furfuraceous, the inner thick, 
gelatinous and without peridial plates. Receptacle obovate or subglobose, 
indehiscent, hollow; wall chambered, pseudoparenchymatous, gleba forming a thin 
layer over the inner wall of the receptacle, non-mucilaginous and without the 
characteristic odour of other members of the order. 

Habitat— Growing upon the ground. 

Type species, Claustula Fischeri Curtis. 

Distribution.—New Zealand. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 199 


1. CLAUSTULA FISCHERI Curtis. 

Peridium obovate, to 4-5 cm. diameter, furfuraceous, white, becoming reddish- 
brown, rupturing from the apex to form 4-5 acuminate lobes. Receptacle obovate 
or subglobose, to 5 cm. long, white, smooth, indehiscent, free within the volva; 
wall chambered. Gleba borne on the inner wall of the receptacle, inodorous, non- 
mucilaginous. Spores olivaceous, elliptical, smooth, 8-13 x 5-6 uw, shortly 
pedicellate. 

Type locality—Fringe Hill, Nelson, N.Z. 

Distribution.—New Zealand. 

Nelson: Fringe Hill, 500 m., 8/28, Miss K. M. Curtis; same loc. 7/27, G.H.C.; 
Dun Mt. Track, 2/28, G.H.C. 

This interesting plant may be best likened to an egg (the receptacle) held in 
an egg cup (the volva). The volva is of the typical Phalloid type, with an outer 
furfuraceous and an inner thick and gelatinous layer; but differs in that the 
third layer is wanting, the gelatinous layer ending abruptly in a smooth surface. 
The receptacle is egg-shaped, hollow, of the usual chambered pseudoparenchyma, 
and apparently indehiscent. The gleba is produced within a single layer of 
lenticular cells, attached to the inner wall of the receptacle. It differs from that 
of the typical Phalloids in being practically non-mucilaginous and inodorous. The 
spores, too, are much larger than is usual in this order, and are provided with a 
short persistent pedicel. One additional interesting feature is that in the immature 
plant a thin strand of primordial tissue connects the base of the peridium with 
the inner tissue of the receptacle through a narrow pore at the base of the latter. 

The absence of peridial plates in the gelatinous layer of the peridium shows 
that the affinities of this plant are more with the Phallaceae than the Clathraceae; 
but the development of the gleba interiorly to the tissue of the receptacle shows 
relationships with the Clathraceae. 


Literature Cited. 
Burt, H. A., 1896.—The Phalloideae of the United States, I. Development of the 
receptaculum in Clathrus columnatus Bose. Botanical Gazette, xxii, pp. 273-292. 
CLELAND, J. B., and CHEEL, E., 1915.—Notes on Australian Fungi, No. 2. Phalloids and 
Geasters. Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlix, pp. 199-232. 

Coker, W. C., and CoucH, J. N., 1928.—The Gasteromycetes of the Eastern United 
States atd Canada. 201 pp. 

Cooke, M. C., 1892.—Handbook of Australian Fungi, 458 pp. . 

FIscHER, Ep., 1890.—Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden HEntwicklungsgeschichte und 
Systematik der Phalloideen. Denkschr. Schweiz. naturf. Ges., xxxii, pp. 1-103. 

————,, 1893.—Do., ibid, xxxiii, pp. 1-51. 

LINpeER, D. H., 1928.—Concerning the status of the genus Laternea. Ann. Missouri Bot. 
Garden, xv, pp. 109-112. 

Luoyp, C. G., 1909.—Synopsis of the Known Phalloids, 94 pp. 

Morzier, A., 1895.—Brazilische Pilzblumen. Bot. Mitt. a. d. Tropen, vii, pp. 1-152. 

PATOUILLARD, N., 1890.—Fragments mycologiques. Organization du Lysurus Mokiusin 
Fr. Jour. de Bot.. iv, p. 252. 

PENzIG, O., 1899.—Ueber javanische Phalloideen. Ann. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg, xvi, pp. 


133-173. 
PetcH, T., 1919.—Gasteromycetae zeylanicae. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya, vii, 
pp. 57-78. 
, 1926.—Mutinus bambusinus (Zoll.) Ed. Fisch. Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc., x, pp. 
272-282. 


RAFINESQUE, C. S., 1808.—Prospectus of Mr. Rafinesque Schmaltz’s two intended works 
on North American botany; the first on the new genera and species of plants 
discovered by himself and the second on the natural history of the funguses, or 
mushroom-tribe of America. N.Y. Med. Repository, 2nd hexade, v, p. 355. 

VAN DER Bisu, P.A., 1921.—Note on Lysurus Woodii (MacOwan) Lloyd. Trans. Roy. 
Soc. S. Africa, ix, pp. 191-193. 


200 GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, Xi. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES VIII-X. 
Plate viii. 

Fig. 1.—Development of Clathrus ruber, x 12.—Longitudinal section showing medul- 
lary tissue forming the central columella of the primordium (a); the cortical tissue (b) ; 
and “intermediate tissue” (c). 

Fig. 2—Same at a later stage, x 12.—Longitudinal section showing commencement 
of development of lobes of medullary tissue. Commencement of hyphal knots is shown 
at (d). 

Fig. 3.—Same, showing commencement of development of hyphal knots which later 
give rise to the pseudoparenchyma of the receptacle (d); peridial plates shown at (e); 
first glebal chamber at (f). x 12. 

Fig. 4—Same, showing development of glebal chambers (f); and tramal plates (g). 
ILA 

Fig. 5.—Cross section of the same species showing further development of tramal 
plates (g) which now form the labyrinth of the gleba; receptacle arms (d); peridial 
plates (e€); mesoperidium now clearly defined (h); and exoperidium indicated at (i). 
S< Be 

(Figures 1-5 after Fischer, 1890.) 

Fig. 6.—Anthurus Archeri. x %—Photograph of a water colour drawing by C. C. 
Brittlebank showing the five organically united arms of the receptacle and the short 
flaring stem. 


Fig. 7.—Anthurus Archervi. * %.—\Reproduction of Kalchbrenner’s drawing of A. 
“Muellerianus”’. (After Kalchbrenner, 1880.) 
Fig. 8.—Anthurus Archeri. x 4.—Reproduction of Berkeley’s drawing of “Lysurus 


Archerwv’. (After Berkeley, 1860). 
Fig. 9.—Anthurus Rothae. x %.—Photograph of a water-colour drawing by Miss 
Phyllis Clarke in the possession of Dr. Cleland. Plant collected at Katoomba, 12/16. 
Fig. 10.—Aseroe rubra. x §%.—Small 7-armed form after emergence from the volva. 
(Photograph by the author.) 


Plate ix. 


Fig. 11.—Aseroe rubra. x 5.—Fully expanded 8-armed form. (Photograph by the 
author. ) 

Fig. 12.—Aseroe rubra. x %.—Section through the unexpanded plant showing the 
compressed stem, manner in which the arms are folded, massive gleba, thick gelatinous 
layer of the peridium, and the distinct peridial plates. (Photograph by the author.) 

Fig. 13.—Aseroe rubra. x %.—The form known as A. Muellerianwus, showing the 
greatly enlarged apex of the stem and the short arms. Photograph of a water-colour 
by Miss Phyllis Clarke in the possession of Dr. Cleland, based on a plant collected at 
Mosman, 5/15. 

Fig. 14.—Linderia columnata. x §—Photograph of a water colour by HH. H. 
Atkinson based on a specimen collected at Kaituna, Canterbury. 

Fig. 15.—Linderia columnata. x %—Photograph showing the free bases of the 
columnar arms of the receptacle. (After Linder, 1928.) 

Fig. 16.—Laternea triscapa. x %.—Photograph showing the specialized glebiferous 
structure characterizing the genus. (After Linder, 1928.) 

Fig. 17.—Colus hirudinosus. x %.—Photograph of a water colour by Miss Phyllis 
Clarke in the possession of Dr. Cleland, based on a plant collected at Milson Island, 3/16. 

Fig. 18.—Clathrus cibarius. x %.—Section through an unexpanded plant showing 
the strongly convoluted receptacle, the enclosing peridium and marked peridial plates. 
(Photograph by E. B. Levy.) 


Plate x. 


Fig. 19.—Clathrus cibariws. Natural size. A partially expanded plant showing the 
strongly convoluted receptacle. (Photograph by EH. B. Levy.) 

Fig. 20.—Clathrus cibarius. x 4.—A fully expanded plant showing (in this 
instance) two receptacles arising from the common volva. (Photograph by E. B. Levy.) 

Fig. 21.—Clathrus pusillus. Natural size.—A form with an exaggerated stem-like 
base upon which Fischer based Colus Muelleri. (After Fischer, 1890.) 


PLATE VIII. 


N.S.W., 1931. 


Soc. 


LINN. 


Proc. 


Des cae 


‘lathraceae. 


=I 


Australasian (¢ 


renmet 
ls 


hg vs r 


PLATE IX. 


N.S.W., 1931. 


LINN. Soc. 


Proc. 


in 


| 


\ 


\ 


| 


mi 


ae 


Min 


Australasian Clathraceae, 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. IP AGB) NX 


Australasian Clathraceae. 


A NOTE ON THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MYCOBACTERIUM 
COELIACUM. 


By H. L. JENSEN. 
Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. 


(One Text-figure. ) 
[Read 27th May, 1931.] 


Mycobacterium coeliacum was described by Gray and Thornton (1928) in a 
study of soil bacteria capable of decomposing aromatic compounds. Twenty-five 
species, belonging to seven genera, were described; among these were six species 
of Mycobacterium. The authors point out that their classification is merely 
temporary, since our present knowledge is insufficient to enable us to classify the 
bacteria satisfactorily. In the most recent edition of Bergey’s Manual of 
Determinative Bacteriology (1930) the mycobacteria described. by Gray and 
Thornton have been transferred to other genera—five to the genus Actinomyces, 
and one, Myc. coeliacum, to the genus Flavobacterium. When the writer, in 
March, 1931, received cultures of some of the mycobacteria of Gray and Thornton 
(kindly submitted by Dr. H. G. Thornton and Mr. H. Nicol, Rothamsted 
Experimental Station) for comparison with a number of similar organisms isolated 
from Australian soils, an opportunity was found of studying the morphology of 
Myc. coeliacum a little more closely, in order to see whether Bergey’s transfer of 
the organism to a genus of a different family and order (according to Bergey’s 
own system of classification) is justifiable on morphological grounds. 


In spite of several years of artificial cultivation the organism was still true 
to the characters mentioned by Gray and Thornton (1928). On ordinary nutrient 
agar + 1% dextrose it produces an abundant growth at 22-25° C.,* with smooth, 
raised, shining surface, undulate margin, first white, later pale pinkish-buff. In 
gelatin stab the growth is very thin; surface growth yellowish, zonate, with many 
lobes and secondary colonies along edge; no liquefaction. On synthetic media 
(dextrose-asparagine-agar and saccharose-nitrate-agar) the growth is similar to 
that on nutrient agar, but less abundant, with more rugose surface and of drier 
consistency. Microscopically the organism appears in quite young cultures (20- 
24 hours) as bent and curved rods, often in V-shaped arrangement, 2-6 x 0-8-1-0 wu. 
After two days and in older cultures one sees mostly quite short rods and cocci, 
0-8-1-2 x 1:0-1:8 w. The organism is gram positive. Gray and Thornton state 


* Bergey’s statement: ‘Optimum temperature 30° to 35° C.” is incorrect. Gray and 
Thornton give the optimum temperature as below 30° C., and in agreement herewith the 
present strain grew scantily or not at all, according to the medium, at 35° C. The same 
is true of Bergey’s statement: ‘“‘Aerobic facultative’. Gray and Thornton do not say 
anything concerning this point, but the present strain is obligate and strictly aerobic. 
No growth takes place in oxygen-free atmosphere, and in shake-culture on dextrose- 
nutrient-agar no growth is visible below a depth of about 2 mm. 


202 THE SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF MYCOBACTERIUM COELIACUM, 


that it is not acid-fast by the Ziehl-Neelsen method. The present strain showed a 
slight degree of acid-fastness in 20-24 hours old culture on dextrose-nutrient-agar, 
but not in two days old cultures or on synthetic media. In milk-culture the 
coccoid forms were fairly acid-fast after three days, although much less than 
Myc. tuberculosis or M. phlei. 


Text-fig. 1.—Growth of Myc. coeliacum on agar, observed directly under the 

microscope. a-d, dextrose-asparagine-agar, 12 hours. e, same specimen as d, 

observed two hours later; septa have been formed, and the bottom cell is 

degenerating. f, same medium, 20 hours. g, same medium, 48 hours. h, water- 
agar, 20 hours. i, the same medium, 48 hours. Magnification: x 1000. 


The mode of growth and reproduction of the organism was studied on three 
different agar media: (1) rich, complex medium: ordinary meat extract-peptone- 
agar + 1% dextrose, (2) synthetic medium: 1% dextrose, 0:1% asparagine, 0:1% 
K,HPO, 1:5% agar, and (3) starvation medium: 2% agar in tap water. Cell 
material from a young culture on medium 2 was smeared out on the surface of 
sterile agar in petri dishes, and at various intervals of time small blocks of agar 
were cut out and examined under immersion lenses. The usual convenient method 
of hanging agar block culture could not be used for continuous observation of 
the growth, because the development of the cells soon came to a stand-still under 
the coverslip. The course of development was in all essentials the same on the 
three media (see Text-fig. 1). After 11-13 hours at 22-24° C., the cells of the 
inoculum have grown out into fairly long rods and filaments, up to 18-20 wu, showing 
true branching, occasionally to such an extent as to form small mycelia (Fig. 1, 
c, d, e). Already at this stage there is a formation of septa, resulting in cell 
division, and the daughter-cells occupy frequently an angular position (Fig. 1, 
a, b, e). After 18-20 hours the process of cell-division has gone so far that nearly 
all evidence of branching has disappeared, and the young colonies appear as 
composed of irregular, uneven-sided rods, about 1 u thick and of varying length, 
mostly 3-8, up to 13 mw long, arranged in a characteristic angular manner and 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 203 


adjoining each other at the corners, resembling diphtheria bacilli; like these, 
they also sometimes show parallel arrangement (Fig. 1, f). In some cases the 
young cells are seen “slipping”? past each other like tubercle bacilli (Fig. 1, h). 
After two days the long rods have divided further into short rods and cocci, 
generally showing the same arrangement as the long rods previously (Fig. 1, g, 1); 
this is best seen on medium 3, where only a very thin growth is produced. The 
life-cycle of Myc. coeliacum does thus, so far studied, and under the present 
conditions, comprise the following three main forms: . 

1. Long, branched rods, sometimes approaching a mycelial type. 

2. Unbranched, irregular rods of medium length, resembling diphtheroids. 

3. Short rods and cocci. 

The figure of the growth after 12-24 hours is quite like that described for 
Myc. tuberculosis (Miehe, 1909; Gardner, 1929), saprophytic mycobacteria (Mrskov, 
1923; Haag, 1927), and diphtheroids (Graham-Smith, 1910; @rskoy, 1923; Haag, 
1927). Both the “snapping” type of growth of the corynebacteria (termed “angular 
growth” by @rskov) and the subsequent “slipping” growth of the mycobacteria are 
seen here, and the occasional formation of what resembles a small mycelium has 
its parallels in both Myc. tuberculosis (Miehe, 1909) and Myc. phlei (@rskov, 
1923). Further, the evidence of acid-fastness under certain conditions points 
towards the genus Mycobacterium, although this character is shared to some 
extent by certain corynebacteria (Haag, 1927). All this speaks definitely against 
the classification of the organism with the genus Flavobacterium; moreover, the 
yellow pigment which should characterize this genus, is not typical here. Whether 
it should be termed Mycobacterium or Corynebacterium may be disputable, and 
this question cannot be answered satisfactorily until we possess more information 
concerning the complete life history of these organisms. For the present there 
seems to be no serious objection to the classification adopted by Gray and 
Thornton. 


SUMMARY. 


A study of the morphology of Myc. coeliacum showed that this organism 
agrees morphologically with the genera Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium. The 
suggested transfer of it to the genus Flavobacterium cannot, therefore, be regarded 
as justified. 


References. 


Bercey, D. H., 1930.—Manual of Determinative Bacteriology. Third Ed., Baltimore. 

GARDNER, A. D., 1929.—Growth and Reproduction of B. tuberculosis. Journ. Path. and 
Bac., 32, 715-716. 

GRAHAM-SMITH, G. S., 1910.—The Division and Post-Fission Movements of Bacteria when 
Grown on Solid Media. Parasitology, 3, 17-53. 

Gray, P. H. H., and THORNTON, H. G., 1928.—Soil Bacteria that decompose certain 
Aromatic Compounds. Cent. f. Bakt., II, 73, 74-96. 

Haac, F. H., 1927.—Die saprophytischen Mykobakterien. Cent. f. Bakt., II, 71, 1-45. 

MirHer, H., 1909.—Beitr’age zur Biologie, Morphologie und Systematik des Tuberkel- 
bacillus. Zeitschr. f. Hyg., 62, 131-154. 

OrsKkov, J., 1923.—Investigations into the Morphology of the Ray Fungi. Thesis, 
Copenhagen. 


THREE NEW BATS OF THE GENERA PTEROPUS, NYCTIMENE, AND 
CHAEREPHON FROM MELANESIA. 


By Eviis Lr G. TroucuHTon, Zoologist, Australian Museum. 
{Read 24th June, 1931.]* 


During 1928 a very interesting collection of fishes and mammals was received 
from Mr. H. Ian Hogbin, from Ongtong Java, Lord Howe’s Group, where he was 
engaged in anthropological research. As the single fruit-bat seemed hardly mature, 
Mr. Hogbin supplied the name of Mr. T. B. Walton, a resident of the Group, who 
very kindly took charge of a collecting can and returned it with three adults and 
a juvenile. Thanks to these joint efforts I am able to describe a new species of 
Pteropus, providing the first record of the genus in this Group. 

The specimen of tube-nosed bat described herein was presented to the Museum 
by the Reverend Actaeon Forrest in July, 1892, associated with some other bats 
and fishes, from the Santa Cruz Group. This apparently new form considerably 
extends the range of the genus Nyctimene, not hitherto recorded southward of 
Guadalcanar Island in the Solomons. 

The third species described is an insectivorous bat of the wrinkle-lipped genus, 
Chaerephon, and constitutes the first record of the occurrence of the Family 
Molossidae in the Solomons. An excellent series of more than a hundred specimens 
of this species was included in a fine collection of bats received from Mr. N. S. 
Heffernan, Honorary Correspondent of the Museum, while he was stationed as 
District Officer at Ysabel Island. For this opportunity, provided by his keen 
work as a voluntary collector, my sincere thanks are gratefully recorded. 


PTEROPUS HOWENSIS, Nn. Sp. 


Diagnosis.—Of the Pt. hypomelanus group and apparently intermediate between 
Pt. admiralitatum and colonus. Though most dimensions accord well with those of 
admiralitatum, the individual teeth are heavier and the colour is very much lighter, 
approaching that of the true hypomelanus, and fur of back is much shorter than 
in the former; the dimensions are decidedly smaller than those of the nearest race 
of the latter. The forearm is considerably larger than the range given for colonus 
which, however, has a proportionately larger skull, but smaller teeth. Forearm, 
two adult females, 118-122 mm. Habitat: Lord Howe’s Group (Ongtong Java). 

Colour.—Back in the adult female holotype and paratype ranging from auburn 
(Ridgway, 1912), through dark-auburn to a dark-vandyke shade of brown on the 
rump, intermingled with a soft pencilling of buffy-white hairs. Mantle ranging 
from deep olive-buff with a cinnamon tinge at the nape in a young male and the 
palest female (paratype); in the darker holotype female the mantle ranges from 
cinnamon to dark-clay colour with a lighter, more buffy, hind edge. Fur of mantle 
strongly bicoloured; a dark mummy-brown basally. Head of holotype not markedly 


* By permission of the Trustees of the Australian Museum. 


BY E. LE G. TROUGHTON. 205 


contrasting with back, the light mantle colour only extending on to the head as 
an intermingling with the general vandyke or prout’s brown tone; the cheeks, 
sides of neck, and throat ranging from deep-auburn to dark vandyke-brown. In 
the female and young male paratypes the head contrasts strongly with the back 
owing to the extension of the olive-buffy tone of the mantle to between the eyes, 
where it also mingles with the pale-vandyke shade of the cheeks. 

Undersurface: In the holotype, ranging from prout’s to dark prout’s; though 
too dark for vandyke-brown, there is a distinct tone of it present, especially on the 
sides; and a sprinkling of silvery-buff hairs in the centre of the belly. Under- 
surface of the female paratype much lighter, the chest and upper parts of belly 
being heavily tipped with a pale shade of deep olive-buff, becoming more buffy 
posteriorly; the sides are clear light prout’s to vandyke, lacking the pale tipping 
of the centre. The undersurface of the immature male agrees with this paler 
female, but its back and mantle are of a decidedly paler more buffy tone than in 
the adult females. In the paler paratypes a broad washing of the mantle colour 
extends across the undersurface, contrasting with the dark throat and merging 
into the pale tipping of the chest; in the darker holotype there is only a narrow 
band of paler tips, about 15 mm. broad, contrasting with both throat and chest. 


Heaternal characters—Forearms of adult females (paratype with young) 
118-122 mm., as opposed to 118-126 in four adults of both sexes of admiralitatum; 
proportionately the digital dimensions average slightly longer, notably in specimens 
of similar forearm-length. The second digit metacarpal is 64-66-5 against 60—-63:5, 
and the fourth digit metacarpal 81-81:5 against 75:5-81. Tibia naked above and 
below, though the fur which extends along the interfemoral for about half the 
tibia-length, as in Pt. hypomelanus, encroaches sparsely on to the inner third of 
the tibia. Fur of back adpressed and from 8 to 11 mm. long, much shorter than in 
admiralitatum (16-18), and even rather short compared with hypomelanus (10-14). 
Ears short and broad, though slightly narrower than in the former, the outer 
margin slightly concave below the tip, which reaches between half and two-thirds 
the distance to the eye, when laid forward. 

Skuil and teeth—The skull proportionately somewhat narrower though 
general dimensions much as in admiralitatum, the orbital diameter smaller (11-2-3 
against 12-12:5), and mandible proportionately shorter, its length 43:2-7 against 
45-46-7. Individual teeth decidedly heavier than in admiralitatum; p* (maximum) 
4-3 x 3-2 against 4-1 x 38, pt 4:4 x 3-5 against 4:1 x 3-1, and p, 4:6 x 3-2 against 4:2 x 3. 

Palate ridges.—No trace of the extra ridge between the normal 9th and 10th. 
The 8th showing a slight variation from the hypomelanus description in 
terminating behind instead of at m?, though not extending backwards to the 
marked degree of succeeding ridges. 

Dimensions of holotype.—In spirit: Forearm 122; 38rd digit, metacarpal 82:5, 
ist phalanx 61, 2nd 85-5; ear, from orifice 21, width 14-5; tibia 53; foot c.u., 37 mm. 

Skull: Total length to gnathion 55; palation to incisive foramina 26; width, 
braincase at zygomata 19-7; zygomatic width 29-2; constriction, interorbital 7-2, 
postorbital 7-3; orbital diameter 11:2; mandible, length 43-2, coronoid height 19-4; 
upper teeth, c-m? (crowns) 21:3; lower, c-m, 23:6 mm. 

Specimens examined.—The holotype female No. M.4408, female paratype M.4824, 
and two juvenile male paratypes M.4825-6, in the Australian Museum, collected and 
presented by Messrs. H. I. Hogbin, B.Sc., and T. B. Walton. 

Range.—Ongtong Java, Lord Howe’s Group, Melanesia. Native name “He pe 
ja’’, supplied by Mr. Hogbin. 


206 THREE NEW BATS FROM MELANESIA, 


Remarks.—From recent observations of the British Museum series described 
by Andersen, there is no doubt that this form is distinctly lighter in colour than 
admiralitatum. According to my notes, the latter are actually darker than his 
description suggests, and therefore more in accord with the statement that their 
colour approaches the north Polynesian species of the Pt. mariannus group. Apart 
from the difference of colour, howensis is differentiated from admiralitatum by the 
much shorter hair of the back, and relatively broader and heavier teeth; from 
colonus by the longer forearm range and from the nearest races of hypomelanus, by 
the much smaller dimensions. 

The much smaller dimensions distinguish it from the nearest local races of 
hypomelanus, the cranial and external measurements being actually much smaller 
than in Pt. hypomelanus enganus which averages according to Andersen “in every 
respect smaller than any other known race of the species”; teeth averaging about 
equal, but width occasionally greater than in the larger skulled enganus. The 
comparatively greater width of the teeth in howensis is indicated by the width of 
m1, p, and m, equalling the width of these much longer teeth in hypomelanus canus 
and lepidus, whose teeth average the largest for the species. 


NYCTIMENE SANCTACRUCIS, n. Sp. 


Diagnosis.—Allied to N. scitulus but differing in that the female holotype is 
quite as dark as the males of that species, instead of being of a lighter, creamy- 
brown, tone as in the females of the allied scitulus and geminus. Second phalanges 
of the 8rd and 4th digits considerably shorter than the range shown for scitulus, 
and the ear definitely smaller. The skull appears to be relatively shorter and the 
rostrum proportionately longer, the orbital diameter larger, and the teeth heavier. 
Forearm, damaged, approximately 75 mm. Habitat: Santa Cruz Group. 

Colour.—Back of the female holotype quite as dark as in males of scitulus, the 
tone being mottled wood and buffy-brown with a washing of cinnamon drab; the 
general effect is buffy-brown rather than the purplish shade of the “brownish 
drab” of Andersen’s description. The definite narrow spinal stripe is a shade of 
mummy-brown rather than the seal-brown described for scitulus. Undersurface 
much as in the description of females of scitulus, but the buffy-isabella tone is 
restricted to the sides of the neck, chest, and upper belly; the sides of body and 
the lower belly being buffy-brown tinged with wood-brown. 

Haternal characters.—Second phalanges of 3rd and 4th digits shorter than the 
range of scitulus, 46-5 against 52-58-5, and 31:5 to a minimum of 32 mm, in a 
specimen with a much smaller forearm. Ear smaller, 11:5 x 8-3 against 
13-14 x 10-11:°5. 

Skull and teeth.—The rostrum relatively longer, and dimensions of skull 
wider in proportion to length than in scitulus, excepting the interorbital width 
which is 6:3 against 6-6-6-8. Orbital diameter decidedly larger, 9:2 against 8-7-8°8. 
Coronoid height equalling that of a much longer skull of scitulus, as do the general 
dimensions of the teeth. 

Dimensions of holotype—Dried skin: Forearm, approximately, 75; 3rd digit, 
metacarpal 53, Ist phalanx 41:5, 2nd 46-5; ear, from orifice (wet) 11:5, width 8-3; 
tibia 25; foot c.u., about 17 mm. 

Skull: Length from lambda to gnathion 34-5; palation to incisive foramina 
14; rostrum, orbit to nares, 7:5; width of braincase at zygomata 14; across crowns 
of m'-m! externally 11:1; lachrymal width 9:9; across crowns of canines externally 
7-4; premaxillae, depth at symphysis, 2:7; constriction, interorbital 6:3, postorbital 


BY E. LE G. TROUGHTON. 207 


5-8: orbital diameter 9:2; mandible, length from condyle 28-2, coronoid height 18-4. 
Upper teeth, e-m' (crowns) 12-9; lower, c-m, 14:2 mm. 

Specimen examined.—The holotype dried female, No. M.711 in the Australian 
Museum collection. Presented by the Reverend Actaeon Forrest in July, 1892. 

Range.—The Santa Cruz Group, Melanesia. 

Remarks.—Though the actual locality was not recorded, the distance, about 
350 miles, between the Santa Cruz Group and Guadalcanar in the Solomons, the 
nearest known habitat for the genus, appears to preclude the possibility of casual 
migration, or likelihood of error by the donor in recording the habitat. 

The available specimens of scitulus appear to be decidedly darker than 
described by Andersen; therefore as my holotype female agrees with the darkest 
males of scitulus, instead of being much lighter as in females of that species, 
coloration alone would seem to differentiate the two forms, apart from the 
additional diagnostic features given. The fact that the female is as dark as 
Solomon Group males is a further indication of isolation from the species of that 
area, as is the fact that the Santa Cruz specimen was accompanied by two species 
of insectivorous bats which are identical with forms secured by Mr. A. A. 
Livingstone and myself during our visit to the Santa Cruz Group. 


CHAEREPHON SOLOMONIS, Nn. Sp. 


Diagnosis.—Intermediate in size between Ch. luzonus and plicatus; the forearm- 
length the same as in luzonus, but the teeth, skull, and head and body dimensions 
decidedly larger, and also lacking the almost pure-white throat and lower belly 
described for luzonus. 

General colour of similar but much richer tone, the forearm much shorter, 
40-5-45 against 485-50, and the skull, teeth, and general dimensions decidedly 
smaller than in plicatus colonicus, the nearest ally. 

External characters—Har similar in outline but noticeably smaller and 
thicker, and the antitragus narrower and shorter than in plicatus colonicus. Tragus 
broadened at the top, which is divided into anterior and posterior lobes, more or 
less pronounced according to the degree of concavity; in females the tragus is 
definitely smaller and less concave above, the upper outline therefore less markedly 
bilobate. Tragus thus differing from that of plicatus colonicus, in which the more 
broadly wedge-shaped tragus has a straight or slightly convex upper profile, which 
is never indented to form lobes. Fur of back closer, shorter, and more rigid than 
in plicatus colonicus. 

Colour.—Back an even shade of auburn prout’s brown which is clearer and 
brighter than the fuscous-tipped prout’s of plicatus colonicus; sprinkled with 
occasional white hairs. Undersurface darker than in the allied subspecies, washed 
with dull-bistre instead of the paler wood-brown of that form. 

Palate-ridges.—The hindmost ridge is never double except in its outer third, 
where it bifurcates to isolate a small depression opposite the antero-internal corner 
of m?’, thus differing from plicatus colonicus in which the posterior ridge is double 
throughout its length. There exist, therefore, excluding a very faint inter-canine 
one, but four ridges in solomonis, opposed to five in plicatus colonicus. 

Skull and teeth—Skull similar in general appearance but decidedly smaller 
than in plicatus colonicus, and the upper profile much more sinuate, the convexity 
in outline and development of the sagittal crest in the forepart of the braincase 
being much more pronounced. This greater development of the sagittal crest 
apparently also serves to distinguish it from the true plicatus which according to 


THREE NEW BATS FROM MELANESIA, 


208 


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BY E. LE G. TROUGHTON. 209 


Thomas has less developed crests than his subspecies. Greatest length of skull 
18-6-19-2, intermediate between luzonus (17-6)) and plicatus colonicus (21 mm.). 
Teeth, c-m® (6-7-7), also definitely intermediate between luzonus (6) and colonicus 
(7-7-8). 

Measurements.—For detailed measurements of typical and paratypical series, 
and allied forms, see table on page 208. 

Specimens examined.—Holotype male No. M.3606, allotype M.3645, and a series 
of more than 200 paratypes. 

Collected and presented by N. S. Heffernan Hsq., late Deputy Commissioner for 
the Western Pacific Government. 

Range.—Ysabel Island in the Solomons. Collected in a cave at Mufu Point, 
six miles west of Tuarugu Village, south-west coast of Ysabel. 

Remarks.—The following notes were supplied by the donor: “Called at Mufu 
Point and climbed up to caves and obtained a sackfull of bats. All of one kind, 
and there does not appear to be any other. Proportion of males to females, 1-6. 
Attempted photo of the swarm at sunset, estimated to be a mile in length and 50 
yards broad before dispersing, but too dark and the film a blank. It is interesting 
to note that Mufu Point caves have absolutely only the one kind of bat, whereas 
a cave only a few miles distant has five varieties and probably more, but the 
situations are entirely different. Mufu Caves open out onto sheer cliffs over 
the water. The other cave is right on top of a hill in dense forest, and about 600 
feet above sea-level.” 

Regarding generic characters, it is fortunate that Oldfield Thomas (Journ. 
Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, 1, 1913, pp. 89-91) provided features other than the 
closed premaxillae to differentiate Chaerephon and its allies since, as he remarked, 
“all sorts of intergradations are found in the premaxillae” so that it is often almost 
impossible to decide the generic identity of an individual by this character. My 
own experience, in clearing nine crania, was that a slip of the prosectorial knife, 
even under binoculars, could readily remove the frail traces of the junction, and 
the palatal branches isolating the two minute foramina. 

In his description of plicatus colonicus, Thomas stated that examples of plicatus 
from New Guinea and Fiji corresponded in size with Javan and Indian specimens. 
As the life-size drawing of Buchanan-Hamilton’s type of the true plicatus makes 
the forearm 48-5 mm., and Dobson records 49-5 for the forearm of an adult male, 
there seems no doubt that the longer forearm distinguishes it from solomonis. The 
colour is also evidently much brighter than in the true plicatus, described as “above 
bluish or smoke-black, beneath somewhat paler’? by Dobson. It has already been 
shown that the size of the forearm, skull, and teeth, and, to a somewhat lesser 
extent, the colour and character of the fur, clearly differentiate solomonis from the 
Australian form of plicatus. 


NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE HURYMELINAE 
(CICADELLOIDEA, HOMOPTERA). 


‘By J. W. Evans, M.A., F.E.S., 
Division of Economic Entomology, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. 


(Plate xi; nineteen Text-figures.) 
(Communicated by Dr. R. J. Tillyard.) 


[Read 24th June, 1931.] 


Introduction. 


The Hurymelinae, which comprises a group of insects entirely confined to 
Australia and the neighbouring islands, has up to the present time been regarded 
as a division of the Bythoscopidae, owing to the facial position of the ocelli, 
though it differs from true members of that family in possessing broad flap-like 
subgenital plates with apical spine-like styles, quite distinct from the narrow 
plates found in the Bythoscopidae. In fact China (1926) considers that the group 
merits elevation to family rank. 

The insects which form the subject of this paper belong to the Hurymelini 
division of the Hurymelinae; they may be distinguished from the other division 
of the group, the Pogonoscopini, by the following characters. In the Hurymelinae 
the hind tibiae are quadrilateral in section and have distinct spur-like teeth, with 
mobile spines at their apices, while in the Pogonoscopini the hind tibiae are 
rounded in section with the outer sides flattened, and bear a regular armature of 
spines arising direct from the tibiae themselves. 

The first description to be published of an insect belonging to this tribe 
appeared in 1825 (Le Pelletier and Serville, 1825) and from that date to the 
present day descriptions of new species have appeared from time to time in the 
scientific periodicals of other countries. No great interest appears to have been 
taken in the group by Australian entomologists, the first mention of it in Australia 
being made in 1906 by Froggatt (1906, p. 355) who made the justifiable error of 
considering them to be members of the family Cercopidae. 

Since the types are scattered and some of the descriptions hardly worthy of 
the name, at the moment great difficulty attends the identification of any but 
the commonest species. Although neglected by entomologists in this country, 
these insects are by no means rare, being found principally on small eucalyptus 
trees in open country, and as the coloration of many of the group is bold, and 
they are usually found in fairly large numbers together, their observation and 
collection is a comparatively simple matter. 

This paper is offered as a preliminary to further studies, which I hope to 


carry out in the future on the biology and morphology of this and related groups 
of insects. 


Life-History. 
The habits of the different species are uniform, and since it has been found 
impossible, owing to lack of time and opportunities, to trace through the detailed 


BY J. W. EVANS. ; 211 


life-cycle of any one species, a composite account has been built up, the species 
concerned being named in every case. The observations recorded have all been 
made in the neighbourhood of Canberra. 

Oviposition.—Oviposition takes place principally in October and November, the 
eggs being laid in parallel slits made in the bark of young branches of eucalyptus 
trees. The manner in which the slits, or nests, of the different species are sealed 
varies considerably. Although a number of types have been found, it so far has 
been possible to discover the identity of only two of the species concerned. 

The nests of Hurymeloides pulchra Sign. are cut in rows parallel to the axes 
of small branches, the twigs chosen usually being from five to ten millimetres in 
diameter. Each nest is covered by a narrow band of a hardened frothy secretion. 
Nests of Hurymela distincta Sign. are even better protected, since here the 
hardened froth is extended to form large flaps, each one overlapping the adjacent 
flap. In Plate xi, figure 1, are shown the nests cut by an unidentified species. 

Probably every species is confined to one or a few host-plants, but so far 
the records are too scanty to pronounce with any certainty on this point. However, 
the author has only found Hurymela rubrovittata A.S. on Eucalyptus melliodora; 
Hurymetoides puichra on EL. Blakeleyi, and Eurymela distincta on H. Bridgesiana. 
Trees belonging to the genus Hucalyptus are not the only host-plants, nymphs of 
two as yet undetermined species having been found in numbers on Casuarina 
trees, and probably further collecting would even further increase the list. 

Hatching.—The act of emergence from the nests has been observed only with 
#. distincta and an unidentified species. The lower half of each egg is enclosed by 
a sheath constructed by the female when ovipositing. The eggs, of which about 
twelve are contained in a nest, are white in colour, long, and slightly curved, those 
of H. distincta being two millimetres in length. At first they are rounded at their 
anterior ends, but prior to hatching this end becomes pointed and contains a hard 
white waxy substance which gradually increases in size and density. This plug 
protects the delicate pronymph, and is used as a ram for pushing through the 
plant tissue, since the eggs are deeply embedded in the bark. When the anterior 
third of the egg has emerged from the bark the plug breaks up into a yellowish 
fluid, and the head of the pronymph appears beneath the chorion, which then 
splits. If an egg is dissected out of the plant, and the white plug is removed, the 
head of the pronymph, which contains a pulsatile sac, at once protrudes. 

The pronymphs, which are colourless but for their red eyes, rise out of their 
nest with a lunging motion, and when about three-quarters emerged, split their 
skins anteriorly, so that the nymphal heads appear (Plate xi, figs. 2 and 3). These 
begin to swell at once, and in a short space of time the nymphs free themselves 
from their exuviae. Though colourless at first, they turn completely black in less 
than fifteen minutes, and then at once begin to feed. It is doubtful whether the 
whole complement of a row of eggs ever gives rise to nymphs, since the first 
pronymphs to leave a nest invariably crush their less pushing, and consequently 
less successful, neighbours. 

Nymphal Instars—The nymphs may be found abundantly during the months 
of November, December and January. They are gregarious at all stages, but 
especially during the early ones, when they congregate at the base of the season’s 
growth of eucalyptus branches, and in the axils and along the stems of neigh- 
pouring young leaves (Plate xi, fig. 4). 

They stand with their legs spread out to their full extent, their bodies being 
closely pressed to the plant. If disturbed, they dodge round the branch, so as to 

G 


212 THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


put it between them and the intruder, and if again molested run off at great speed 
up or down the branch, eventually returning to where their companions are feeding 
together. They then push their way in among the other nymphs, until they 
discover a bare bit of branch in which to insert their stylets. They never jump 
when disturbed, their legs being adapted for clinging, not leaping. 


Text-fig. 1.—Hurymela distincta Sign., pronymph. 
Text-fig. 2.—H. distincta, nymph, first instar. 
Text-fig. 3.—H. distincta, nymph, fifth instar. 

Text-fig. 4.—H. distincta, adult. 


There are five nymphal instars, exclusive of the pronymph. The adult colora- 
tion appears, as far as EH. distincta is concerned, in the second instar. The first 
instar nymphs of this species are spider-like creatures, entirely black, but for 
the eyes, which are red, and the ventral surface of the abdomen, which is white. 
Nymphs in the second instar are not so squat but more elongate, and have red 
abdomens, similar to the adults. In the middle of each sternite at this stage and 
in the following three instars, is a grey area dotted with six to eight pits, pre- 
sumably of a sensory nature. These do not occur in the final instar. 

Later Life-History—tin the Federal Capital Territory there is probably only 
one complete generation a year of H. distincta and E. rubrovittata. Some of the 
smaller forms, such as Hurymeloides bicincta Hrichson, have two generations, the 
eggs that give rise to the second one being laid in February. First instar nymphs 
of E. pulchra have been found as late as April, but doubtless they are killed by the 


BY J. W. EVANS. 213 


early frosts. During the summer the adults congregate on the trees on which they 
have spent their youth, but in the autumn a number migrate to new surroundings. 
Adults of both sexes of EH. distincta and E. pulchra have been found in April 
resting on the sides of buildings away from any possible source of artificial light, 
and quite five hundred yards from the nearest eucalyptus trees. During May many 
have been collected on windows, attracted there by the light, but by the end of 
this month all the surviving adults have stopped feeding and gone into hiberna- 
tion under the bark of trees, although a few will emerge from their concealment 
on a particularly warm sunny day during the winter. 

In September and October mating takes place. This is preceded by a lengthy 
courtship, which has been observed between individuals of EL. rubrovittata. A male 
sits astride a female, grasping her just in front of the anterior edges of her 
forewings with his middle pair of legs. With his fore tarsi he taps her head with 
light touches, and with his hind legs strokes her wings, every now and then 
vibrating excitedly both pairs of legs. The males are frequently anxious to mate 
before the females are receptive, so that the courtships are often unproductive of 
results. 

The females continue to oviposit over a long period, and during this time 
it is doubtful whether they leave the tree, or even branch, first selected for the 
reception of their eggs. It is not known how often mating takes place, but every 
female, whether actually ovipositing or resting between bouts of arduous labour, 
waiting for her next batch of eggs to mature, is accompanied by a single male. 
Often many isolated colonies are found on one tree, consisting of a pair of 
adults and numerous nymphs. 

Adults of some species retain the gregarious habits found throughout the 
tribe during the nymphal stages. Large colonies of EF. distincta have frequently 
been found sitting along a branch, and, if one is disturbed, it will first move 
round to the other side of the branch, and then, if again approached, will leap 
away, taking to flight when in mid-air. Generally they do not fly far, but 
wheel round and return direct to the same tree. 

Feeding Habits.—Although the nymphs feed only on tender shoots, the adults 
are able to obtain nourishment from more woody tissue. When a nymph com- 
mences to feed, its whole body is moved rhythmically up and down, the abdomen 
being bent slightly forwards and downwards, and the thorax pushed forwards, 
as if to force the mandibles into the plant tissue, the whole weight of the body 
being used for this purpose. A third instar nymph of EZ. pulchra has been observed 
almost to pivot on its proboscis whilst feeding, first the hind two pairs and then 
one fore leg being raised, and the whole body twisted with a forceful screwing 
movement. 

Adam White (1845), in a paper describing a “New Genus and some new 
species of Homopterous insects from the Hast”, gives the following note about the 
feeding habits of these insects: “With reference to the genus Hurymela I may 
mention that Mr. Harrington of Bath informed me that in New Holland the 
different species are named ‘manna-flies’. They bore into the green bark of the 
gum trees (Hucalypti), the sap exudes, dries and falls to the ground, sometimes 
in great quantities. This gum-tree ‘manna’ is sweet to the taste.” 

Probably Mr. Harrington confused certain Psyllidae with the EHurymelinae, 
since “manna” is not produced through the agency of the latter group, but by 
Psyllids of the subfamily Aphalarinae. Froggatt (1906, p. 364) remarks that 
insects of the genus Spondyliaspis form “sugar lerp scales”, which often encrust 


214 THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE HURYMELINAE, 


the foliage of young gum trees, and are sometimes so abundant that the blacks 
used to collect it in quantities and have a regular manna harvest. 


Relationship with Ants. 

Colonies are invariably attended by ants, which feed on the “honey-dew” 
ejected from the anal aperture. This is nothing more than the excrement and not 
the secretion of any special gland. A great quantity of this “honey-dew” is 
produced, and since this is very sticky, the young nymphs would probably get 
caught in it were it not for the services of the ants. 

In captivity, ants have frequently been seen trying to carry off nymphs of 
E. pulchra that had fallen on their backs. The results of their efforts were 
usually merely to put the nymphs on their legs again, whereupon the ants lost 
interest in them. On one occasion an ant was seen carrying a last instar nymph 
of EF. rubrovittata down a tree trunk. When captured, it immediately dropped 
its prey which was found to be unharmed. 

It is interesting to conjecture whether the even more intimate relationship 
of ants with the Pogonoscopini, which are confined to Western Australia, may 
not have arisen in some such way, the nymphs being taken from the branches 
and transferred to the trunk of the same tree beneath the soil. Mr. D. C. Swan, 
of the Department of Biology of the University of Western Australia, forwarded 
to the writer in September, 1930, some specimens of Pogonoscopus myrmex China, 
taken in the nest of Camponotus testaceipes Sm., built against the trunk of a 
eucalyptus tree (H. redunca, var. elata). Mr. Swan, in a letter accompanying the 
insects, mentioned that the nest which consisted of tunnelling amongst loose 
bark at the base of the tree, contained all stages of the insect, living quite freely 
with the ants. Also that H. redunca has a smooth clean bark without any great 
development of cork, and it would seem that the Pogonoscopids sucked up sap 
from it just below ground level. Mr. J. Clark, of the National Museum, Melbourne, 
has observed that when insects of this tribe are attended by species of Iridomyrmex 
they are nearly always found on the shoots of plants, very rarely in the ants’ 
nests, excepting with J. nitidus Mayr. The following species of ants have been 
found attending Eurymela colonies round Canberra: Iridomyrmex detectus Smith, 
I. rufoniger Lowne, I. nitidus Mayr, and Dolichoderus (Hypoclinea) scabridus 
Roger. 


Natural Enemies. 

Although it has been stated earlier in this paper that these insects are not 
rare, yet considering the abundance of their food-plants, their distribution is 
localized, and no doubt their numbers fluctuate greatly from year to year, due 
to the control effected by their numerous parasites. 

In December, 1930, in the neighbourhood of the Entomological Laboratory at 
Canberra, a branch of an HE. Bridgesiana tree was found badly scarred by the 
egg-slits of Hurymela distincta, the incisions extending over a length of sixteen 
inches. The scarred part of the branch varied in diameter from thirteen to 
five millimetres. There were thirty-four rows of slits cut all along one side of 
the branch; each row was made up of from one to fourteen nests, the average 
distance between the nests being six millimetres. The branch was green, but 
the areas round the nest had turned brown. Every nest was examined, and it 
was found that very few eggs were unparasitized. The majority had turned 
brown, and contained on an average five small hymenopterous pupae, while others 


BY J. W. EVANS. 215 


were black and contained one pupa each of somewhat larger parasites. Altogether 
three species of Chalcidae were bred from these eggs. 

In some of the nests, more than half of the eggs had been eaten by the larvae 
of Oscinosoma luteohirta Mall. (Diptera, Chloropidae). The pupae of these flies 
were also found in the nests; they were very flattened owing to lack of space, and 
it is difficult to imagine how the flies contrive to emerge from their position 
under the bark. 

During January, 1931, a second instar nymph of an unidentified species was 
found with a Dryinid larva attached to its thorax. The host was quite active, 
although the parasite was bulky, being fully half the size of the former. On 
three occasions parasitic larvae have been found in the abdominal cavities of 
FE. distincta. These were shown to entomologists with a wide experience of 
dipterous and hymenopterous larvae, who were not able to assign them with any 
certainty to any Order. 

Both adults and full-grown nymphs of £. distincta have occasionally been 
found with flattened white sacs lying along the sides of their bodies, these being 
completely hidden by the wings of the adult hoppers, and partly concealed by the 
wing-cases of the nymphs (Text-fig. 8). The sacs contained very flat lepidopterous 
larvae, lying with their heads towards the posterior ends of their hosts. At first 
it was considered that the sacs were cocoons, which they certainly resembled, 
but when a female adult hopper bearing two sacs, one on each side of its thorax 
and abdomen, was confined in a breeding cage, next day the sacs were empty, 
containing only cast larval skins, the larvae being discovered wandering about 
the cage. These were peculiar little objects, oval in shape, with the dorsal 
suriace red. Each segment bore a projecting white flap, having four spines 
on the under surface. Inwards from these flaps, on the ventral surface, were 
sclerites, the pleurae, each of which bore a group of six spines. The larvae were 
able to move with great rapidity, due to the fact that the claws on the fore legs 
were modified to form adhesive pads. Unfortunately both larvae died without 
pupating. 

Although no moths have been bred out, it may be assumed that the larvae 
belong to the family Epipyropidae, the larvae of which have been recorded as 
being parasitic on Homoptera in many parts of the world. Without further data 
available, it is difficult to determine the exact relationship between parasite and 
host. Perkins (1905) considered that it was probable that the larvae fed on the 
“honey-dew” produced by the Homopteron, and not on the waxy secretion as 
was thought by many of the earlier writers. The same author mentions that 
Koebele, from observations made at Sydney, believed that the hoppers died soon 
after the parasites quitted them, and he himself noticed that in some cases, at 
least with Agamopsyche at Cairns, death followed quickly on the withdrawal of 
the full-fed caterpillar. Even immediately after this event in specimens of a 
Delphacid, a collapse or distortion of the dorsal sclerites of the abdomen was 
obvious, and healthy hoppers included in the same jars as parasitized ones 
outlived the latter. 

It is possible that the cocoon-like sacs serve to protect the larvae from being 
molested by ants, and are analogous with those made by Psychid larvae, which 
half emerge from their cases when feeding, but dart back at the slightest alarm, 
and since the aperture of the sacs is close to the anal opening of their hosts, it 
may be presumed that they feed on “honey-dew’. Although the insect already 
referred to, which bore a parasitic larva on each side of its thorax and abdomen, 


216 THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


died the same day as that on which the larvae left it, yet frequently adults have 
been taken in the field with empty sacs attached to them, which appeared to be 
equally as vigorous as their unburdened companions. It is doubtful whether 
predators take any toll of the nymphs, since ants resent any interference with their 
charges, and fiercely attack an intruder. 


Comparison with Membracidae. 

The Hurymelinae have very different habits from those of the majority of 
the Cicadelloidea, though they are somewhat similar in this respect to the 
Membracidae. The following characteristics of the last-named family, given by 
Funkhouser (1923), would equally well apply to the EHurymelinae: 

(i) They are principally tree and shrub inhabiting insects. 

(ii) They are found most often on plants growing in open country, not 
in shady woods. 

(iii) The adults of many species have the habit of arranging themselves 
in rows on the branches of trees. 

(iv) The nymphs are usually found pressed tightly in the axil of a leaf, 
or a crotch of a twig. 

(v) Some species are definitely gregarious. 

(vi) If approached, an insect will often move round to the opposite side 
of the twig or stem, and make no attempt to fly, except as a last 
resort to enable it to escape. 

(vii) They invariably return to the same host from which they have been 
disturbed. 

(viii) A large number of species are attended by ants, the latter insects 
collecting the so-called “honey-dew’’, excreted from the anus of both 
nymphal and adult forms. 

(ix) The eggs are laid in incisions made in the bark of young stems. 

Although it is not suggested that these common characteristics indicate any 
very close degree of relationship, yet they are probably due to more than mere 
chance convergence, being possibly primitive characters retained by members of 
both groups. 


Economic Importance. 

These insects cannot be considered of any economic importance. Occasionally 
tender young eucalyptus shoots are found that have wilted, due to the feeding 
of numerous nymphs at their base, and it is: possible that the scars on twigs, 
made by the females when ovipositing, might sometimes cause the death of the 
injured twig. However, now that eucalyptus trees have been spread by man 
all over the world, it is not inconceivable that these Homoptera, if accidentally 
introduced into other countries, and freed from their parasites, might become 
pests of some importance. 


Eaternal Morphology. 

The coloration of some of the members of the tribe is very striking. The eyes 
may be black, orange or red; the pronotum and scutellum totally black, or black 
with orange, yellow, or red markings. The forewings which are frequently opaque 
and coriaceous have, in the more typical members of the division, two large 
irregular white or coloured areas, and vary from a blackish-purple to black or 
bronze, while the abdomens are black, yellow, green or red. 


BY J. W. EVANS. 217 


The less conspicuous species are pale-brown, chocolate, or blackish, with 
indistinct patterns on the wings, while the wedge-shaped insects belonging to the 
genus 7po have transparent forewings. There is a fairly considerable range in 
size, the biggest species being about fifteen millimetres long, and the smallest 
five millimetres. The pigment causing the bright coloration of the abdomen in 
such species as #. distincta and &. pulchra, is carried in the hypoderm, the cuticle 
itself being colourless. Many species show a considerable variation in the relative 
size of the markings on the thorax and tegmina, and graded series can be 
arranged, the insects at each end being very dissimilar in detailed colour pattern. 

Morphological studies have been made chiefly with H. distincta, so that, unless 
otherwise mentioned, the following notes refer to this species. 

H. distincta is one of the largest insects of the group, the females being 
fifteen millimetres long from the apex of the head to the tip of the folded fore- 
wings. In order to give those readers of this paper who are not familiar with 
the group, some idea of the appearance of this species, a short description of it is 
given below. 

Head: Black, excepting for the maxillary plates, and the outer halves of the 
lorae, which are white, the eyes, which are black, with a variable number of 
longitudinal white bands; and the labium, which is brown with a white tip. 

Thorax: Pronotum and scutellum, black, the rest scarlet. 

Forewings: With the exception of two irregular white spots, black with a 
purplish sheen. 

Hindwings: Smoky grey, with an even more pronounced purplish sheen than 
the forewings. 

Legs: Coxae, and the proximal halves of the femora, scarlet; the distal halves 
of the femora, the tibiae and tarsi, black, but for the first tarsal segments of the 
hind legs, which are white. Hind tibiae quadrilateral, two edges bearing rows of 
weak spines, one edge spineless, and the fourth bearing a spur, or occasionally two 
spurs, with mobile spines at their apices. 

Abdomen: Scarlet. 

Myers (1928) states that some of the most controverted questions in external 
insect anatomy have concerned the interpretation of Hemipterous head structure. 
The present writer is therefore content to leave the controversy to those more 
qualified to take part in it, and so only a brief description of the head, illustrated 
by text-figures, is given here, the nomenclature employed being taken from the 
paper on Cicadan morphology referred to above, which has been found invaluable 
for comparative purposes. 

Head.—Viewed from in front, the head (Text-fig. 5) has a flattened appear- 
ance, and is considerably broader than long. The white genae (maxillary plates) 
which bear sensory pits on their anterior inturned margin, similar to those found 
in some Cercopids (Philagra sp.), occupy fully half the total area of the head. 
Overlapping these sclerites, and lying along the margin of the clypeus and 
frons, are the small lorae. The frons which is not appreciably swollen in this 
species, is diamond-shaped. The anterior edges of the genae, lorae and clypeus are 
bent at an obtuse angle to the rest of the sclerites, and lie parallel to the long 
axis of the body. The labium is three-segmented, the tip reaching the coxae 
of the middle pair of legs. 

The sclerite lying above the frons is the crown or vertex. In the adult and 
last instar nymph of this species, there is no recognizable suture between these 
two sclerites, although one is present in the other nymphal instars. The crown 


218 THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


bears the ocelli, which lie along the edge of the frons. In the adult this sclerite 
lies entirely in a ventral position, but for a narrow dorsal border on a plane 
with the pronotum. As may be seen in Text-figures 2 and 3, the crown extends 
further dorsally in the nymphs. Although the epicranial suture is not visible 


: ss SI 


Text-fig. 5—Head of H. distincta. 1., labium; le., labium-epipharynx ; 
sp.. sensory pore; e¢., clypeus; l7., lorum; mazp., maxillary plate; 
fr., frons; oc., ocellus; cr., crown. 

Text-fig. 6.—Anterior part of the head of EH. distincta, viewed from 
behind. The two maxillary plates have been separated at their junction; 
the lorae are from this view-point beneath the maxillary plates. 
ma., Maxilla; at., maxillary apodeme; m., mandible; other lettering 
as in Text-fig. 5. 

Text-fig. 7.—Median section through the part of the head shown in 
Text-fig. 6. psp., pharyngeal sucking-pump; msc., dilator muscles of 
pharynx; ph., pharynx; spp., salivary pump; sd., salivary duct; other 
lettering as in previous figures. 


in adult insects, yet it is present in the nymphs, excepting for those in the 
fifth instar, and it is along this suture that the skin of the head splits at 
each ecdysis. The lateral arms of the suture lie along the margin of the frons, 
and the stem of the Y runs posteriorly to the hind margin of the head. Before 
casting its skin, a nymph will firmly insert its stylets into the tissue of the leaf 
or twig on which it is resting. The old skin is thus anchored down, and remains 
attached to the plant after the insect has left it. 

Text-figure 6 is a semi-diagrammatic representation of the lower (anterior) 
part of the head capsule, viewed from behind. The maxillary plates, which have 
been separated and pulled apart, in order to show the hypopharynx and salivary 
pump, lie on top (from this viewpoint) of the lorae. The body of the tentorium, 


BY J. W. EVANS. 219 


which for the sake of clarity is not shown, joins the apices of the maxillary 
apodemes. Each mandible is attached to the wall of the head capsule at the 
junction of a lora, maxillary plate and the frons. As will be seen from the diagram, 
their point of attachment does not lie so far back in the head as that of the 
maxillae. 

Text-figure 7, also semi-diagrammatic, is a median section through the part 
of the head represented in the previous figure. The stylets are shown displaced, 
the mandible being freed from its connection with the head capsule. Actually the 
two stylets join the opposite pair at the meeting place of the pharyngeal opening 
and the efferent duct of the salivary pump, and then lie in a groove between 
the hypopharynx and epipharynx, and thence along the trough of the labium. 
The apposed stylets form a closed tube, the barbed mandibles enclosing the finer 
maxillae. 

The pharynx consists at first of a highly chitinized tube, which leads into the 
sucking-pump. The pharyngeal muscles are inserted into the dorsal wall of the 
invaginated portion of the sucking-pump, the other ends being attached to the 
inner surface of the frons. The rest of the digestive system is described later, 
in the section dealing with the internal anatomy. Below the sucking-pump (above 
in the diagram) is the salivary pump. The following description of this organ 
given by Myers, though referring to the Cicadidae, is equally applicable here. ‘‘The 
salivary pump is a tiny but tough chitinous cylinder, or elongate bell of trans- 
parent material, lying beneath the trough-like frontal plate. The piston or 
plunger ... . is darker in colour. The pump anteriorly continues into a 
narrow heavily chitinised tube opening near the mouth pore. Posteriorly the 


Text-fig. 8.—H. distincta, last instar nymph, with attached parasitic 
lepidopterous larva. 
Text-fig. 9—#. distincta, vertical longitudinal section through a female, 
diagrammatically represented. The section was cut when the mesenteric 
sac was fully distended with air. 1, labium; fr., frons; c., crown; 
pn., pronotum; msn., mesonotum; mtn.. metanotum; sg., salivary gland; 
ne., nerve cord; fce., filter-chamber; a., aorta; ov., ovary; ms., mesenteric 
sac; spt., spermatheca; rs., rectal sac; ovp., ovipositor. 


220. THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


shaft of the plunger expands into two branches, each serving for the insertion of 
a wide but powerful protractor muscle.” 

Thorax.—The detailed morphology of the thorax has not been investigated. 
Viewed dorsally, the large pronotum and scutellum are the only visible sclerites. 
The prescutum of the mesothorax is entirely covered by the pronotum, and the 
prescutum of the metathorax, which is a bilobed plate, is bent at right angles to 
the scutum, the latter being overlapped by the scutellum of the mesonotum 
(Text-fig. 9). 

Legs.—The legs are of interest, since it is owing to the fact that the hind 
tibiae of the majority of the species bear a few prominent spurs, and do not 
have rows of long spines, that they are so often mistaken for Cercopidae. The 
legs of the nymphs are long and spider-like, and since they do not jump there 
is no great development of the hind tibiae; these are relatively longer in the 
adults, which also have three instead of two tarsal joints on each leg, the extra 
segment being formed by the division of the ultimate nymphal ones. 

Front Legs—tThe interior sides of the front femora and tibiae each bear a row 
of spines with broad bases, no doubt of service to the insect in enabling it to 
retain a good grip of its food-plant. The second, third and fourth instar nymphs 
each have two rows of spines on the femora and one row on the tibiae; the 
fifth instar nymphs have two rows on both segments, as does also the adult, 
though those borne by the latter on the tibiae are greatly reduced. 

Hind Legs.—The tibiae of the nymphs in the first three instars are rounded, 
and have many rows of small spines. Those of the fourth instar nymphs are 
quadrilateral in section, though the edges are not well defined. Hach edge bears 
a row of spines, the outside ones possessing many more than the inside ones. 
The tibiae of the fifth instar nymphs are similar to those described for the fourth 
instar, but the spines are relatively shorter and their bases more protuberant, 
and the ridges of the segment better defined. 

The number and arrangement of spines on the adult tibiae (Text-fig. 10) is 
somewhat variable. However, the ventral outside ridge invariably carries one 
or two large spurs with apical spines, and the dorsal ridge, though sometimes 
spineless, usually bears from six to eight small spines on its proximal half. The 
interior ridges each bear from three to six small spines. 

Venation.—Although the fore wings are thick and opaque, the veins are 
clearly visible. The venation is basically similar throughout the tribe, though 
there are two distinct types, one such as that of H. distincta (Text-fig. 11) and the 
other in which the apex of the wing, instead of being reticulate, has four or five 
large apical cells. H. bicincta is an example of the latter and more primitive type 
(Text-fig. 12). It is impossible to say definitely whether the subcosta actually 
occupies the position shown in the text-figures, or whether it is fused with the 
radius. It is even possible that it may be absent. 

Wing Coupling—The wing coupling apparatus is very simple. There is a 
small hook-like flap on the costal margin of the hind wing, just above the fork 
of the radius. This catches on to the thickened anal margin of the tegmen, 
the thickening extending nearly as far as the distal end of the claval suture. 

Male Genitalia—The male genitalia of this species (Text-fig. 13) have pre- 
viously been figured by Singh-Pruthi (1925), who gives the following description 
of them: “Basal plates small, fused with each other, forming a transverse plate 
connecting the two parameres. Segmental membrane round the base of the 
aedeagus very stout, fairly wide, especially in the proximal region, with a stout 


BY J. W. EVANS. 221 


dorsal outgrowth from the base; the latter free of the segmental membrane, and 
therefore not corresponding to the basal strut in the above forms. Parameres long 
and stout. Subgenital plates very large, leaf-like, bearing each a style-like process 
in the distal region.” 


Text-fig. 10.—Hind leg of EH. distincta. 
Text-fig. 11.—Forewing of H. distincta. 

Text-fig. 12.—Forewing of Hurymeloides bicincta Erichs. 
Text-fig. 13.—Vertical section through the male genitalia of 
H. distincta. aed., aedeagus; gnp., gonopore; gp., sub-genital plate; 

pr., paramere; s., style. 


Remarks.—‘‘The reduction of the basal plates, thickening of the body wall 
round the aedeagus base, the fairly wide aedeagus, flap-like sub-genital plates, etc., 
remind us of the genitalia in the Cercopidae. However, the presence of the basal 
plates, though in a rudimentary condition, and the absence of a distinct periandrum, 
decide its relationship with the Jassidae.”’ 

Female Genitalia.—The female genitalia (Text-fig. 9) conform to the normal 
type found in this family. They consist of three pairs of valves, the inner pair 
being fused along the greater part of their length, and forming the saw with 
which the slits cut in bark for the reception of the eggs are made. The one 
marked development in this species is that the seventh sternite is produced 
posteriorly into two large flaps, which reach from a point anterior to the base 
of the ovipositor to fully a third of its total length. 


Internal Anatomy. 
Digestive System—The pharynx and sucking-pump have already been 
described. Posterior to the latter, the gut is a narrow chitinous tube, which 


Payee THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


dilates just below the brain. To this swollen portion are attached numerous 
dilator muscles, and the anterior extremity of the aorta is intimately connected, 
apparently with the wall of this sac. At this point the oesophagus is bent, so 
that it runs at right angles to the fore part of the alimentary canal (Text-fig. 14). 
Posteriorly it enters the anterior lobe of the stomach. This lobe, the filter-chamber, 
is generally opaque, except in early summer, after the insects have emerged from 
hibernation, when it is more or less transparent. It is apparently coiled, this 
appearance being due to the fact that the stomach enwraps very closely the coiled 
and twisted hind part of the mid-intestine. 
Licent (1912) has investigated this structure in a number of Homoptera, and 
remarks in connection with the family to which this insect belongs: “Chez les 
autres Jassidae [other than the Typhlocybinii], et chez les Membracidae, 
la partie postérieure du médiintestin pénétre et serpente plus ou moins longuement 
dans la paroi d’un diverticule dorsal bien constitué, dépendant de la région 
antérieure; les régions proximals des tubes de Malpighi se comportent comme la 
partie postérieure du médiintestin, l’ensemble constitue un filtre qui évacue 


mt 


Text-fig. 14.—Diagrammatic representation of the alimentary system of 
EH. distincta, ventral view. oes., oesophagus; fe., filter-chamber; spl., 
suspensory ligament of mesenteric sac; ms., mesenteric sac; hi., hind- 
intestine; mi., mid-intestine; mt., Malpighian tubes; rs., rectal sac. 
Text-fig. 15.—Ventral view of the filter-chamber of EH. distincta. The 
coils on the right have been folded back to show the point cf entrance 
of the oesophagus. Lettering as in Text-fig. 14. 
Text-fig. 16.—Dorsal view of the filter-chamber. Lettering as in 
Text-fig. 14. 


BY J. W. EVANS. 223 


directement dans l’intestin postérieur la grande masse d’eau de séve’. Figures 
6 and 7, Plate xi, are microphotographs of longitudinal sections through the filter- 
chamber and mesenteric sac. The manner in which the stomach is folded round 
the mid-intestine is clearly shown in both photos, while in Figure 6 may be seen 
two Malpighian tubes cut through obliquely, and the narrow duct joining the 
filter-chamber to the mesenteric sac. 

The posterior lobe of the stomach, here called, after Myers, the ‘mesenteric 
sac’, is a large thin-walled sac, usually brown in colour, due to its contents. 
When at its normal size in the summer, its sides are folded, and the dorsal and 
ventral surfaces puckered into a series of small invaginations lying on either 
side of the median line. In the late summer and autumn, prior to hibernation, 
when the reproductive organs and accessory glands are small, the sac is so 
distended with air as to fill the entire abdominal cavity, so that the other organs 
are squeezed against the body-wall. 

From the base of the sac the mid-intestine ascends, the proximal third being 
narrow and colourless. The distal two-thirds are wider, and finally, together with 
the four Malpighian tubes, enters the filter-chamber (Text-fig. 16). The point of 
attachment of the Malpighian tubes to the gut is hidden. For the greater part 
of their length they are white in colour, though the two extremities are transparent. 
The hind-intestine emerges laterally from between the coils of the filter-chamber, 
and runs straight to the rectum, the rectal sac being large and pear-shaped. The 
distal extremities of the Malpighian tubes are joined in pairs. The loop formed by 
the junction of each pair lies against, and is superficially attached to, a side of 
the hind-intestine anterior to the rectum. Licent (1911) has shown that the 
Malpighian tubes among the Homoptera terminate in a number of different ways, 
the type here described being of the same nature as that shown by this author to 
be present in Macropsis lanio. 

Salivary Glands.—The salivary glands (Text-fig. 17) are paired organs, lying 
on each side of the head, and extending well into the prothorax. They have three 
component parts; a large semi-opaque bilobed gland, at the junction of the lobes 
of which lies a more transparent gland, consisting of a number of lobules, and a 
filamentous gland joined to the bilobed one close to the point of attachment of the 
salivary duct. The salivary ducts from each side of the head meet just behind the 
salivary pump. The two ducts join to form a single short canal which enters the 
pump on its ventral side. 

Pseudovitellus—Lying along each side of the abdomen is a long flattened 
gland with three constrictions, which divide it up into four connected parts. This 
gland, which is surrounded by fat-body though quite distinct from the latter, is 
pale-pink in colour and apparently ductless. The colour, and that of the testis, 
in this species is probably derived from the same substance as that which colours 
the abdomen scarlet. The gland, presumably the pseudovitellus, is regarded by 
some authors as being nutritive, and by others as having an excretory function. 

Physiology.—A clear account of the mechanism of feeding and physiology of 
the Cicadidae, which applies equally well to these Homoptera, is given in the 
paper by Myers already referred to (pp. 450-453). 

Saliva is forced down the smaller of the two channels formed by the apposition 
of the maxillary stylets. If an insect is held for a moment between finger and 
thumb, it will exude a drop of saliva. The plant-sap is drawn up the other larger 
maxillary channel by the action of the pharyngeal sucking-pump. From the 
oesophagus it enters the filter-chamber through the oesophageal valve. The filter- 


224 THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


chamber is sometimes found lying transversely along the top of the mesenteric sac 
as in Text-figure 14, and sometimes projecting into the thorax, the coils then 
being at right angles to the other position. It has been noticed that although the 
filter-chamber is a dense white colour, and does not take up stain (methylene-blue) 
like the rest of the gut, yet in insects that have reproduced and have not much 
longer to live, it is transparent and flaccid. 


What exactly happens to the sap in the filter-chamber is somewhat uncertain. 
The generally accepted hypothesis is that the food is here separated by, osmosis 
into the more liquid portion consisting of water and excess sugars, which passes 
direct into the hind part of the mid-intestine, and the more solid portion which 
enters the posterior division of the stomach. the mesenteric sac. The mesenteric 
sac, Which is lined with digestive epithelium, leads from its base into a narrow 
tube, also absorbent, and digestive. The distal, wider and longer part of this 


acp 


Text-fig. 17.—-Salivary gland of #. distincta. 

Text-fig. 18.—Male reproductive organs of EH. distincta, prior to the 
swelling of the vesiculae seminales. ¢., testis; vd., vas deferens; vs., 
vesicula seminalis; acg.. accessory gland; ejd., ejaculatory duct. 
Text-fig. 19—RFemale reproductive organs and ovipositor of H. distincta. 
ov., ovary; spt., spermatheca; ac., accessory glands. 


BY J. W. EVANS. 225 


tube contains in its walls, large cells, which are filled with chalky granules. 
This part, which is excretory, enters the filter-chamber, and inside it joins the 
hind-intestine. The rectal sac is large, but the excrement is not expelled in a 
forcible manner, as with so many Homoptera. 


Male Reproductive Organs.—The testes (Text-fig. 18) are large rosette-shaped 
organs, pale-pink in colour. Each testis in this species consists of a great many 
lobes, though those of H. pulchra have only eight. The vas deferens from each 
gonad runs into a large curved vesicula seminalis, which in the breeding season 
swells to such a size as to fill the greater part of the abdominal cavity. Before 
entering the ejaculatory duct, each vas deferens is joined at the base of the 
vesicula seminalis by a very long thin-walled accessory gland. 


Female Reproductive Organs.—The oviducts from the two ovaries (Text-fig. 19) 
are short. Posteriorly they join to form a common oviduct or vagina, along each 
side of which lies a kidney-shaped accessory gland. Just before reaching the 
base of the ovipositor, the vagina is joined by the spermatheca, and immediately 
posterior to this is the termination of a very long unpaired accessory gland. 
Finally, lying anterior to the ovipositor, and attached to the base of the common 
vaginal and spermathecal canal, are paired, much-coiled filamentous glands. The 
spermatheca is a thick-walled muscular sac which, in insects that have just 
reached the last instar, is deflated and mushroom-shaped. Later, when it fills out, 
it is as shown in the figure. The unpaired accessory gland opens between the base 
of the inner pair of valves of the ovipositor. Possibly its function is to supply 
the froth with which the nests are sealed. 


Nervous System.—The central nervous system consists of the brain, sub- 
oesophageal ganglion, and two other ganglia situated in the thorax, the hindmost 
of which passes posteriorly into a single cord, that splits into two on entering the 
abdomen. From the brain are given off laterally the big optic nerves, and from 
the anterior centre of each lobe, the ocellar nerves. The suboesophageal ganglion 
is longer though narrower than the brain, and is joined to the first thoracic 
ganglion by two stout connectives. This ganglion is separated from the last one 
by a narrow waist. There is no aperture between the two masses, the hindmost 
of which is large and pear-shaped, and consists of fused thoracic and abdominal 
ganglia. 


Taxonomic Notes. 


It has already been mentioned that the present classification of this Tribe is 
in a very unsatisfactory state. The late Professor C. F. Baker had prepared a 
tentative classification, but this was never published. Mr. W. HE. China of the 
British Museum has lent the present author a manuscript key to the Tribe, prepared 
by him in 1926. With the aid of this key and the co-operation of Mr. China, it is 
hoped that it will shortly be possible to undertake the work of revision. This will 
entail the splitting up of the present genera into a number of new ones. 

It is apparent that the larger forms at present grouped together in the genus 
Eurymela L. and S., are more specialized than the smaller ones now placed in the 
genus EHurymeloides auctt. Among the primitive characters of the latter genus, 
to which attention has already been drawn, are the simple venation, and the 
possession of eight lobes in each testis. It may be presumed also that the few 
spines and spurs borne on the hind tibiae of the larger forms, are evidence of 
specialization by reduction. Also the frons in the head of the smaller forms is 


226 THE BIOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY OF THE EURYMELINAE, 


separated by a distinct suture from the vertex or crown, though this is not so in 
the adults of the larger species. 


The author wishes to acknowledge the assistance given him in the prepara- 
tion of this paper by Dr. R. J. Tillyard, F.R.S., Mr. A. L. Tonnoir and Dr. A. J. 
Nicholson. Thanks are also due to Miss H. Barnes for helping to take, and 
preparing, the photographs reproduced on Plate xi. 


Literature Cited. 
Froceatt, W. W., 1906.—Australian Insects. 
Wuitsz, A., 1845.—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 25, p. 35. 
Le PELLETIER, A. L. M., and SERVILLE, A., 1825.—Enecyc. Méthodique, Vol. 10, p. 604. 
Myers, J. G., 1928.—Proc. Zool. Soc. London, Pt. 2, pp. 365-472. 
CHINA, W. E., 1926.—Tvrans. Ent. Soc. London, Pt. 2, pp. 289-296. 
LicenT, P. E., 1911.—Bull. Soc. Entom. de France, pp. 48-52. 
, 1912.— Bull. Soc. Entom. de France, pp. 284-286. 
PERKINS, R. C. L., 1905.—Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, Exp. Sta., Div. of Entom., 
Bull. 1, Pt. 2, pp. 75-85. 
FuNKHOuSER, W. D., 1923.—Hemiptera of Connecticut, Membracidae, p. 164. 
SINGH-PRUTHI, H., 1925.—Trans. Ent. Soc. London, Pts. 1 and 2, pp. 127-267. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XI. 

1.—Hucalyptus twig, showing the arrangement of the nests of an unidentified species 
of Hurymeloides. 

2.—Closer view of the same twig as shown in Figure 1, to show the heads of the 
emerging pronymphs. 

3.—Last stage in the process of hatching, showing three pronymphs, and a nymph 
which has just cast its pronymphal skin. 

4.—Hucalyptus twig; the young nymphs feed at the base of the new growth. 

5.—Hurymela rubrovittata A. and S. 

6, 7.—Longitudinal sections through the filter-chamber and mesenteric sac of 
Hurymela distincta Sign. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XT. 


Eurymelinae. 


TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 


DESCRIPTIONS OF FIVE NEW GENERA AND TWENTY NEW SPECIES. 
By CrEpRic DEANE, A.M.I.E.Aust. 
(Twenty-three Text-figures.) 

[Read 24th June, 1931.] 


In this second paper on the Trichopterygidae twenty new species are described 
under ten genera, five of the latter being new. Of the new species twelve are 
island forms, not yet having been found on the mainland, although one, 
Philagarica parva from Lord Howe Island, is very closely allied to P. agilis 
Deane, from the Macleay River district of New South Wales. This is another 
example of the close alliance between the faunas of this island and the continent 
of Australia. 

In the majority of the genera from the Australasian Region the metasternum 
attains the sides of the body, just as in the forms from the European Region 
those possessing this character are in the majority. Blind beetles are better 
represented in Australia than in other parts, there being one in America, none 
in Europe, Asia and Africa, whilst there are eight recorded up to date in 
Australia. 

Since the publication of the first paper I have acquired a knowledge of the 
methods of mounting insects on glass slides for the microscope, and the advantages 
of this method of examination. In this I have been greatly helped by Mr. EK. B. 
Blackbourne, who made the first slides for me. 

The author hopes in a subsequent paper to draw up a table of classification 
for the Trichopterygidae. The diversity of forms occurring suggests a complex 
classification, as in the large family Carabidae, rather than a simple one such 
as in, say, the Anthicidae. This seems to indicate great probable developments 
for the Trichopterygidae in the future. In the Carabidae there is great structural 
difference between the genera Mormolyce and Catascopus, and between Silpha- 
morpha and Notonomus; and in the Trichopterygidae the separation is equally 
pronounced between Trichopteryx and Nanosella or between Ptilium and Rodwayia. 
Contrast this situation with that in the family Anthicidae, where all the present 
genera are fairly closely allied. The localities, from which the species described 
in these pages have been collected, are comparatively few, and although some are 
widely separated geographically, yet others are neighbouring. In spite of this, 
widely different forms appear in the one locality or in adjacent ones. The large 
amount of material forwarded from the South Australian Museum contains none 
of the species appearing amongst the contributions forwarded by C. Oke; also 
the specimens from Canberra, per Miss Winifred Kent Hughes, contain. two 
of Ptenidium, which genus has not appeared in either of the other two collections. 

The true Trichopteryx occurs in Australia and adjacent islands. These forms 


conform closely to the set of characters laid down by authors in their descriptions 
H 


228 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


for the genus. There are, however, superficial distinctions between the 
Trichopteryx fauna of this region and that of the European; the majority of the 
English species are more nitid, blacker, less pubescent, and the pubescence is 
shorter than in the Australasian forms. They are also less sharply quadrate. But 
the main generic features are somewhat constant around the Globe. Now in 
Ptilium this is not so; this is a genus whose species appear to range widely with 
certain characters showing much variation; these characters are the posterior 
angles of the prothorax, the terminal segments of the antennae, and the degree 
of separation of the hind coxae, characters which are usually looked upon as 
of generic rank, and yet since no line can be drawn we must merge them all 
into one genus. 


Matthews found certain species to be so widely distributed as to occur in 
most parts of the world. Contrasted against this may be set the fact that I 
have not found any two widely separated localities yield the same species, although 
a comparatively large amount of material has been collected. Moreover, the 
differences between certain species of Trichopteryx from neighbouring localities 
in Australasia, though not always great, are nevertheless as great or greater than 
between some of the English species, e.g., 7. bovina Mots., T. atomaria De Geer, 
and T. serricans Heer. 


EPIBAPTUS, n. gen. (Text-fig. 1.) 


Somewhat elongate, lightly convex, margin much interrupted, widest across 
elytra. Head subspathulate, narrow, rather convex, front gently rounded, sides 
sinuous, genae full. Eyes large, prominent, set somewhat obliquely forward. 
Antennae long, eleven-segmented; scape rather large, barrel-shaped, pedicel invert 
obconic; 3 to 7 slender cylindric, 8 swollen at middle, 9 and 10 large, flask-shaped, 
11 acorn-shaped, 8 to 11 strongly setose, the setae being longer than the corres- 
ponding segments on which they are placed. Pronotum irregular, convex, widest 
at middle; anterior margin convex at centre, posterior margin triconcave; lateral 
Margins concave on posterior half, forming posterior angles, slightly convex on 
anterior half, with reflex margins; bifossate near base; fossae transverse. 
Scutellum depressed near base, rather long in proportion to width; anterior margin 
convex, sides concave. EHElytra sub-elliptic, convex, widest at middle, rather narrow 
at base, ample, completely concealing abdomen. Legs slender. Tibiae long, anterior 
straight, posterior slightly curved. Tarsi rather robust, tapering to apex. 


Apparently nearest to Dimorphella Matth., of Brazil, South America, from 
which it differs notably in having eyes much larger, head narrower in front, 
pronotum transverse and elytra widest at or near middle, these also covering 
abdomen. The general shape of the pronotum is only faintly suggestive of the 
American genus. 


Genotype, the following species. 


EPIBAPTUS SCUTELLARIS, Dn. sp. Text-fig. 1. 


Scarcely nitid, sparsely pubescent, punctate, cinnamomeous. Head nitid, 
dark-brown, finely punctate. Antennae, scape and pedicel light-brown; 3 and 4 
stramineous, 5 to 8 lurid, 9 to 11 dark-brown; segments 1 to 7 sparsely and 
irregularly, 8 to 11 strongly, setose; setae on 8 and 9 cream on apical, brown on 
basal half; setae on 10 and 11 almost black. Eyes silvery; facets coarse. Legs 
light-brown. Pronotum nitid, smooth, glabrous. Scutellum nitid, glabrous, lurid. 


BY C. DEANE. 229 


Elytra somewhat nitid, sparsely pilose, coarsely and irregularly punctate, walnut- 
brown, punctures shallow, hairs golden-brown; apices dehiscent. Legs light- 
brown. Length, 0:86 mm.; width, 0-38 mm. 


Habitat—Emerald, Victoria (C. Oke). Fern Tree Gully (C. Deane). 
Type in Coll. Deane. 


The metasternum reaches the sides of the body, the episterna not being 
visible. The coxae are small, the posterior pair being widely separated. The wings 
are narrow and the stalk long and slender, thickening a little gradually towards 
the base and apex. 


PARATUPOSA, n. gen. (Text-fig. 2.) 


Elongate, cylindro-elliptic, somewhat subereous, widest across elytra. Head 
subtrapeziform, prominent, largely visible from above, widest across eyes. Eyes 
visible from above, of medium size. Antennae having the club equal in length 
to the remainder of the flagellum; scape moderate, pedicel rather large, of 
peculiar form, its apex suddenly reduced a little in diameter giving the appearance 
of an extra short broad segment; segment 3 cylindric, 4 subcylindric, 5 barrel- 
shaped, 6’ nearly spherical, 3 to 6 of approximately equal thickness; 7, 8 and 9 
transverse, increasing in width; 10 and 11 very large; apical segment wide over 
basal half, suddenly reduced in diameter just beyond middle; sub-apical segment 
bi-truncate-conic, somewhat transverse, the sides of basal half only slightly taper- 
ing; length of antenna 0-22 of length of insect. Pronotum convex, widest before 
base, basal margin straight, anterior and lateral convex; posterior angles very 
obtuse, anterior obsolete. Scutellum medium, lateral margins convex. Elytra 
widest at or just before middle, lightly convex or somewhat depressed; rounded 
and dehiscent at apex, not reaching to apex of abdomen. Abdomen elongate, four 
apical tergites exposed. Coxae: anterior moderate, elliptic, contiguous; inter- 
mediate small, globular, contiguous; posterior large, flat, subdeltoid, almost con- 
tiguous. Femora: anterior narrow, of medium length; intermediate broad, 
rather short; posterior small. Tibiae and tarsi subequal. 


This genus differs from the only closely allied genus, Nanosella, from Central 
America in-having the pedicel of antenna as long as the scape and segments 7, 
8 and 9 transverse ovate-elliptic instead of scutellate, pronotum widest at one- 
third from base to apex instead of at base, elytra dehiscent at apex and exposing 
much more of the abdomen. 


Genotype, the following species. 


PARATUPOSA PLACENTIS, n. sp. (Text-fig. 2.) 


Light walnut-brown, pubescent. Head more or less narrowly rounded in front, 
convexity feeble above, sides oblique; sparsely and irregularly pubescent; dark- 
brown especially near eyes. Hyes black, rather conspicuous. Antennae pale- 
yellow, vitreous, almost glabrous. Palpi stramineous. Pronotum convex, paler on 
centre of disc, darker at all margins. Scutellum of equal shade to elytra. Elytra 
strongly pubescent, slightly darker at lateral margins, yellow at apices. Abdomen 
yellow, margins of ventral segments lightly setose, setae yellow. Pygidium fringed 
with more numerous hairs; these short. Length, 0°39 mm.; width, 0:13 mm. 


Habitat.—Mt. Lamington, N.E. Papua, 1,300 to 1,500 ft. (C. T. McNamara). 
Type in South Australian Museum, cotypes in Coll. A. M. Lea and Coll. Deane. 


230 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


IsSOLUMPIA, n. gen. (Text-fig. 3.) 


Obovate-quadrate, widest across elytra, somewhat depressed or very slightly 
convex, margin almost entire. Head medium, produced downwards at mouth, 
widely rounded in front, rather broad, convex. Eyes visible from above. Antennae 
of moderate length, 0:32 of the length of body, rather robust, strongly clavate; scape 
medium, pedicel rather large, cylindric; 3 to 6 globular, 7 to 9 conic, 10 and 11 
nearly spherical; 10 broader than long, 11 longer than broad; 9, 10 and 11 setose, 
forming the club. Palpi with terminal segment long, the broadest segment sub- 


ee 


: 


1.—EHpibaptus scutellaris, n.g. et sp. 2.—Paratuposa placentis, n.g. et sp. 
3.—Isolumpia divina, n.g. et sp. 4.—Etronia convecra, n.g. et sp. 


cylindric. Pronotum widest at base, base as wide as base of elytra; lateral and 
anterior margins convex; posterior angles well formed, anterior obsolete. 
Scutellum deltoid, not large. HElytra subquadrate, sides parallel, apices not 
dehiscent, concealing abdomen. Coxae: anterior rather large, oval, oblique, con- 
tiguous; intermediate rather small, separated; posterior large, deep, attaining 
sides of body, not contiguous. 


BY C. DEANE. 231 


Does not appear to be closely allied to any other genus; its nearest ally is 
probably Philagarica, with which it has in common the broad posterior coxae; 
it differs conspicuously in the shorter and differently constructed antennae, the 
parallel form of the body and the head and eyes being largely visible from above. 

Genotype, the following species. 


ISOLUMPIA DIVINA, n. sp. (Text-fig. 3.) 

Pubescent, light-brown. Head sparsely pubescent. Eyes black. Palpi cream- 
coloured. Antennae and underside of head and mouth parts flavous to cream. 
Upper surface of head, pronotum, scutellum and elytra uniformly brown. Meta- 
sternum brown shading to light-brown near posterior margin. Prosternum and 
mesosternum yellow. Abdomen with basal ventral segments dark-brown, apical 
segments brown. Apical angle obtuse but sharply defined. Legs flavous. Posterior 
coxae brown at centre, yellow at edges. Tarsi stramineous, slender, rather long; 
claws small. Length, 0-4 mm.; width, 0-2 mm. 

Habitat —N.E. Papua; Mt. Lamington, 1,300-1,500 ft. (C. T. McNamara). 

Type in South Australian Museum, cotypes in Coll. Deane. 


EYTRONIA, n. gen. (Text-fig. 4.) 

Oval, convex, margin entire, widely rounded in front, truncate behind. Head 
rounded in front, broad, convex, easily visible from above, widest at base, deeply 
inserted in prothorax. Eyes little visible from above, small. Antennae 11- 
segmented, rather long, of normal thickness; scape large, barrel-shaped; pedicel 
medium, cylindric; 3 and 4 cylindric, 5 and 6 subcylindric, 7 and 8 slightly 
swollen at middle, 9 to 11 forming the club, 9 globular, much smaller than 10, 10 
smaller than 11. Setae sparse, not longer than the segments on which they are 
set. Palpi: terminal segment thickened at base, filling apex of subterminal; sub- 
terminal segment barrel-shaped; next swollen at apex, forming seat for the one 
above. Pronotum very convex, widest just before base; marginal curvature 
uniform; posterior angles well defined, hardly acute. Scutellum rather large, 
lightly convex; sides a little convex. Elytra quadrate, almost rectangular, lightly 
convex; sides subparallel, apices broad, not dehiscent at apex, covering abdomen. 
Abdomen short, not spinose, strongly setose. Metasternum not reaching sides of 
body; episterna widening posteriorly. Coxae: anterior subglobular, medium, 
contiguous; intermediate subtriangular, rather small, almost contiguous; posterior 
subtriangular, rather small, remote. Legs robust. Wings: breadth of membrane 
normal. 

Allied to Trichopteryx, which it resembles in general form, structure of 
antennae, underside of head and mouth parts, the disposition of prosternum 
and the shape of the anterior and intermediate legs. It is clearly separated from 
this genus, however, by the metasternal episterna, which are more suggestive of 
Actinopterye and Neotrichopteryz, and also by the posterior coxae and the apex 
of abdomen. 

Genotype, the following species. 


ETRONIA CONVEXA, n. sp. (Text-fig. 4.) 

Nitid, setose, dark-brown and yellow. Head black, hairs or setae abundant, 
standing upright. Eyes black. Antennae: scape and pedicel yellow; extreme edge 
of apex of pedicel reddish-brown; flagellum cream-coloured. Pronotum very dark- 
brown, pale at posterior angles; lightly, irregularly and sparsely setose; smooth, 


232 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


nitid. Scutellum brown, highly nitid, glabrous. Elytra yellow, transparent; the 
setae white. Legs yellow, setose, rather robust. Abdomen short, dark-brown. 
Length, 0°67 mm.; width, 0-43 mm. 

Habitat.—Stewart River, Queensland (Hale and Tindale). 

Type in South Australian Museum. 


ACTINOPTERYX COLOSSUS, n. sp. (Text-figs. 5, 6, 7.) 


Obovate, widest across pronotum, convex, dark-brown, pubescent. Head rather 
narrow, convex, black, pilose; somewhat nitid; clypeus slightly marginate. Eyes 
visible from above, rather small, silvery. Antennae long, 0:55 of length of body, 
slender, not clavate, setose; scape somewhat short, pedicel rather large, sub- 


5-7.—Actinopteryx colossus, n. sp. 


cylindric, yellow, darker near apex, apex rounded; segment 3 pale-yellow, 4 to 8 
lurid, 3 to 6 long, cylindric, slender; 7 to 8 barrel-shaped; 9 to 11 grey, rather 
swollen in middle. Palpi with the globular segment ovoid, terminal normal. 
Pronotum widest just before base, rather narrow in front, convex, pilose, dark- 
brown, coarsely rugose, light-brown on posterior angles, anterior angles almost 
obsolete, posterior acute. Scutellum normal, sides concave, hardly depressed, 
not easily visible, rather concealed by pilosity. Elytra widest at base, broad at 
apices, somewhat depressed, dehiscent at apex, dark-brown, paler at apices, 
—pubescent, finely rugose, hairs white, yellowish-brown at apices. Legs deep-yellow. 
Abdomen dark-brown. Wings: stalk long, narrow, swollen at base. Length, 0-9 
mm.; width, 0°52 mm. 
Habitat—Noumea, New Caledonia (A. M. Lea). 


The mesosternal carina is straight and narrow and elevated, the posterior 
margin of metasternal episternum not reaching side. Metasternum reaching 
nearly to sides of body, posterior margin deeply excavated for insertion of coxae; 
intercoxal portion also deeply excavated. The coxae are moderately distant, deep 
in proportion to width, subtriangular, and not nearly reaching to sides. 

The description has been rather full, including details which might be 
looked upon as of generic importance only, because it is realized that there may 
ultimately arise a difference of opinion regarding the proper genus in which to 


BY C. DEANE. 233 


place this species. It differs from Trichopteryzr in form, wings, antennae, coxae, 
mmetasternum, etc., and from the true Actinopteryr in the metasternal episterna 
being visible and even conspicuous. 


ACTINOPTERYX HERCULES, n. sp. (Text-figs. 8, 9, 10.) 


Oval, highly convex, blotchy-brown, pubescent, widest across pronotum. Head 
nearly black, somewhat nitid, broad. Eyes black, a little prominent. Antennae 
rather small; scape and pedicel a little flattened, reddish-brown; flagellum lurid; 
segments 9, 10 and 11 forming the club; 8 not swollen. Pronotum scarcely 
nitid, pubescence very irregular, hairs golden; widest a little before base; posterior 
angles normal; rectilinear portion of posterior margin extending beyond basal 
angles of scutellum; very dark on centre of disc. Scutellum rather short, well 
defined. Elytra quadrate, narrowing slightly towards apices; apices not 


8-10.—Actinopteryx hercules, n. sp. 


dehiscent. Abdomen with pygidium rather broad, exposed, not  spinose. 
Prosternum and mesosternum orange-brown, glabrous; metasternum reddish- 
brown, pilose; ventral plates of abdomen yellowish-brown, pilose. Metasternal 
episterna visible, parallel; mesosternal intercoxal process and post coxae 
trichopterygiform. Legs yellowish-brown, posterior rather small. Wing-stalk 
short, thick, slightly curved. Length, 1:12 mm.; width, 0°66 mm. 

Habitat——Ourimbah, N.S.W. (A. M. Lea). 

Type in Coll. Lea, cotypes in Coll. Deane and South Australian Museum. 

Owing to the general form of the insect, together with the absence of triden- 
tate pygidium, and to the inter-post-coxal margin of metasternum, this species 
has been included with Actinopteryx in preference to adding to the number of 
genera carrying only one species. The chief points of difference from the typical 
form of Actinopteryr are (1) metasternum not reaching sides of body but being 


“7 


234 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


separated by the episterna, which are conspicuous though rather narrow, and 
(2) posterior coxae broad, reaching nearly to sides. 


TRICHOPTERYX FLAVIPENNIS, n. sp. (Text-fig. 11.) 

Oval-quadrate, widest across prothorax, lightly convex, pilose, hardly nitid. 
Head somewhat narrowly rounded in front, convex, black, the hairs brown at 
centre, black at sides. Eyes scarcely visible from above, black. Antennae hairy; 
scape and pedicel large, yellow; scape barrel-sShaped, pedicel cylindric; segments 
3 to 11 dark-brown; 3 to 8 slender, subcylindric; 9 and 10 rather large, ovoid; 10 
much larger than 9; 11 elliptic. Pronotum sparsely pilose, black, rather nitid; 
posterior angles dark-brown. Scutellum glabrous, rugose, black. Elytra strongly 
pilose, somewhat depressed, flavous, opaque; apices transverse. Wings robust, 
membrane cream-coloured, strongly marked, veins brown, marginal ciliae dark- 
brown. Pygidium exposed, faintly trispinose, hairy. Legs yellow. Length, 0-92 
mm.; width, 0-56 mm. 

Habitat.—Ovalau, Fiji Islands (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum, cotype in Coll. Deane. 

Does not appear to be closely allied to any other described species. 


TRICHOPTERYX SYDNEYENSIS, n. sp. (Text-fig. 12.) 

Widely obovate to subquadrate, widest equally across prothorax and elytra, 
somewhat depressed, strongly pilose, ferrugineous. Head broad, widely rounded 
in front, rather deeply set in prothorax, largely visible from above. Eyes cream- 
coloured, scarcely visible from above, rather small. Antennae: scape and pedicel 
large, yellow; flagellum very slender, cream-coloured; apical segment stramineous 
to hoary. Prothorax widest just behind middle; lateral margins unusually convex 
near centre; anterior angles obtuse, posterior slightly acute. Scutellum normal 
or rather small; lateral margins straight. Elytra widest near middle, lateral 
margins convex; posterior lateral angles widely rounded, medial slightly rounded, 
somewhat dehiscent at apex; depressed, strongly pilose, ferrugineous. Abdomen 
faintly trispinose. Legs lurid, of medium size; intermediate and posterior tibiae 
spinose on interior margins. Length, 0-88 mm.; width, 0-48 mm. 

Habitat—Sydney, N.S.W. (per Miss Winifred Kent Hughes). 

Type in Museum of Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra. 


TRICHOPTERYX NORFOLKENSIS, n. sp. (Text-fig. 13.) 


Ovate-quadrate, very lightly convex, pubescent, dark walnut-brown, finely 
rugose, hairs pale-brown. Head medium, evenly rounded in front, convex, sparsely 
pubescent; hairs very short, irregular. Eyes inconspicuous, scarcely visible from 
above, of moderate size. Antennae rather long; scape and pedicel yellowish-brown 
tipped with dark-brown; flagellum dark-brown. Pronotum widest almost at base; 
convex, margins lightly curved, posterior angles normal; slightly darker than 
elytra. Scutellum sharply defined, side margins curved; slightly darker than 
elytra, nearly as dark as pronotum. Elytra quadrate, lightly depressed, trans- 
parent at apical margin; pubescence very decumbent, strongly parallel. Wings 
dark-brown. Legs orange-yellow. Length, 0:64 to 0-74 mm.; width, 0°36 to 0-42 mm. 

Habitat.—Norfolk Island (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum, cotypes in Colls. Lea and Deane. 

Compared with 7. australica Deane, on specimens mounted in canada balsam 
on glass slides, the two insects respond differently when subjected to the same 


BY C. DEANE. 235 


treatment for clarification, removal of oils and moisture, etc. The body substance 
appears more robust, much less transparent, and yet the wing Membranes are 
much clearer, being practically devoid of markings. 


N ¢ 
12 15 
11.—Trichopteryx flavipennis, n. sp. 12.—T. sydneyensis, Nn. sp. 
3.—T. norfolkensis, n. sp. 14.—T. walkomi, n. sp. 


15.—T. jocosa, n. sp. 


TRICHOPTERYX CERVINA, DT. SD. 


Ovate-square, convex, hardly nitid, rugose, reddish-golden-brown, scarcely 
and faintly pubescent in parts. Head red, almost glabrous, rather narrowly 
rounded in front. Eyes silvery-pink, not prominent. Antennae orange-coloured ; 
scape short, pedicel barrel-shaped. Pronotum widest at base, darker near anterior 
margin, faintly rugose, thinly pubescent; hairs golden; posterior angles well 
formed, somewhat acute; anterior angles very obtuse. Hlytra quadrate. Abdomen 
bright-brown, pygidium exposed, tridentate, rather sharply pointed. Metathorax 
and mesothorax very nitid, almost glabrous, tan-coloured. Legs robust; coxae and 
femora yellow; tibiae and tarsi cream-coloured. Wings very transparent; mem- 
brane almost colourless with orange-coloured markings; hairs of fringe light 
golden-brown. Length, 0:75 mm.; width, 0:39 mm. : 

Habitat.—Sydney, N.S.W. (per Miss Winifred Kent Hughes). 

Type in Museum of Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra. 

Differs from T. australica Deane, in having head shorter and more narrowly 
rounded in front; posterior angles of pronotum sharper but not longer; surface 
rugose; colour as described. The colour difference between the two species as 


236 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


given in the descriptions is not due to immaturity of the specimen used for the 
new species. I have taken large numbers of T. australica Deane in all stages of 
maturity, and they shade from creamy-straw colour, through livid and light 
walnut-brown, to the standard shade, without any tint of red. 


TRICHOPTERYX WALKOMI, n. sp. (Text-fig. 14.) 


Oval-quadrate, lightly convex, black, somewhat nitid, sparsely pubescent, hairs 
hoary, finely granulate. Head broad, somewhat narrowly rounded in front, gently 
sloping on forward declivity, convex at sides, black, hardly nitid, scarcely pubes- 
cent. Eyes inconspicuous, but just visible from above. Pronotum subquadrate, 
widest at base, sides subparallel, posterior angles acute; black, nitid, sparsely 
pubescent, finely granulose. Scutellum rather large, clearly defined; side margins 
rectilinear. Elytra quadrate, parallel, scarcely dehiscent, depressed, black, 
pubescent. Prosternum with episterna and epimera distinct. Mesosternal inter- 
coxal process a long narrow sharp point. Coxae: anterior large, globular, yellow, 
semitransparent; intermediate depressed, black; posterior very thin, broad, trans- 
parent. Femora light-brown; anterior medium, intermediate broad. Length, 0-72 
mm.; width, 0-45 mm. 

Habitat— Sydney, N.S.W. 

Type in Museum of Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra. 

This species differs from 7’. australica Deane in having head shorter, pronotum 
more quadrate, posterior angles more acute and lateral margins of pronotum less 
convex near base; pedicel of antenna broader at apex. From JT. norfolkensis, 
n. sp., it can be distinguished by form broader, pronotum more quadrate, lateral 
margins of scutellum rectilinear, apices of elytra less oblique. 


TRICHOPTERYX JOCOSA, n. sp. (Text-fig. 15.) 

Oval-rectangular, convex, black, strongly pilose, widest at the base of pro- 
notum. Head moderately visible from above, strongly pilose, dark-brown, setae 
very thick, black; front moderately produced, anterior side marginal corners 
flattened, margins raised; mouth produced downwards, palpi globular, segment 
very large ovoid, stem or supporting and apical segments very slender. Hyes 
moderate, just visible from above. Antennae rather long to moderate; first 
segment concealed from above, first and second segments cylindro-conical, expand- 
ing slightly towards apex; 3, 4, 5 slender, cylindric; 6, 7, 8 somewhat barrel- 
shaped to sub-cylindric; 8 conic, 9, 10 oval-elongate. Scape and pedicel lurid, 
3 to 8 stramineous, club grey. Pronotum widest at the base, side and front, 
margins convex, basal margin strongly concave at the sides, slightly concave at 
the middle, hind angles acute. Scutellum large, wide, triangular, yellow; anterior 
margin slightly concave, side margins straight. HElytra yellow near base, remainder 
brown; thickly pubescent, slightly tapering, widest at the base, posterior lateral 
angles greatly rounded, medial posterior angles not acute, not dehiscent at apex. 
Pygidium exposed, pointed obtusely, not tridentate. Legs light-brown. Wings: 
membrane narrow, marked with black; hairs of fringe black, 3-4 times as long 
as the width of membrane at its widest part. Length, 0-76 mm.; width, 0-42 mm. 

Habitat—Mt. Lamington, N.E. Papua (C. T. McNamara), 1,300-1,500 ft. 

Type in South Australian Museum. 

Differs from the typical form of Trichopteryx to such an extent that I was 
considering proposing a new genus to receive it. The notable features are head 
with broader front, its base unconformable with outline of prothorax, eyes more 


BY C. DEANE. 237 


visible from above than in the type of the genus; the pronotum also is more 
convex in front. The pygidium is particularly hairy, but the tridentate forma- 
tion is visible with difficulty. The posterior tibiae are larger than usual. 


MYRMECOTRICHIS ACUTANGULA, 0. sp. (Text-fig. 16.) 


Ovate, somewhat depressed, walnut-brown, very pubescent. Head very dark, 
slightly pilose on anterior, strongly nitid on posterior, half of upper surface. Eyes 
rather small, black. Antennae grey, scape and pedicel lurid, the latter furnished 
with a large seta on anterior margin of apex. Pronotum with posterior angles 
lurid, strongly formed, acute; pubescence very fine and short. Scutellum of 
moderate size, slightly darker than elytra, distinguishable with difficulty owing 
to pubescence. Elytra finely granulate, quadrate, slightly tapering; apices some- 
what lurid. Abdomen with pygidium exposed; dentations obsolete. Length, 0-81 
mm.; width, 0-45 mm. 

Habitat.—Vanua Lili, Fiji Islands (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum. 

Owing to this description having been drawn up from a single specimen, 
and that from a remote locality, the author has deemed it inadvisable to mutilate 
the insect further. The head is severed from the body and the prothorax is 
twisted at a considerable angle to the body. Moreover, I do not think it wise to 
mount a unique type specimen in balsam for a slide, as the original appearance 
of the creature is thereby to some extent lost. For these reasons the amount of 
detail given is rather meagre. The only other species of this genus is 
M. aequatorialis Motschulsky from Central America, from which the new species 
appears to differ in having antennae more slender, abdomen less exposed and 
elytra much less tapering; the upper surface is flattened instead of being strongly 
convex, and pubescent instead of nitid. Many other differences exist to make 
the new species strongly dissimilar to the old one. 


16 


16.—Myrmecotrichis acutangula, n. sp. 17.—Neotrichopteryx grandelytra, n.g. et sp. 


NEOTRICHOPTERYX, n. gen. (Text-fig. 17.) 

Subquadrate or widely obovate, somewhat depressed, very little wider across 
prothorax than elytra. Head largely visible from above, deeply set in prothorax, 
widely rounded in front, broad, convex above. Eyes rather small, easily visible 
from above. Antennae of medium length and form; scape large; pedicel smaller, 
pitcher-shaped; segments 3 to 6 slender, cylindric; 7, 8 and 9 slender, elongate- 


238 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


elliptic; 10 large, nearly spherical; 11 acorn-shaped, large; clothing sparse. Palpi 
prominent; stem slender, curved, club large, globular; apical segment long, slender, 
with a stout spine arising at base. Pronotum widest before base, convex; anterior 
and lateral margins convex; posterior angles not acute, anterior angles obsolete. 
Scutellum wide, triangular, side margins slightly concave. Elytra rather large, 
quadrate, not concealing apex of abdomen. Prosternal episterna and epimera 
distinct. Mesosternal process mucronate. Metasternum not attaining sides of 
body; metasternal episterna very conspicuous. Legs moderate, posterior rather 
small; anterior and intermediate coxae almost globular, contiguous, posterior sub- 
triangular, remote. Tarsi equal, claws normal. Abdomen with six visible ventral 
segments. 


This genus differs from Trichopteryx in having 9th antennal segment scarcely 
larger than 8th, pedicel narrower than scape, posterior angles of pronotum not 
acute, elytra expanded at apex, metasternal episterna very conspicuous and 
sharply out of plane with metasternum and extending some way over coxae. The 
posterior coxae are smaller. Also in the genotype species the eyes are smaller 
and set more outwards, more easily visible from above, and the apex of abdomen 
is faintly quinque- instead of tri-spinose. 

Genotype, the following species. 


NEOTRICHOPTERYX GRANDELYTRA, n. Sp. (Text-fig. 17.) 


Chestnut-brown, nitid, finely and irregularly punctate, pubescent. Head light- 
brown; punctures very fine and close; hairs short and sparse. LHyes black. 
Antennae: scape and pedicel lurid, flagellum stramineous. Pronotum with a 
very fine pattern of punctation or honeycombing superimposed by coarse irregular 
punctures; hairs pointing in all directions. Hlytra dark-brown, except at edges, 
especially apices, which are almost lurid and diaphanous; the fine punctation 
almost obsolete, the coarse punctures pronounced; hairs, although irregularly 
planted, are all pointing backwards; apices of elytra broad, posterior margins 
forming an obtuse reentrant angle. Legs lurid. Ventral surface of body light- 
brown, except metasternum and its episterna, which are ferrugineous. Length, 
0-82 mm.; width, 0-42 mm. 


Habitat.—Lord Howe Island (summit of Mt. Gower; A. M. Lea). 


Type in South Australian Museum, cotypes in Colls. Lea, Deane, National 
Museum. 


r PTILIUM TORRESENSIS, n. sp. (Text-fig. 18.) 


Elliptico-rectangular, widest across elytra, somewhat depressed, scarcely opaque, 
pubescent, brown. Head rather long, widely rounded in front, pubescent, hardly 
nitid, dark-brown. Byes rather small, black. Palpi maxillary with terminal 
segment long, slender, faintly curved; segment 3 subspheroidal. Antennae rather 
short, 0-42 of length of body; scape normal to rather large, pedicel narrower, 
tapering to apex; 3 to 8 slender. and rather short; 9 large, as large as 10; 11 invert 
acorn-shaped. Pronotum widest at middle; lateral margins very convex at 
middle, lightly convex near anterior angles, concave near posterior angles, these 
rectangular; pubescent, brown. Scutellum normal. Elytra widest just before 
centre, subparallel, rather broad across apices, scarcely dehiscent; pubescent, 
brown. Wings: membrane colourless; central vein and hair fringes black. 
Abdomen completely cnhvering elytra; six visible ventral segments, 4th with a 


BY C. DEANE. 239 


broad tuft of hairs along centre of posterior margin. Mesosternum with inter- 
coxal process rather long. Metasternum with intercoxal piece broad, widely 
excavated on posterior margin. Coxae: anterior contiguous, somewhat globular; 
intermediate contiguous, deeply set, subdepressed; posterior broad, rather distant. 
Femora: anterior and intermediate broad, posterior small. Tibiae and tarsi 
medium. Length, 0-6 mm.; width, 0-28 mm. 

Habitat.—Murray Island, Torres Straits (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum; cotypes in Colls. Deane and South 
Australian Museum. 

Note.—Beetle emerging from chrysalis is on card beside centre specimen 
(type). 

This species differs from P. simsoni Matth. in having the ninth segment of 
the antenna unusually large, being practically as large as the tenth, and thus 
forming with this and the terminal one a three-segmented club. The head is 
shorter and the eyes smaller. The base of the pronotum near the angles is not 
oblique; apices of elytra less rounded and the pygidium not visible from above. 
The general form is slightly more parallel. ; 

In all the species described herein under the genus Ptilium, the form is more 
parallel and rectangular, the surface more depressed or fiat on top and the 
pronotum wider in proportion, being nearly as wide as elytra, than in the 
European species of which I have examples, viz., P. myrmecophilum Allib., P. 
foveolatum Allib. and P. trisulcatum Aube. 


PTILIUM FLAVOTERMINUM, n. sp. (Text-fig. 19.) 


Elongate, parallel, depressed, opaque, coarsely punctate, sparsely clothed with 
a fine, very short, white pubescence, walnut-brown, elytra yellow at apices. Head 
black, large, widely rounded in front, wide at base. Hyes somewhat narrow above, 
silvery. Antennae clothed with very short hairs, yellow; scape and pedicel darker 
at apices, scape of normal length, pedicel rather longer; segment 3 short, small, 
conic, 4 to 7 long slender cylindric; 8 and 9 small, elliptic; 10 and 11 large, ovoid. 
Pronotum lightly convex, sides evenly curved, anterior angles obtuse, posterior 
angles obsolete, basal margin convex at centre. Scutellum as long as wide, side 
margins concave near apex. Elytra subparallel, the yellow colour of apices 
shading into the main dark-brown about one-fifth from apices, entirely concealing 
abdomen. Legs light-brown. Length, 0-6 mm.; width, 0-2 mm. 

Habitat—Noumea, New Caledonia (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum. 

The species differs from P. torresensis, n. sp., in being still more parallel, 
elongate-rectangular. The antennal club is two-segmented as in P. simsoni Matth., 
but the segments are more pointed anteriorly. The head is longer and the hind 
angles of the pronotum are obsolete. The species is further distinguished by the 
yellow apices to the elytra. The pronotum is widest at the middle and the elytra 
are widest at middle, the pronotum being scarcely wider than the elytra. 


PTILIUM LATUM, n. sp. (Text-figs. 20 and 21.) 

Ovate-quadrate, broad, subdepressed, widest across elytra, bay-brown, lightly 
setose. Head large, rounded in front, convex, glabrous, nitid. Eyes not easily 
visible from above. Palpi small, inconspicuous, cream-coloured, terminal segment 
slender. Antennae not heavily clothed with hairs, flavous; scape large, wider than 
pedicel; pedicel rather long, narrower at apex than at base; segment 3 small, 


240 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS, 


obconic; 4 to 7 slender, cylindric; 8 and 9 elliptic, 9 rather larger than 8; 10 
ovoid, larger than 9; 11 ovate-elliptic. Pronotum finely pubescent, lightly convex, 
widest just before middle; anterior and posterior margins straight, side margins 
coneave except near base; anterior angles obsolete, posterior angles right angles. 
Scutellum deltoid, finely rugose. Elytra quadrate, setose, widest at middle, sides 
lightly curved, apices broad, apical outer angles rounded, exposing two abdominal 
tergites. Prosternum with episterna and epimera appearing. Mesosternum with 
intercoxal process prominent. Metasternum large, attaining sides of body; 
episterna and epimera invisible; posterior margin lamellate at centre, finely 


Se 
N 


NL 
d mS f 


‘SQ 
% & 
4 
18.—Ptilium torresensis, n. sp. 19.—P. flavoterminum, n. sp. 
20, 21.—P. latwm, n. sp. 22.—Ptenidium hughesae, n. sp. 


23.—Ptenidium otfordensis, n. sp. 


excavated on lateral portions for reception of coxae. Abdomen with six visible 
ventral segments. Anterior and intermediate coxae normal, nearly spherical, 
contiguous; posterior coxae subtriangular, remote. Legs rather robust; posterior 
tibiae extending beyond apex of pygidium. Length, 0-83 mm.; width, 0-4 mm. 

Habitat—Viti Levu, Fiji Islands (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum. 

Distinguished from all other species of the genus by its large size, broad 
form, elytra exposing the abdomen, and the unusual structure of the club of 
antenna. A notable departure from Matthews’ figure, given in his Monograph, 
presumed to be typical of the genus, is the wide separation of the posterior 
coxae, a character which in itself is almost universally considered to be of 
more than specific significance. I have included this species under the genus on 


BY C. DEANE. 241 


account of its pronotal affinity. The pronotum, however, has the posterior and 
anterior margins peculiarly devoid of curvature. 


PHILAGARICA PARVA, 0. SDP. 

Oval, convex, brown, translucent, smooth, widest near base of elytra, sparsely 
pubescent, margin entire. Head deeply inserted. Clypeus with anterior margin 
straight. Eyes normal. Antennae rather short, 0-42 of length of body, 9th segment 
small, terminal one largest. Palpi with the thick segment irregular shaped, the 
one preceding greatly swollen at its apex, apical segment rather thick, lightly 
curved, dagger-shaped; subapical minute, invisible. Pronotum highly nitid, 
glabrous; lateral margins lightly curved; posterior angles not acute. Scutellum 
wide in proportion to length, glabrous. Hlytra pubescent, tapering. Abdomen 
acute at apex. Metasternum and first four ventral segments of abdomen dark; 
metasternum rugose. Intercoxal process acute at apex, sides concave. Anterior 
coxae large, spheroidal; intermediate small. Length, 0-46 mm.; width, 0-27 mm. 

Habitat—Lord Howe Island (A. M. Lea). 

Type in South Australian Museum, cotypes in Coll. Deane. 

The species is closely allied to P. agilis Deane, from which it differs in having 
(1) metasternum and first four ventral segments of abdomen black; metasternum 
rugose; (2) intercoxal process more acute at apex, sides concave rather than 
parallel; (3) clypeus with anterior margin straight; (4) pronotum with lateral 
margins less convex; posterior angles not acute; (5) apex of abdomen more 
acute; (6) antennae with 9th segment very small; (7) elytra more pubescent; 
(8) scutellum wider in proportion to length; and (9) size much smaller, the 
largest of the series being much smaller than the smallest example of the kindred 
species. 


PTENIDIUM HUGHESAE, n. sp. (Text-fig. 22.) 


Elliptic-oval, widest across elytra, highly convex, nitid, without punctation, 
mahogany-brown. Head black, nitid, widely rounded in front, easily visible from 
above, convex, widest across eyes. Eyes black, easily visible from above. Antennae 
0-49 of length of body; pedicel large, barrel-shaped; segments 3 to 8 slender, 
cylindric; 9 slender, torpedo-shaped; 10 and 11 large; hairs or setae on 9, 10 and 
11 rather long, black; scape and pedicel light-brown, stem of flagellum lurid, club 
dark-brown. Pronotum widest a little before base, highly convex, highly nitid, 
dark-mahogany; anterior and lateral margins convex; posterior angles obtuse, 
anterior obsolete. Scutellum rather wide, short, indistinct; lateral margins con- 
cave. HElytra widest at one-third from base, narrowing to apex; apices rounded, 
searcely dehiscent; very convex, mahogany-brown. Wings dark-brown; hair fringes 
long. Legs light-brown. Length, 0°87 mm.; width, 0-48 mm. 

Habitat.—Otford, N.S.W. (per Miss Winifred Kent Hughes). 

Type in Museum of Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra. 

I have not seen an authentic example of P. lawsoni Matth., from New 
Zealand, but should say from the available literature that the above new species 
would resemble it in certain features, e.g., size, colour, clothing, and to a slight 
extent in general form and in punctation; but that it would differ markedly in the 
antennal club being two-segmented, whereas in Tonnoir’s figure in Tillyard’s text- 
book, P. lawsoni is represented as having a three-segmented club; also in wider 
head, slightly sinuous base to the pronotum, and in the apices of the elytra the 
present new species stands distinct. Moreover the reflexed margin over the eyes 


242 TRICHOPTERYGIDAE OF AUSTRALIA AND ADJACENT ISLANDS. 


and antennae, attributed by Matthews to the New Zealand form, is scarcely a 
feature in P. hughesae. 


PTENIDIUM OTFORDENSIS, n. sp. (Text-fig. 23.) 


Widely obovate, widest across elytra, convex, nitid, without punctures, black, 
sparsely lanate. Head black, nitid, widely rounded in front, easily visible from 
above. Antennae 0-47 of length of body; pedicel large, obovoid; segments 3 and 4 
slender, somewhat ellipsoidal; 5 to 9 slender, cylindric; 10 and 11 large, 10 
thickest near base, slender towards apex; 10 and 11 sparsely clothed with bristles; 
scape and pedicel light-brown, flagellum dark-brown. Pronotum widest near middle, 
convex, nitid, black; anterior margin faintly, lateral margins more strongly 
convex; posterior angles obtuse, anterior almost obsolete. Scutellum small, deltoid, 
indistinct. Elytra rather broad, obovate, convex, widest just before middle, apices 
rather broad, a little dehiscent; sparsely lanate, nitid, with broad shallow punctures 
widely separated and irregularly placed. Legs lurid. Length, 0-95 mm.; width, 
0-52 mm. 

Habitat.—Otford, N.S.W. (per Miss Winifred Kent Hughes). 

Type in Museum of Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra. 

Differs from P. hughesae, n. sp., in form wider, especially at apex of elytra, 
being almost subquadrate; prothorax widest near middle instead of near base; 
subapical segment of antenna produced anteriorly; colour somewhat darker; 
clothing as described. 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. II. 
NERRIMUNGA CREEK. 
By FRANK A. CRAFT, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 
(Plates xii-xiii; four Text-figures.) 


[Read 24th June, 1931.] 


Foreword and Acknowledgments. 


This paper extends the area considered in the first of the series, and embraces 
an area of,country lying to the west of the Shoalhaven River. No physiographic 
work had previously been undertaken in the area drained by Nerrimunga Creek 
and its tributaries, but means of communication by means of roads and tracks 
are good, and only the more dissected parts present any difficulties of access. The 
writer wishes to thank Mr. and Mrs. G. McKane, of Windellama, for their hos- 
pitality during the course of fieldwork. Mr. McKane also acted as guide on 
occasions, and his intimate knowledge of the country was of great assistance 
to the author. 

Maps used in connection with the work were given by the Lands Department, 
and formed an admirable basis for topographic work. The magnetic meridian 
(declination 9° 35’ H.) is used throughout the paper and, unless otherwise stated, 
all heights are in feet above sea-level. 


Area Dealt With. 


The area shown in Plate xiii is some 285 square miles, of which the greater 
part is drained by Nerrimunga Creek. There is no extensive occurrence of hori- 
zontal rocks over this district, which is formed essentially of folded sedimentary 
and metamorphic rocks which, being closely bedded and well jointed, favour the 
development of an undulating plain topography in areas of mature erosion. The 
greater part of the country here considered comes within this class, exceptions 
being provided by the gorges towards the east and higher residual hills and 
ridges on the western divide. The absence of the peneplain at 2,200 feet, so 
extensively developed to the north-east, may be directly correlated with the 
approximate absence of horizontal strata, and is a characteristic shared by the 
country further south. 


General Geology. 


Little is known of the geology of this area, and the boundaries of the various 
formations have not been determined. Devonian strata are known to exist over 
its western section, marine fossils of middle or upper Devonian age having been 
found at Tarago (fide W. S. Dun), but their eastern boundary is quite uncertain 
and they are supposed to grade into strata of Silurian age which, in turn, rest 
upon highly folded and metamorphosed Ordovician beds. The whole problem is 

I 


244 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


oe 


ans 


nO ar) 
t 


CJ Recent tolertiary 
aritt, ete. 


EPevoniar 
ISSS22urta7e 

MM 07-doviciar 
(MM Zertiary Basalt 
: Granite 


Text-fig. 1—Geological Sketch of the Area. The divisions must be taken 
as broad generalizations only. (After official State map of 1914.) 


greatly obscured by great surface weathering in all places except the newly-eroded 
gorges, and by the accumulation of rock waste over the eastern part of the area. 
For the purposes of this paper, a general classification can be made under the 
headings “metamorphic” and “sedimentary”. 

a. The Metamorphic Series—The Ordovician beds observed near Tallong 
continue southward, and their strike swings to 30 degrees east of magnetic north 
in places along Nerrimunga Creek. In the gorge of the Shoalhaven, erosion has 
revealed considerable lateral movement so that, for short distances, the strike is 
almost east and west. The principal rock types observed are grey slates, quartz- 
schists and massive quartzites. The latter especially are intersected in places by 
great numbers of quartz veins. At higher levels the highly metamorphosed 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 245 


character of these strata becomes modified, and bedding and joint planes become 
more closely spaced, rendering erosion an easier matter. 

These strata extend between Nerrimunga and Cowhole Creeks, in both of 
which there are some fine exposures. On the south of the former stream the 
rocks of the tableland surface consist of sandstones, shales and, in places, slates, 
but these are often obscured by surface deposits of clay, sand and grit. It is 
probable that these relatively unaltered sediments belong to the same series as 
the metamorphic strata in the gorges, but this is not certain over the whole 
area involved. (See also Woolnough, These PROCEEDINGS, xxxiy, 1909, pp. 783-84, 
for a similar case at Tallong.) 

Towards the western part of this section of the area, especially along the 
meridional course of Nadgigomar Creek, a zone of coarse sandstone is found which 
varies in colour from brown to white and light grey. It is penetrated by numerous 
narrow and irregular quartz veins, and towards Nerrimunga Creek it would appear 
to pass directly into the grey quartzites. A similar state of affairs exists elsewhere 
in the Shoalhaven Valley (see No. iv of this series, on Nerriga district, when 
published). Hast of the sandstone a series of white chert is found which forms 
much of the eastern divide of Nadgigomar Creek. It is suggested that the sand- 
stone referred to is on the western periphery of the Ordovician beds, which 
underlie newer rocks to the west (Text-fig. 1). 

With the exception of a belt of country extending southward past Blanketburn 
Trig. station, in which the sedimentary strata are in the form of a gentle 
syncline, rocks in the eastern part of the area dip steeply owing to intense 
folding. This is especially the case in the lower levels of the gorges. Physio- 
graphically, the differential hardness of the various strata is not of first-rate 
importance, as the hardest occur below the level of the tableland. Greater powers 
of resistance to erosion have led to the survival of such sections as that forming 
the Cowhole Trig. station ridge, whilst softer sedimentary rocks on the tableland 
surface have weathered deeply, and have been subjected to considerable local 
erosion in places. 

b. The Sedimentary Rocks.—About the line of the Bungonia-Windellama- 
Mayfield road a considerable change in the rocks and in the appearance of the 
landscape is noticed. The generally barren and rough topography towards the 
east gives place to smoother undulations extending westward towards the Shoal- 
haven divide on that side. The streams flow in wide, gentle valleys, which are 
constricted where bands of harder rocks cross them. 

Commencing from the east, we find a series of shales (partly altered to slate) 
and sandstones. On Windellama Creek, to the north-west of Minshull Trig. station, 
for instance, a fine-grained brown micaceous sandstone is found, which may be 
noted again on Jacqua Creek some 15 miles to the north-north-east, near Leakfield 
Trig. station. In this part a considerable folding is in evidence, but proceeding 
westward a more uniform westerly dip is noticed, which varies from 30 to 90 
degrees. Shales, fine sandstones and more occasional quartzites form the bulk 
of the rocks, and limestones have been found at intervals. Of the latter, some 
have been identified as of Devonian age, whilst those towards the eastern side 
are set down as Silurian (Carne and Jones, Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Resources, 
No. 25, 1919). The eastern limestone at Windellama beside the Bungonia-Mayfield 
road would appear to be a continuation of the beds at Bungonia. The strike 
of the former is 30 to 35 degrees east of north, and they swing over to meet the 
meridional strike of the Bungonia beds towards Inverary Park. The chances are, 


246 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


then, that a belt of Silurian strata occurs over the Ordovician, but the fact would 
not appear to have any considerable physiographic importance. 

Towards the west of the area, hardened sandstones and quartzites have 
offered considerable resistance to erosion, with the result that a series of 
monadnocks is found near the western divide, of which the most prominent 
points are occupied by the Trig. stations of Percy (2,723 feet), Bullamelita 
(2,586 feet), and Jacqua (2,433 feet). Between the first-named and the remainder 
the divide passes over a wide col (Text-fig. 3), part of which has been covered 
by Tertiary basalt. Further to the west, very considerable erosion of softer 
strata has led to the formation of the plains of Lake Bathurst and Goulburn, which 
have the heights west of Mulwaree Creek as a western boundary. 


Bullamelita gu 0 Chapman a Cowhole Ck.2T)S. Shoalhaven 
/\ x 9 


A | ea a eT SMT Re Oe | 


Text-fig. 2.—Profiles across the Shoalhaven Plain. The lines are shown on 

Plate xiii. i. Includes residuals and the higher northern section. ii. Includes 

the northern divide of Windellama Creek and part of the southern divide of 

Nerrimunga Creek. iii. Shows the lower southern section in the region of 

greatest stream activity. Tertiary basalts and bauxites are indicated. Vertical 
exaggeration = 8:8. 


Thus the western part of the area consists of rocks which are soft or only 
of a moderate resistance to erosion, varied in the west by harder strata. A 
general westerly dip of the order of 45 degrees has inhibited the formation 
of pronounced asymmetrical surface features, and extensive weathering, apparently 
carried on over a long period of time, has resulted in the accumulation of a thick 
layer of rock waste on the gentler slopes, and the general breaking up of the 
harder rocks of which the hills and ridges are composed. 

c. Surface Deposits and Residues.—The effects of late Tertiary vulcanicity may 
be observed in parts of this area, and take the form of local basalt flows, dykes, 
bauxite deposits and surface beds of contact quartzite. Of the first-named, there 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 247 


are four areas of some size (Plate xiii), the lava having generally been poured 
into shallow valleys on surfaces of low relief. Dykes are exposed principally in 
the gorges, the most notable being in the neighbourhood of Jerralong Trig. 
station, where the weathering basalt gives smooth slopes to the river (Plate xii). 

A number of the deposits of pisolitic bauxite occur on hills away from any 
known basalt flows, and the most striking occurrences near the Bungonia-Mayfield 
road stand up as mesas of small extent (Text-fig. 3). Other occurrences are on 
the top of or beside basalt flows, examples being found on the Goulburn-Windellama 
road and above Jacqua Creek. Other small occurrences besides those marked on 
the map may exist, as the country on which they might occur is forested, and the 
deposits may occupy small areas on the bushy ridges. The height above sea-level 
of those observed agrees with the limits of basaltic occurrences, varying from 
2,050 to 2,150 feet. Their physiographic value lies in giving a clue to the amount 
of erosion which has occurred in adjacent stream beds since their formation 
(Text-fig. 3), and the occurrence of bauxite deposits in close proximity at different 
elevations on the northern divide of Windellama Creek probably indicates that 
all are not of precisely the same age of formation. ' 

In considering other surface deposits, mention may again be made of the thick 
mantle of rock waste found in most parts of the area. There are also water-borne 
deposits of considerable physiographic significance occurring within definite vertical 
limits in the eastern part of the area, and on the higher levels of that part of 
the tableland there are drift sands and contact quartzites. 

Clays are found to a depth of a hundred feet or more in the drainage areas 
of Jerralong and the southern Spring Creek. They are whiter and more pure 
towards the lower limits, whilst the upper layers are impregnated with iron 
oxides and even contain layers of ironstone. These clays lie between ridges of 
sandstone whose joint planes and fractures have been indurated by a secondary 
deposit of limonite. The clays have been considerably eroded to form valleys 
of a rounded section (Text-fig. 2; Plate xii). The clays are derived from 
weathering in situ, and in part are covered by drifts of sand. 

The sand drifts are found to the east and south-east of Nadgigomar Creek 
and in the vicinity of Jerralong Trig. station, where they comprise the drift 
marked by lighter dots on the map, Plate xiii. The sands are white or grey, 
depending on the amount of vegetable matter which they contain, and consist of 
angular quartz fragments at a general altitude of 2,000 feet, although in places 
there is a considerable thickness (Text-fig. 4). Similar stretches of sand extend 
southward past Oallen ford, on the Windellama-Nerriga road, and in the present 
case the derivation might have been from south or west. Associated with a sandy 
surface about the 2,000-foot level is a series of glassy grey contact quartzites, 
the principal localities being shown in Plate xiii. Dr. W. R. Browne very kindly 
examined some of this material under the microscope, and reports it to be identical 
with the quartzites developed at the contact of late Tertiary basalts at Tallong, 
and undoubtedly of a similar origin. Further reference is made to it later in 
the paper. 

Deposits of surface grit and conglomerate are found extensively over the 
eastern part of the area, and where the occurrences are of any magnitude 
horizontal bedding is readily noticed. In the Inverary sector there is a thickness 
of 220 feet of conglomerate, sandstone, sandy shale and grit overlain by basalt; 
at Yarralaw Trig. station a thickness of 50 (?) feet of grit is overlain by bauxite; 
in the drainage areas of Windellama and Nerrimunga Creeks ferruginous grits and 


248 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


conglomerates are widely scattered about the 2,000-foot level, whilst pebbles of grey 
quartzite and white reef-quartz are found in the neighbourhood of Manton Mine 
and Black Springs Creek. All of these are associated with the uplands, and their 
position on a highly-developed surface of erosion or peneplain, together with the 
position of some above deep gorges, puts them back definitely to the pre-canyon 
period. The actual or implied association with late Tertiary basalts gives much 
of this surface material a late Tertiary age at the latest. 

In addition to these deposits, channels filled with stream drift occur to the 
east of the area. On account of their physiographic importance these can be 
considered in some detail when the nature of the Shoalhaven Plain is dealt with. 


Topography and Physiography. 

a. The Inverary Sector (Text-figs. 2 and 3; Plate xii).—The strip of country 
lying to the north of Inverary Creek consists essentially of two levels. The 
western portion rises above 2,100 feet, the highest points being the Trig. stations 
of Leakfield (2,191 feet), Chapman (2,204), Cowhole (2,204) and Inverary (2,164). 
The points rise above a dissected plain, and the three first-named owe their 
elevation to the more resistant character of the sandstones of which they are 
composed. Inverary is on a thin local basalt flow, whose maximum thickness does 
not much exceed 100 feet. The flow filling an ancient valley near Chapman Trig. 
is of a rather similar thickness. 


Perey Nadgigomar ee 


TES er eee reese eS) B77 
ease es ee eee nav anetayamers anes 
(ee haag 


Text-fig. 3.—Profiles of the Divides and the Shoalhaven Plain. The lines are 

shown on Plate xili. iv. Extends WNW. to Mulwaree Creek and Tarago, and 

embraces the southern divide. v. Shows the western divide. vi and vii are 

longitudinal profiles of the Shoalhaven Plain. Tertiary basalts and bauxites 
are indicated. Vertical exaggeration = 8:8. 


An outlying effect of the Inverary flow is a bauxite knoll to the north of 
Cowhole Trig. at 2,140 feet. According to the report of local miners, the bauxite 
is more than a surface capping, but the mesa structure indicates a previous higher 
level for the surrounding country. Hollows in the contorted strata near Cowhole 
Creek are filled by horizontal conglomerate, grit, soft sandstone and shale. The 
lowest of these beds are at 1,900 feet, and the highest rise to 2,150 (7?) feet, 


BY F. A. CRAFT, 249 


the best exposures occurring on Cowhole Creek and to the north of Washedaway 
Creek. In the former case, the beds are of light brown pebble conglomerate 
containing pebbles of quartz and quartzite up to 12 inches in diameter, and 
associated with light sandstone. The thickness of the phase is 40 feet, and the 
conglomerate is hard and massive. Above this are beds of friable sandstone and 
shale, the whole being overlain in part by the Inverary Park basalt. Pebbly 
clays containing fossil leaves have been found during mining operations under 
the conglomerate, and there is a strong probability of the beds being of late 
Tertiary age. 


On Washedaway Creek the pebbles of the conglomerate are smaller, and it 
exists aS a massive deposit between 1,980 and 2,000 feet. It is strongly impregnated 
with iron oxide, which gives a brownish or reddish appearance on weathering. 
Here again the shafts of alluvial miners have penetrated the clay below the 
conglomerate, but one does not notice pebbles in the dumps, although pebbles 
of much-decomposed porphyry are included in the Cowhole Creek clays. These 
beds contrast with the strata at the base of the Permian Upper Marine Series, 
which occur to the east of the river at an elevation of 2,300 feet. The latter 
are white or light-grey in colour, and contain rounded pieces of quartzite, quartz- 
schist, porphyry and slate set in a fine white matrix. The base rests on 
unweathered quartzites, sandstones and slates, and has an altogether different 
appearance from the sediments about the Inverary sector. Altogether there seems 
to be a clear differentiation between the two. 


The second unit of the sector consists of a dissected terrace above the Shoal- 
haven gorge. It is cut across by Cowhole Trig. ridge, to the north of which 
is a dissected plain at 1,900 feet drained by the northern Spring Creek. To the 
south of the ridge the plain is somewhat higher, but falls from 2,100 feet on the 
west to 1,850 feet above the Shoalhaven gorge immediately south of the mouth 
of Cowhole Creek. This tract forms an essentially level plain cut across by the 
level valley of Washedaway Creek flowing 200 feet below its surface, and by the 
steeper, narrower gorge of Cowhole Creek, whose sides are almost precipitous 
(Text-fig. 3). The plain surface towards the river in this southern part is strewn 
with quartz gravel and pebbles between 1,940 and 1,980 feet, whilst ferruginous 
conglomerate overlooks the junction of Cowhole Creek with the river from 1,850 
feet. Much of this material has been worked for gold, of which a little has been 
won, but it is simply a surface screening dominated from the east by the higher 
land across the river (Plate xii), and overlooked by Cowhole Trig. and the higher 
country to the west. 

Thus we find a higher erosion level rising to 2,200 feet, whilst the newer— 
but still pre-canyon—level is from 1,850 to 2,000 feet. A considerable thickness 
of horizontal material exists towards the west, but it thins out to a mere screening 
which covers parts towards the east. It would appear that the lower levels have 
been cleared of the greater part of the newer material deposited upon them, as 
the Inverary Park beds have been considerably eroded on their eastern face, and 
the incoherent material which forms the greater part of such deposits on the 
tablelands offers no great resistance to erosion. An ancient erosional level 
based on or below 1,850 feet is indicated, and the basalts preserve a surface— 
partly of erosion and partly of deposition—at 2,060 feet. 


b. The Shoalhaven River.—The general features of this stream have been 
described in the first paper of the series. Coming upstream from the junction with 


250 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


Bungonia Creek, a gentle grade is followed through the “block-up”, which lies below 
the mouth of the northern Spring Creek. Here the sides of the gorge rise sheer 
from the water’s edge, and the whole space between them is occupied by a deep 
river. Above this point the river has moved laterally in places, one result being 
the abandonment of part of its old channel on the western side above Cowhole 
Creek, the former section now forming a lagoon, from which the waters of the 
river are diverted by a great bar of quartzite except in times of high flood. In 
places the flood terrace is up to 200 yards wide, and is covered with boulders, 
amongst which Casuarinas grow. Periodical floods destroy these, so only young 
trees are Seen in such places. In other parts both sides of the gorge close in, 
making it almost impassable. At the mouth of Nerrimunga Creek there is a 
flood platform of scoured grano-diorite just above the level of the river, which is 
here interrupted by rapids. The tributary stream has carried huge blocks of 
igneous rock to the edge of the platform, one piece containing 180 cubic feet, 
but normally its volume is quite small, and it ceases to flow at times during 
the hottest months. 

Above this point a uniform rise continues; basalt dykes cross the river 
near Jerralong Trig. station and further upstream (Plate xii), and still proceeding 
southward there is a steeper section with long series of rapids which lead to the 
gentler gullies of the tableland about Oallen ford. 


The fall line of the tributary streams depends largely upon their catchment 
area, and only in the cases of Nerrimunga, Cowhole and the northern Spring 
Creeks, are the tributary gorges of any length when compared with the lengths 
of the respective streams which have eroded them. 

c. Jacqua Creek.—This stream heads on part of the higher section of the 
western divide about 2,500 feet, and also on the basalt flow on the Goulburn- 
Windellama road at 2,300 feet. Its valleys are mature to their heads, and the 
stream itself shows well developed meanders and an old profile (Plate xiii). The 
wider bends enclose areas of level land which comprise a good deal of alluvium 
and hill-wash resting on pebbles. Passing the second area of basalt the valley 
widens out until the Bungonia-Mayfield road is reached, where the stream. flats 
attain a width of 600 to 700 yards. 

The presence of a bauxite capping on either side of the valley about 2,050 
feet shows the extent of more recent erosion in the formation of this broad 
valley, whose floor is 200 feet below the bauxite. A contributing factor to this 
result has been the soft nature of the clayey rocks in which the wider parts are 
found. Proceeding, there is a great turn southward past Leakfield Trig. station. 
The stream flats have been left, and the stream is slightly entrenched in an 
undulating surface. A tributary valley in granite to the east of the Trig. station 
is broad, but it is limited on the east by rough sandstone and chert ridges and 
in this section the stream falls into a gorge, which deepens steadily to a depth 
of 500 feet at the junction of the stream with Nerrimunga Creek. 

Between Jacqua and Nerrimunga Creeks and Leake’s Gully the rough strike 
ridges persist, although they rise little above the smoother plain of the district, 
their highest points falling short of 2,100 feet (Text-fig. 3). Glassy contact 
quartzite occurs on the surface about 1,870 feet, to the north of Leake’s Gully, its 
horizon here being 200 feet below the highest point on the ridges. These are 
considerably dissected by the short lateral and transverse streams typical of 
such country, but the valleys of such tributaries as that in Leake’s Gully enter 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 251: 


Nerrimunga Creek above the fall line, their junctions are accordant, and the 
lower parts of their courses more gentle than the upper, which fall sharply from 
four linear ridges. 

Between Jacqua and Windellama Creeks the dividing ridge is broad with 
slight rises, and gullies fall gently to the main valleys. This part follows the 
local strike, and consists of sandstones. In part it appears to be a continuation of 
the Jacqua Trig. ridge, and the hill on which Percy Trig. is situated may be an 
extension of the same line, although this is not certain, as the intervening plain 
is level and deeply weathered. 


ad. Windellama Creek.—This stream flows from the western divide through a 
broad, mature valley to Windellama. Wide, shallow tributary valleys come in 
from the northern side, whilst a gentle concave plain falls to it from the south. 
After crossing the limestone near the Windellama-Mayfield road, the stream 
passes through a trench 100 feet deep, but emerges into an undulating valley 
which is followed until the meanders are reached near Minshull Trig. station. Then 
the stream swings against bluffs of fine brown sandstone, whilst some of the bends 
enclose level plains. At the junction with Nadgigomar Creek at 1,800 feet a sharp 
trench exists, and marks the end of Windellama Creek proper, the combined 
stream being known as Nerrimunga Creek. 

A feature of some interest exists by the roadside at Windellama, where a light 
grey sandstone associated with the limestone is found to have been silicified to 
a glassy quartzite. This follows the strike of the sandstone, and the lower limit 
of the altered zone is found by the roadside at 1,960 feet. The alteration was 
doubtless effected from a slightly higher level, and probably represents one result 
of the late Tertiary lava flows. 


e. Budjong Creek.—This is, perhaps, the most interesting stream of the 
Nerrimunga drainage system, as its drainage area embraces the most varied 
topography. It rises in the hardened sandstones at Percy Trig. station, and 
flows for a short distance over gently-falling plains about 2,300 feet. Here it 
is a strike stream, but passing eastward from the influence of the high country, 
its course lies through a mature valley, where it is joined by Conner’s Creek 
(the first from the left), about 2,000 feet, the latter also coming from a mature 
landscape. The deeply weathered and gentle slopes about this junction are smooth 
and clear and of a clayey nature, but near the Windellama-Mayfield road the valley 
narrows as it crosses harder sandstone and quartzite, and a bank on the left side 
rises 100 feet above the stream. 

Passing the road at 1,930 feet, these conditions of topography continue into 
slates and sandstones, with very gentle slopes on the right side of the stream 
lying opposite the higher left bank. Above the junction with Nadgigomar Creek 
is a great “S” bend representing a somewhat incised meander. Against the first 
part of the “S” at 1,850 feet there is a low divide to the north only 40 feet 
above the stream; this divide and the slightly higher ridge continuing eastward 
are covered with pebbles, which have been cemented on the higher levels to form 
a ferruginous conglomerate, and probably represent Tertiary drift with no immedi- 
ate connection with the modern stream. There are also occasional patches of glassy 
contact quartzite on this ridge, but more notable occurrences are found northward 
across the next small stream, where they occur about the 2,000-foot level. 

The second part of the ‘“S” encloses an ironstone knoll rising to 1,970 
feet, but across the stream a gentle plain is lower. Budjong Creek is swinging 

a 


252 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


against the outer bends and is removing a flood terrace some 15 feet above 
summer water level. This alluvium rests on a soft planed-off terrace of sandstone 
and slate. Looking up the valley from the-eminence referred to, it is seen to be 
broad and to lie very little below the level of the eastward-falling plain, which 
rises evenly on to the low western divide to the north-east of Percy Trig. (Text- 
fig. 2). Further east the ridges show a very even skyline from 2,000 to 2,050 feet, 
although a false appearance of height is given by the slopes leading up from 
Nadgigomar Creek. Budjong Creek falls into Nadgigomar Creek through an 
undulating valley. 

f. Nadgigomar Creek.—The head of this stream is in the hills near Percy Trig., 
and its upper course lies in an early mature valley down the slopes. On 
approaching the Windellama-Mayfield road the valley widens, and more extensive 
alluvial flats up to 300 yards in width appear. Continuing downstream, the creek 
is found to flow with a gentle fall from 100 to 150 feet below the surface of the 
plain. This section is found in more resistant rocks than is Budjong Creek, so 
the valley is narrower and the flats more restricted. Gentle slopes and occasional 
wide tributary gullies lead down from the adjacent level plain on either side. 


Wider alluvial flats are found above the Nerriga road up to the northward 
bend, but below the road the higher plain again closes in, and the valley narrows. 
In this section the grade is slight, and an old dam built for a mining water 
supply still holds back a considerable body of water. At the dam site an old 
channel has been exposed by recent erosion, and Tertiary quartzite is found as low 
as 1,910 feet, apparently transgressing the drift area (Text-fig. 4). The eastern 
ridges continue to rise from the water’s edge, but near the dam on the west is 
an extensive level patch of sand drift. 

The gentle fall of the stream continues, and once again the higher plain 
approaches from the west, to retreat in a series of gentle undulations as Budjong 
Creek is approached. The eastern ridges are also considerably eroded. Tertiary 
quartzite continues along the valley at intervals, generally being 50 feet above 
the modern stream, and the junction of Budjong Creek is marked by flats at 1,850 
feet which contain rounded pieces of this material. Below here the valley again 
narrows in sympathy with harder strata, although the grade is still slight. 

Passing the eastward road from Windellama and turning westward towards 
Minshull Trig., the left side is fairly steep and the right, though much gentler, 
is sandy and very barren. The trench at the junction with Windellama Creek 
has already been noticed, but immediately below the junction on the right side a 
limited flood terrace is found at 1,810 feet—some 15 feet above the stream. 
From the grade of the stream and the topography of the valley which it has 
eroded, it will be seen that a mature valley has been carved in a plain surface 
which falls gently eastward, the width of the valley and the gradient of its 
sides having been conditioned by the resistance to erosion of the strata concerned. 


g. Nerrimunga Creek.—The course of the main stream falls easily and 
naturally into two sections according to its gradient (Plate xiii). For the first 
4% miles the stream flows in a trench 200 feet deep cut in a sensibly level stretch 
of land. For the greater part of this distance the creek is wide and deep, 
but the slight fall between reaches is marked by rocky stretches of channel. 
At the junctions with small tributaries there are restricted areas of undulating 
valley topography, but elsewhere the sides of the valley are steep, as the tributaries 
have selected the softer strata in eroding their courses, whilst resistant meta- 


BY F, A. CRAFT. 2 


morphic rocks occupy the intervening sections. Below Leake’s Gully the sides 
close in notably and are precipitous in places, but the stream flows gently in a 
channel up to 40 yards wide until the steeper fail is commenced. 

When this event occurs, the trench is left and a characteristic ‘“V’’-shaped 
gorge entered, through which the stream falls uniformly to the Shoalhaven. The 
maximum depth of the gorge is 1,200 feet, and it is marked by deeply entrenched 
meanders. Slopes on the concave sides are steep and, as the rocks are highly 
inclined and well jointed, loose scree is common and landslides occur. The 
convex sides fall towards the creek as longer and gentler peninsulas. The only 
tributary gorge of any length is that of Jacqua Creek, which flows over bars 
of massive grey quartzite in entering the main stream. 

Above the gorge there are terraces between 1,800 and 1,900 feet above sea-level, 
on which ferruginous grit, sand, Tertiary contact quartzite and water-worn pebbles 
are found. Away from this irregular terrace—which is not developed near the 
river—the land rises to rough ridges on the north-west, but is gentler to the 
south, where sandstones and softer slates are more in evidence. 

Taking Nerrimunga Creek and its tributaries as a whole, certain general 
features stand out clearly. The streams have cut shallow, mature valleys in an 
upland plain surface, and have taken advantage of the softer country west 
of the chert belt in widening their valleys. In this section the rocks have been 
notably weathered and decomposed in harmony with the general appearance of 
maturity, but the more siliceous strata further east, although forming a lower 
surface, contain the rougher and narrower valleys. The most notable of these 
is the trench in which the first portion of Nerrimunga Creek flows. Differential 
erosion in the sloping plain is thus important. 

The upland parts of the streams, down to 1,700 feet, are beautifully graded, 
and show profiles characteristic of maturity. The smooth profiles of the lower 
part of Nerrimunga Creek and the portion of the Shoalhaven involved are char- 
acteristic of powerful streams cutting through highly-inclined rocks. Individual 
waterialls and cataracts are small, but there is a definite break of slope in the 
profiles below 1,700 feet. 

Parts of three cycles of erosion are shown. The oldest is a small section at 
2,300 feet at the head of Budjong Creek; then comes the most extensive, which has 
been carried to maturity over the area and is based about 1,700 feet. The latest 
and, at present the most active, is controlled by the existing grade of the river, 
but the head of erosion is only advancing upstream very slowly on account of the 
hard inclined rocks being encountered. 

All of the larger streams show well developed meanders. Above the junction 
of Windellama and Nadgigomar Creeks it may be taken as a general rule that 
present-day conditions favour the extension of the meanders, which are being 
actively enlarged in many cases. Below this junction, however, the sides of the 
trench into which the main stream flows are both uniformly steep, especially below 
Leake’s Gully, and no important lateral movement is indicated since the stream 
began to entrench itself in the terrace above 1,800 feet. The occurrence of pebbles 
and drift over this higher level demonstrate considerable lateral movement before 
the erosion of the trench and the gorge below it, so it appears certain that the 
meanders of Nerrimunga Creek have been inherited from this level with but little 
enlargement or alteration in plan, although the sloping ridges enclosed by the 
meanders of the gorge section do not preclude the possibility of lateral extension 
in the process of downcutting, and a certain amount of which is to be expected. 


254 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


The commencement of the meanders apparently post-dates the surface deposits 
of the tableland. 

The persistence of old stream lines is indicated by the correspondence of the 
drift and Tertiary quartzite with the hollows in which modern stream valleys are 
found. This is especially the case with Nadgigomar and Nerrimunga Creeks, whose 
general directions are largely pre-basaltic in age, and bear a close relationship to 
the hard chert ridges. In the case of Jacqua Creek, the presence of grit at 
Yarralaw Trig. station, together with the associated and neighbouring bauxite 
deposits all lying within the boundaries of the main valley (although well above 
the stream), indicate a stable outline for that creek also. The basalt-filled hollow 
near Chapman Trig. with a base about 2,050 feet corresponds with the bauxites 
of the valley at 2,050 feet, and may possibly indicate a former stream line leading 
north-eastward towards Bungonia Creek. The steep fall of the corresponding 
tributary to Bungonia Creek is unfavourable to the suggestion, which is not 
supported by the meandering stream line towards Nerrimunga Creek cut indif- 
ferently through soft and hard strata. 

Perhaps the most significant fact disclosed in the study of these streams is the 
general mature erosion of the upland section to a local base level somewhat below 
1,700 feet above sea-level. If the upland profile of Nerrimunga Creek be continued, 
it will reach the Shoalhaven about 1,650 feet, which may be taken as the down- 
ward limit of erosion in the area previous to the new cycle resulting in the 
erosion of the canyons. As we shall see presently, the fact is by no means 
isolated. 


Land Forms. 


a. The Residuals (Text-figs. 2 and 3).—The existence of old residuals on the 
western divide has already been noticed and explained. The massive quartzites 
noted in the first paper of this series are not developed to any extent in this area, 
so the high ridges become less in extent and more disconnected as one comes 
southward from the Bungonia district, until such residuals as Percy and the 
isolated double hill which forms Nadgigomar Trig. station consist of sandstones 
which have been locally hardened as a result of igneous intrusions. Hven in the 
cases of the highest points, the slopes leading up to them are not so steep as those 
found in the residual ridges west of Bungonia, and a great basalt-filled col occurs 
on the western divide. Towards the east of the area there are several points 
rising to 2,200 feet, but these would appear to represent locally unweathered rocks 
which stand up a little above the general even skyline about 2,000 feet. Notable 
relics of ancient cycles of erosion are virtually confined to the west of the area, and 
are not extensive. 

vb. The Shoalhaven Plain.—On the other hand, the Shoalhaven Plain has 
become a far more important feature than it was further north. Towards the 
east of the area it has a great extent between the defined limits and 2,100 feet. 
Towards the west of the area it rises gently, and part of the country in the 
Inverary sector also rises above the defined upper limit. From the stream grades 
and general topography (Text-figs. 2 and 3; Plate xiii), it may be inferred that the 
lower parts of this plain have been produced as the result of normal erosion acting 
on somewhat higher land which resembled the lower parts of the western divides 
in altitude. The evidence of a dissected plain was noticed in the discussion of the 
streams, and the fact stands out clearly from the profiles. In addition the driit, 
Tertiary quartzite and bauxite deposits all occur within definite limits and from 


BY F, A. ORAFT, 255 


50 to 200 feet as a general rule above the modern stream channels. Of the many 
examples observed and charted, the lowest limits of the tableland drift are about 
1,850 feet, above Nerrimunga Creek, whilst the general run of them away from this 
lineament is around 2,000 feet. The quartzites occur between 1,900 and 2,050 feet, 
with a predominance of those towards the upper limit, whilst the bauxites are 
found about 2,050 feet, with exceptions rising to 2,150 feet. In addition, the base 
of the Chapman, Inverary and Jacqua Creek basalts is about 2,050 feet. It may 
therefore be asserted that the Shoalhaven Plain forms a definite surface of erosion 
and later deposition at a general level of the order of 2,000 feet above sea-level, and 
that mature valleys have been incised to 200 feet in this surface. 

There is, however, another factor to aid in the elucidation of the physiography 
of this upland surface. Above the Shoalhaven River, beds of drift containing a 
little fine gold have been extensively cut away in the process of sluicing, and fine 
sections of them are now exposed (Text-fig. 4). Mention has been made of the old 
stream channel exposed near the dam on Nadgigomar Creek and, with the excep- 
tion of elevation, it might serve as a typical example. Alluvial deposits lie on 
highly weathered and softened slates and sandstones crossed by beds of un- 
weathered chert, and consist of ferruginous conglomerate overlain by black, 
laminated peaty clay containing old tree trunks in hollows altered to lignite. 
Overlying this again is clear white quartz gravel cemented loosely by white clay, 


S 
c 
Ww 
S 
iS) 

Bo 

. 
8 

= 
: 

Q 


Text-fig. 4.—Sections of late Tertiary Drift. a, sand and small pebbles; 

-b, large pebbles and conglomerate; c, sand; d’, surface pebble drift; d, quartz 

gravel and clay; e, carbonaceous clay, peat and lignite; f, ferruginous con- 

glomerate and coarse gravels; g. quartz gravel and pebble beds. See also 
Plate xii. 


256 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


and drifted over by brown hill-wash. The wash is roughly stratified and, although 
Tertiary contact quartzite is present in quantity at a slightly higher level, it 
cannot be definitely asserted that it overlies the alluvial deposits. 

Turning to the east of the area, a similar kind of deposit is found at Black 
Springs Creek, where a cut some 600 yards long and up to 200 yards wide has been 
made in it. But whereas the material at the dam has a lower limit of 1,870 feet, 
that at Black Springs is found as low as 1,730 to 1,740 feet, and lies in a valley 
excavated in the tableland rocks. Above the finer quartz drift a zone of sand is 
entered which persists above the head of the workings at 1,820 feet right to the 
head of the stream. Passing northward over the sandy upland, shafts sunk for 
short distances at intervals reveal small water-worn pebbles in the sand, and small 
gullies falling to Spa Creek are eroded in this material. 

Spa Creek leaves the line of the deposit in its fall towards the cliffs over- 
looking the Shoalhaven, but a cut 300 yards long gives a complete section of them. 
Again the base is about 1,730 feet above sea-level, and the thickness of the deposit 
in the main cut is 70 feet. The loose pebbles of Black Springs are here replaced 
by solid ferruginous conglomerate, and the relative position of the peaty clays is 
found to change. Still continuing northward, a minor cut shows the quartz drift 
giving place to roughly stratified white clays towards the western section, whilst 
still further north the deep ground is left and a bed of conglomerate at a much 
higher level is noticed, again overlain by sand. As with the surface conglomerates 
of the Shoalhaven Plain, it is likely that the ferruginous cement was derived from 
the underlying rocks and brought to the (then) surface in solution. Pebbles over- 
lying the deep ground would not be liable to such action, and would soon be swept 
away in subsequent processes of erosion. The higher conglomerate is also drifted 
over with white or light grey sand. The main deposit at Spa Creek resembles 
the occurrence at Black Springs in lying in a valley eroded in the tableland rocks 
which, for the greater part, form a ridge between the drift area and the gorge 
of the river, but northward of the place where the creek plunges into the gorge, 
the stream deposits have been cut off by the gorge side, and overlook the river 
directly. 

The old channel at Nadgigomar dam may be dismissed with one further 
comment—it gives a further proof of the permanency of that particular stream 
line, but the occurrence is local and the vertical range affected is not great. On 
the other hand, the more easterly occurrences involve questions of greater 
importance, as they cover a vertical range of 300 feet, and occur on the edge of 
the major canyon of the region. 

One of their most striking features is noted more especially at Black Springs, 
where huge slabs of glassy contact quartzite occur in the basal pebbles. These 
include fragments of chert and pebbles, and with the exception of the contained 
pebbles, they are similar to the quartzites at Nadgigomar dam, from which 
Browne’s determination was made. Some of these fragments are up to 4 feet 
long by 3 feet wide by 1 foot thick, and the edges have been smoothed and rounded. 
Smaller worn pieces of the fine uniform quartzite are also found here, and in the 
loose drift above the main cut at Spa Creek. It seems fairly definite that this 
material is of late Tertiary age, and is from basalt contacts, so the drift areas are 
newer than some phases of the basalts, at least. 

As regards other pebbles a variety of quartz and quartzites is found, together 
with much-weathered porphyries, and possibly some granite. In shape they vary 
from subangular to ellipsoidal, and in size from three inches to more than a foot 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 257 


in (major) diameter. The peaty clays associated with them contain abundant 
broken plant material, but no good specimens. 

It is now possible to sum up some of the relationships of the drift. It has 
been deposited in a valley—or in valleys—eroded to a modern height of 1,730 feet, 
and general conditions of relative stillness are indicated in the streams or lake 
into which the material was brought. At times more vigorous currents brought in 
pebbles, but the general accumulation was of small material, and in the last stages, 
when the water was spread out over the widest area, sand derived from the higher 
levels of the watersheds concerned formed the bulk of the material. Conditions 
were equivalent to continued subsidence, and the total extent was of the order of 
300 feet. Conditions of a rather similar nature have already been noted in the 
Inverary sector, but extending definitely 50 feet higher, and possibly a little more. 

This leaves two major questions—the cause of sedimentation and the origin 
of the channel or channels in which the deposit is found. For the present, no 
attempt will be made to answer the first of these, but the second may be 
considered. 

The most likely explanation was propounded to the writer by Mr. G. McKane, 
who suggested that the Black Springs and Spa deposits lie in a continuous 
channel which was an earlier course of the Shoalhaven. He instanced the facts 
that sluicing for gold had disclosed a “run” of gold near the base of the drift 
which continues towards the modern watersheds without any appreciable change 
of level; that the pebbles of porphyry in the Spa deposits are, so far as is known, 
not derivable from the catchment area of that stream, although occurring in 
abundance further south, and that the size of the pebbles in the drift is more 
suggestive of a large stream than one such as Black Springs Creek. To the latter 
one might add that there is nothing to show the quartz pebbles or gold as being 
of immediately local origin. He also correlated the different exposures, and in- 
ferred the constant height of their base—a supposition verified by observation. 

Physiographically, the suggestion is sound. The base of the deposits is at a 
constant level as far as it is exposed, and the respective exposures are in wide 
channels on the tableland. Hven such a powerful stream as Nerrimunga Creek 
has eroded a valley of much less width about the altitude of 1,700 feet, and one of 
the features of this drifted valley is the width of its floor. Sedimentation also 
proceeded above 2,000 feet, which would have left the Shoalhaven free to choose 
a course over a wide stretch of country (Plates xii—xiii), as the superior heights 
about Jerralong Trig. station are simply local knolls. Once such a course were 
chosen, the renewal of downcutting would scarcely introduce factors likely to 
lead to considerable further change, for although the drift would be easily chan- 
nelled, the deeply-weathered clays derived from the country rocks would only 
offer slight resistance to a powerful stream. In any case, the two minor streams 
now existing in the drifted area have not breached the sands of their divide, and 
the country immediately south-west of Jerralong Trig. is amongst the clay land. 

Thus it appears that, under special circumstances, the Shoalhaven adopted a 
new course after the sedimentation was completed, but had previously eroded a 
valley down to 1,730 feet. In any case this was the lowest level reached before 
the deposition of the sediments, and it may be correlated with the upland course 
of Nerrimunga Creek, which is based about 1,650 feet. In other words, the plain 
was developed about 2,000 feet (modern level), and valleys from 300 to 400 feet 
in depth were eroded in it. The course of the main stream was partially blocked 
to an increasing extent, leading to local sedimentation. About the same time 


258 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


basalt was coming gently through fissures and was being poured out on the land 
surface, affecting the plain principally, and being associated with the upper limits 
of the sediments. The actual outpouring began prior to the filling of the deeper 
channels, and it is probable that the deposits of the higher levels about the 
junction of Windellama and Nadgigomar Creeks can be correlated with the highest 
stage observed in the neighbourhood of Spa and Black Springs Creeks, and with 
the deposits at similar altitudes in the Inverary sector. Thus the erosion of 
channels to the modern level of 1,700 feet, the outpouring of basalt and the 
process of sedimentation were, broadly speaking, contemporaneous, and all pre- 
dated the erosion of the gorges. 


c. Comparison with the Tallong-Bungonia Area.—The physiographic features 
of the two sections may be directly compared, as follows: 


Age. Tallong-Bungonia. Nerrimunga Creek. 


Ancient 


Pre-basaltic 


Pre-basaltic 


Pre-basaltic 


Period of flows .. 


Period of flows .. 


High residuals. 


Residual level, Tallong, 2,400 feet. 


Peneplain level, 2,200 feet. 


High residuals. 


Western divide, 2,400 feet. 


Valleys and plains about 2,000 feet. 


Hrosion of Caoura valley to 1,850 
feet or lower. 


Shoalhaven Plain, about 2,000 feet. 


Erosion of eastern channels to 


? Pebbles and drift of uplands, 
1,900 to 2,000 feet. 


Post-basaltic 


Mature valleys to 1,800 
deepening eastwards. 


feet, 


1,700 feet. 
Drift and sediments, 1,730 to 
2,050 feet. (Exception—In- 


verary Park to 2,150 feet.) 


Erosion of drift—mature valleys 
of plain, and upper part of 


Nerrimunga Creek trench to 
1,700 feet. 


Post-basaltice Erosion of gorges. Erosion of gorges. 


Reference has previously been made to the fact that the basalt-filled Caoura 
valley was eroded by a small tributary stream, whilst the Shoalhaven apparently 
flowed at a lower level (Part i), so there is no necessary discrepancy here. The 
highest of the sandstones at Inverary Park form a purely surface deposit a couple 
of feet thick in places, but this superficial character is not everywhere certain. 
The highest of the bedded deposits occur at 2,070 feet. 


The connection between late Tertiary channels eroded to the modern level 
of 1,700 feet and the supposed river capture at Tallong above 2,080 feet is evident, 
as the surface concerned shows no bending or warping which could account for 
the downward displacement of the lower channels since the period of basalt flows. 
On this ground alone it would be legitimate to rule out the idea of capture since 
the erosion of those particular tableland valleys and, since they antedate the more 
modern uplift which allowed the erosion of the gorges, the suggested mechanism 
of capture is not allowable. Thus the conclusions of the first paper of the series are 
fully justified. ° 


BY F, A. CRAFT. 259 


Soil and Water Supply. 

Geology and physiography unite in determining the conditions of the soil 
and water supply. The soils fall into three definite classes: firstly, there are 
large areas of stony ground in the area, the more dissected siliceous rocks towards 
the east giving a surface of this type, whilst the higher ridges and divides 
towards the west are also composed of siliceous types which do not weather 
readily into soil. In the parts which have been subject to dissection, even over a 
small vertical range, the slopes are steep, so the general character of this class of 
- country is very dry. 

Secondly, there are areas where a considerable depth of clay is found on the 
surface, or the soils are of-a clayey nature. These include much of the valley of 
Jacqua Creek and the gentler slopes of the valleys west of the Bungonia-Mayfield 
road, together with the basins of the southern Spring and Jerralong Creeks and 
the country immediately south-west of Jerralong Trig. station. Country of this type 
supports the small settlement of Windellama and, since its soil is richer in plant 
foods than that of the preceding class, it has a considerable value as pasture 
land, being used for sheep raising. The soil is naturally rather impervious so, 
with respect to their lengths and the areas which they drain, the streams are of 
small size and the flow of water even in Nerrimunga Creek is inconsiderable. All 
of the tributaries cease to flow during the hotter months, but the fact is some- 
what offset by their mature form favouring the development of wide and deep 
reaches which retain water all the year round. In this respect the impervious 
nature of much of the ground is an advantage. By virtue of it, also, tanks and 
dams can be built to supply water to stock. 

The third soil type comprises the sands and gravel of the drift areas, together 
with the sandy lands found to the east and south-east of Nadgigomar Creek. Water 
soaks into this ground readily, but is quickly given up to the local streams, leaving 
a generally dry surface which is covered with sparse forest and hardy vegetation. 
This land is of little economic value, but in the isolated case of Black Springs, 
where it overlies a more compact and impervious drift, a good storage ground 
for a permanent stream is provided. In general, however, the sandy and drift 
country is dry and poor. 

Isolated areas of particularly rich soil are provided by the larger areas of 
basalt. In each case the weathering basalt gives excellent pasture land, and a 
little permanent water comes, in places, from springs under the basalt. These 
few patches form the best pasture land of the area; the valleys of Jacqua, 
Windellama and Budjong Creeks are fairly good in general, whilst parts of the 
valley of Nadgigomar Creek and of the clay region around the head of Jerralong 
Creek and by the Trig. station of that name are fair. Another isolated area of 
fairly good land is at Weiramunga Creek, overlooking the junction of Nerrimunga 
Creek with the river, but there is much almost useless land in the area, including 
the dissected portions. An exception to this latter remark is found on the western 
side of the Shoalhaven on either side of Jerralong Trig., where the steep, smooth 
side of the gorge, with a stiff soil from weathering basalt and slate, has been 
cleared, although bands of vegetation have been left across the slope in places and 
on the bottoms of depressions. These have an excellent effect in checking erosion, 
and provide a welcome contrast to the usual indiscriminate clearing only too 
frequently practised in such places. 

Summing up, it may be said that half of this area is of little value on account 
of ruggedness or extremely poor soil. Some of this part carries a few sheep, whilst 


260 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, ii, 


the remainder of the country is used in sheep raising, and has the reputation of 
being free from disease and of growing clean wool. Conditions of soil and 
topography militate against a considerable permanent flow of the streams, but 
sufficient water is available for pastoral purposes. 


Conclusion. 


The features developed in the Tallong-Bungonia area are found to extend 
southward into the Nerrimunga Creek drainage area. The western residuals lose 
much of their extent, but the Shoalhaven Plain extends notably, and becomes even 
more important further south. Old channels filled with alluvial material are 
incised 300 to 400 feet below its general level. In all probability their age is 
late Tertiary, being the same as that of the basalts, and a similar but perhaps 
more modern channel eroded to the same level is found in the course of Nerrimunga 
Creek. The courses of this stream and of the Endrick River, further to the east, 
are most favourable for the development and preservation of such features, the 
streams being sufficiently powerful for the former, and yet not powerful enough 
to carve such notable gorges as that of the Shoalhaven. The physiographic history 
as developed in the first paper of the series and again outlined in this (see “The 
Shoalhaven Plain” section) is found to receive substantial support. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES XII-XIII. 
Plate xii. 


1. View eastward from Cowhole Trig. (2,204 feet), showing the dissected terrace 
falling to 1,850 feet. The higher country in the background is beyond the Shoalhaven 
gorge, and is the western scarp of Bulee Ridge. Touga West Trig. (2,409 feet) is the high 
bluff to the right of the big tree. 2. Hydraulic cut in Tertiary drift, Spa Creek. a, 
bedrock; f, conglomerate; e, carbonaceous clay; d, clay and quartz gravel. 3. The 
Shoalhaven Plain from Blanketburn Trig. (2,115 feet), looking SSE. The foreground 
shows erosion in surface clays. The Shoalhaven gorge is in the middle distance, and low 
on the central horizon is Currockbilly Range (3,700 feet), thirty miles distant. 4. The 
Shoalhaven River at Jerralong Trig. station, which is the hill to the right. The cleared 
slopes represent basalt dykes, whilst the high ground on that side is characteristic of a 
clayey surface, and forms part of the ridge separating the gorge from the Tertiary stream 
drifts of the tableland. 


Plate xiii. 

Map of the Nerrimunga Creek section of the Shoalhaven Valley. Form lines are 
shown in the uplands, and the line at 1,800 feet marks the general fall line to the steep 
gorges. Profile line iv extends to Tarago. B. Profiles of the principal streams. ‘The 
sharp drop in Nadgigomar Creek represents the dam, and the part of the Shoalhaven 
River shown extends from Jerralong Creek to Bungonia Creek. For economy of space, 
the lower portion has been carried to the left. Vertical exaggeration = 17-6. 


PLATE XII. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


‘yoolg Besunwis 


do 


N 


: AV[[V 


A 


1d 


Ni 


YW usARYyTRoYS jo 


Ayde 


ds 


Q 
ray 


or 


Ss 


AY 


C 


I 


Pro 


Lins. Soc, N.S.W., 1931 


Local Sketch 


Scale of Miles: 
Q 10 20 


7 W- DealtWith 
SNERRIGA fe . 
— Kailways 


We Vondilly Ry on 


—]/ 


\ 


bse S 


Budjong’ Windellama 


Nadgigomar 


PLATE xm. 


Oy GAL IE 
ee 


-++— Profile Lines 


u" 


ee iE, 
[ei7ertiary Quartzite 


<3 a Bauxite 
” Basalt 
Drift, ete. 
StreamBeds 


Shoalhaven 


‘ ’ 
, ide ad omimn api te 
’ ; +) 3 


; ee a one feminine 
we, 


whee 


eed 


tu 


THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THH SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. III: 


BULEE RIDGE. 


By FRANK A. Crart, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 
(One Text-figure. ) 
[Read 24th June, 1931.] 


Introduction. 

This short paper is the result of a reconnaissance carried out during January, 
1931, on the Bulee Ridge, named after a high trigonometrical point in its central 
portion. ‘On account of its rocky and sandy nature, and the generally dissected 
character of its surface, this part of the eastern watershed of the Shoalhaven 
Valley has only been surveyed in places, and much is only accessible on foot by 
roundabout routes. The traverses on which this account is based were practically 
confined to the high ridges, and were undertaken to give some definition of the 
place where the tableland over which the Shoalhaven flows begins to fall towards 
the coast. 

The surface covering of this portion of the tableland consists of sandstones 
belonging to the Upper Marine Series. These rise from sea-level on the coast to a 
maximum altitude of 2,600 feet on the ridge here described. Towards the west 
they thin quickly, and their western periphery has been cut off sharply by the 
erosion which has produced the Shoalhaven Plain at 2,000 feet. The series consists 
of whitish agglomerate and conglomerate of a sandy nature containing pieces of 
various quartzes, quartzites and porphyritic rocks which pass upwards into a 
white, reddish or light-grey sandstone of a gritty nature. The sandstones contain 
occasional layers of quartz pebbles and are marked by a massive character with 
widely-spaced and irregularly-developed joints, of which two sets exist almost at 
right angles. 

The thickness of the series varies from 150 to 400 feet, although in the neigh- 
bourhood of Tallowal Creek a thickening to 600 feet is noticed. The altitude of 
the base varies from 1,900 to 2,250 along the exposed western margin, the former 
limit being near the head of Touga Creek whilst the latter is at Touga Trig. 
station. Irregularities in bedding are also noticed, in some cases the bedding 
planes dipping locally at angles up to eight degrees. These places are exposed by 
denudation and form bare convex slopes. 

Underlying the sandstones are strata of supposedly Devonian age and, along 
the course of the river, an intensely folded metamorphic series of Ordovician age 
is found. The former consists of reddish and brown sandstones, shales and slates, 
but there is apparently no clear differentiation from the older strata, which grade 
upwards into almost unaltered sedimentary rocks. Nor can a great deal be told 
off-hand from the degree of folding of the various strata, for intense folding, 
crumpling and shearing are found mainly within a definite meridional core of 
the older rocks at the lower levels. 


262 


PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, iii, 


Nye Zam i ‘ 


in 


ay 
i”) 


4 


SINSMUEs 
Minn /Z_g 


---- Tracks 


é7ertiary Basalt 
Ea Upper Marine 
Granite 

OM Devonian 

ES Ordovician 


Text-fig. 1—Sketch-map and Profile of Bulee Ridge. The area covered by the 

Upper Marine Series comprises the level tableland. The profile line is taken 

along the road, with minor bends smoothed out. The line north-west and north 

from Tallowal Creek is the northern section, and the southern end extends 4,700 

yards SSE. of the road end on the map to the Nowra-Nerriga road. Vertical 

exaggeration of profile = 10:6. @C = Coolumburra, and T = Tullyangela. The 
magnetic meridian is used. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 263 


Igneous rocks are represented by isolated occurrences of granite, by basalt 
dykes in the gorge of the river, and by isolated patches of late Tertiary basalt on 
the tableland. The most notable of these latter is found above the Shoalhaven 
River near Tallowal Creek, where the precipices are broken by a neck from which 
lava has been poured on to the adjacent level surface. A beautiful section is now 
exposed on top of the precipice, and in a nearby small gully the horizontal sand- 
stones have been hardened to a glassy quartzite to a depth of 6 feet. 

The topographic significance of these formations is readily appreciated. The 
hard quartzites and quartz-schists of the oldest rocks are not found on the table- 
land surface, and they have been cut through by the powerful Shoalhaven River. 
Where the stream crosses their strike it passes through narrow clefts in immense 
bars, so it has a turbulent nature in a steep-sided gorge. The massive horizontal 
sandstones of the tableland surface resist erosion more strongly than the softer 
and more broken older rocks immediately underlying them, so the gorges and 
gullies cut through them are crowned by lines of perpendicular cliffs. Weathering 
of softer bands in the sandstones gives rise to terraces bounded by low precipices, 
so the surface of Bulee Ridge forms a long, terraced platform. 


Topography and Physiography. 

Passing northward along the ridge (Text-fig. 1), a sandstone ridge is traversed 
which varies from 2,400 to 2,550 feet in altitude. It forms the divide between the 
Shoalhaven River and Httrema Creek, and in places tributary gullies have been 
extended right to the ridge by falling streams, giving a series of saddles or cols 
between which the ridge is higher and more level. Level branches of the main 
ridge extend from two to three miles east and west, the former ending in the 
precipices above Httrema Creek, whilst those in the latter direction terminate 
in the low escarpment of the Upper Marine Series overlooking the Shoalhaven 
Plain. Between this escarpment and the gorge sides of the Shoalhaven there is an 
irregular terrace varying in altitude from 2,000 to 2,300 feet forming, in fact, the 
eastern edge of the Shoalhaven Plain. In the granite and older sandstone at 
“Touga’’ station, these undulations have a width of a mile and a half, and rise 
from 1,800 feet on the edge of the gorge to 2,000 feet on the east, where there 
is a sharp rise over 2,300 feet to the ridge west of Touga Creek which is capped 
with horizontal sandstone, or from which the newer rock has been recently 
denuded. 

Two points rise a little above the general level of the ridge—Coolumburra 
(2,602 feet) and Bulee (2,593 feet) Trig. stations. Immediately to the north of 
the latter the ridge consists of a basalt plain at 2,440 feet. The basalt occupies a 
narrow valley whose floor is 300 feet below the trig. station, and has been 
attacked with vigour on the west by a stream which falls quickly into a rough 
gully, and eventually unites with Touga Creek. Gentler valleys lead eastward, 
but they also give place to walled-in gullies. In other places to the east of 
the ridge streams head in boggy flats on the sandstone terraces, across which they 
fall gently for the first part of their courses. 

Proceeding north of the Quiera basalt, a rough ridge leads to the head of 
Tullyangela Creek. The crest is at 2,500 feet, but terraces fall on the eastern 
side from 2,350 feet. The first part of Tullyangela Creek is in a gentle granite 
valley at 2,300 feet almost surrounded by low sandstone cliffs. On the opposite 
side of the ridge the gully heads are also gentler than usual, but the rough gorges 
are soon reached in either direction. 


264 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY, iii, 


Up to this point bare rock terraces of slightly uneven sandstone form part 
of the ridge top. These also continue a little to the north of Tullyangela Creek, 
but the ridge falls to 2,300 feet, and level depressions lead over its surface and, 
being filled with a thin deposit of peaty soil, the hitherto bare rock terraces give 
place to areas of heath and coarse meadow. Rain falling in such places either 
runs off gently or is absorbed by the spongy soil to be given up eventually by 
evaporation. Thus the forces of erosion on this section of the ridge crest are 
very slight indeed. 

Gentle valleys are here excavated to a depth of 150 feet below the ridge crest. 
The most notable fall to HEttrema Creek, here five miles distant, whilst the 
western fall to the main gully is only two miles long. The Bulee Ridge properly 
ends where the northward fall to the Shoalhaven gorge begins, and where very 
gentle sandy slopes lead to the edges of the precipices. These vary in altitude 
from 2,000 to 2,100 feet, and the southward rise is gently concave. Small swamps 
are found on the slope, which is covered with a thick mantle of sand, although 
level areas are grassy. Otherwise the vegetation is a sparse forest or scrub. 
Immediately above the cliffs the streams flow through short gullies 50 feet deep, 
and the cliffs have receded along their courses to form bays in the main gorge 
side. 

Passing from Tallowal Creek towards Touga West Trig. station, a gentle plain 
between 2,150 and 2,200 feet is crossed whose surface is largely covered with acacia 
serub. Where the horizontal sandstones exist, the fall to the gullies is marked 
by low cliffs, but the gullies are mainly cut in older rocks and are extremely wild 
and steep-sided. The principal fall is to Touga Creek through unsurveyed country, 
the river eventually being met about 650 feet above sea-level. The area occupied 
by Touga and Touga West Trig. stations forms a high bluff falling directly to the 
river. Only to the south do the lower terraces exist on the eastern side of the 
gorge. 

Mention has been made of the basalt neck near Tallowal Creek. Although 
the modern extent of the flows in its vicinity is not considerable, a great deal 
must have been swept away in the erosion of the gorge, and there may have been 
a considerable extent of basalt in the pre-gorge valley of the Shoalhaven. 


Soil and Water Supply. 


Many of the salient points of the soil and water supply relationships of the 
ridge will have been deduced already. The horizontal sandstones are almost 
impervious, so the ridge itself, with only a thin mantle of sandy soil, is dry and 
barren. In the areas of older rocks there is a great deal of steep and rugged 
topography, so the sandy and light soils formed from their weathering are easily 
washed away, leaving crumbling and rocky slopes exposed which are held together 
by scrub and sparse forest. Thus the siliceous rocks of the area give rise to sandy 
soils—thin both in the uplands and on the gorge sides. In the former instance, 
the strong westerly winds of winter sweep the ridge crest, and allow a rather 
thicker screening of soil on the eastern slopes, but the natural deficiency in plant 
foods is reflected in a poor vegetation. 

Exceptions to the general rule comprise the small areas of basalt and granite, 
and the sandstone part of the levels at “Touga” station. In the latter case 
there is an accumulation of soil on the older topographic features, a condition 
which also prevails on the level stretches near Tallowal Creek. These are the 
only parts of the area which are of much use: they support a few sheep. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 265 


As regards water supply, mention has been made of the swamps due to 
accumulation of water in the soil and humus resting in hollows on the sandstone 
terraces. Streams rising from these limited sources are not permanent, although 
to the south and south-east where larger swamp areas are found they provide water 
all the year round. Springs occur at the base of the basalts and there are streams 
in the granitic areas of “Touga” station and Tullyangela Creek, but the general 
dryness of the country can be gathered from the fact of Touga and Tallowal 
Creeks ceasing to flow during the warmer months. Topography, soil and water 
supply all militate against settlement in the area, and people only live permanently 
on “Talwong” station, by Tallowal Creek. 


Summary. 

The Bulee Ridge forms a level tableland in horizontal sandstones and extends 
to the beginning of the coastal fall in the vicinity of the meridional EHttrema Creek. 
The coastal fall has an average angular value of one degree. The ridge rises 
gently from north to south and forms a straight, stable divide for the eastern 
section of the corresponding portion of the Shoalhaven Valley. Streams on the 
coastal slopes to the east also fall to the Shoalhaven River, but are clear of the 
tableland proper. 

The basalt of Quiera indicates late Tertiary erosion on the ridge down to 
2,300° feet above sea-level, whilst similar but higher cols along the ridge make 
similar processes extend to the present day. It is probable that the basalt does 
not occur on the original ridge crest, but a little to the east or west of it, as it 
appears to occupy a very level valley. The higher country corresponds with the 
extent of the horizontal sandstones, which have exercised a definite protective 
influence whilst the Shoalhaven Plain has been eroded in older strata immediately 
to the west. The nearest comparable heights to those on Bulee Ridge are found 
at the head of Windellama Creek, on the western side of the Shoalhaven Valley, 
the whole country between having suffered extensive denudation. 

The eastward turn of the Shoalhaven River is clear of the higher part of the 
ridge, and a wide upland depression about 2,000 feet above sea-level has been 
trenched by the modern gorge. Physiographically the ridge is notable as forming 
a stable divide on the eastern side of the meridional course of the Shoalhaven, 
and protecting the Shoalhaven Valley from the destructive erosional influences of 
the coastal slope. 


PV Ave 


ON A NEW BOPYRID PARASITE FROM THE COAST OF NEW SOUTH WALKS. 


By WILLIAM J. DAKIN, D.Sc., F.Z.S., F.L.S., 
Professor of Zoology, University of Sydney. 


(Plate xiv; nine Text-figures.) 
[Read 29th July, 1931.] 


This new genus and species of a Bopyrid parasite is represented by ten females 
and four male specimens. A much greater number might easily have been 
obtained, for considerable numbers of the host—a prawn of the group Penaeidae— 
have been caught by trawlers off the coast of New South Wales, and practically 
every prawn of the sample obtained for examination* is parasitized. The host 
prawn has, up to now, been regarded as rare; it is certainly so in collections, but 
as it is a species found in deeper water and not one of those which regularly 
invade the estuaries it is probably much more abundant than has been recognized. 


Genus CRASSIONE, Nn. gen. 


The genus may be described as follows: A Bopyrid parasite allied to the group 
Orbione, Parapenaeon and Epipenaeon, the type species being an ectoparasitic 
branchial parasite under the branchiostegites of a Penaeid prawn of the genus and 
species Aristeus foliaceus. The sexes are dimorphic. The body of the female 
(Plate xiv, fig. 1) is oval in shape, the greatest width being about midway between 
the anterior and posterior extremities. The anterior end is broad, the posterior 
end triangular ending narrowly. The body is asymmetrical but either the one 
side or the other may be reduced—in other words there are “left-handed” and 
“right-handed” specimens. The head is distinct from the thorax. It bears:a well 
developed frontal lamina. No eyes are present. The thoracic segments are distinct 
and the pleural lamellae; of all the segments are well developed. On the highly 
developed (or non-reduced side) they have the form of broad plates, as in Orbione 
and its related genera Hpipenaeon and Parapenaeon. The incubatory cavity is 
completely closed. 


The abdomen of the female is small, only one-fifth the length of the animal. 
The somites are clearly defined, including the last or sixth, which is somewhat 
small. All are visible dorsally. Pleural lamellae are developed only on the first 
five abdominal segments. Five pairs of biramous pleopods. are present and in 
addition the uropods are also biramous. The abdominal pleura, the pleopods, and 
uropods all bear tubercles and tend to resemble each other. The only known species 
is of considerable size amongst Bopyrids, the length of the females reaching 15 
millimetres with a breadth of 10 mm. 


* Many were apparently eaten by the trawler’s crew. 
7 Also called pleura and epimera by various authors. 
A 


268 A NEW BOPYRID PARASITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES, 


Male (Plate xiv, fig. 2).—The body is much smaller than the female and has 
the general characters of the males of Hpipenaeon and Parapenaeéon species. Hyes 
are absent. The thoracic segments are distinct and their lateral margins rounded. 
All the abdominal somites are fused to form one mass and no trace of pleopods 
or uropods is to be found. 

Genotype.—Crassione aristaei, n. gen. et sp. 


Note on genus.—There is a small and well defined group of Epicarid parasites 
restricted to prawns of the group Penaeidae. Up to the present they fall 
into the genera Orbione Bonnier; Parapenaeon Richardson; Hpipenaeon Nobili; 
Gigantione Kossman; and Orbiomorphus Richardson. There is a very general 
resemblance between the genera, more especially in the character of the female 
thorax. To distinguish between them one has to take the female abdomen as a 
guide. And even in this criterion there is confusion. The differences as accepted 
at present (by Nierstrasz and Brandis, and by Chopra) may be set out as follows: 


1. Only five abdominal segments visible in the female. 


(a) Pleural lamellae on the five segments all well developed. Uropods 


DiPamows? 08 Aa laa, EO. BA A APT SPS REE Epipenaeon 
(b) Pleural lamellae not so well developed and only on the first four 
abdominal segments. Only four pairs of pleopods ...... Orbiomorphus 


2. Six abdominal segments visible in the female. 
(a) Pleural lamellae present on all six abdominal segments. Uropods 


UIT ATVOWS: | hos cuetans ee areca tedave tater ei atigiaw srreseual airs) euskal fe Reve Ouena certs recta ee weneee ye Or bione 

(b) Pleural lamellae present on five abdominal segments only. 
WOM WiAPAONOUIS soossoscondcosonvo0de Parapenaeon; Gigantione 
WROPOdS! DIGAMNIONUSH peuae oer RereaCR onere Crassione, n. gen. 


The confusion has arisen through two notes by Miss Richardson; one rather 
unexpected statement in 1910 was to the effect that the uropods of Parapenaeon 
were biramous. She herself had previously named and described this genus in 
1904 and diagnosed the type species as having uniramous uropods. This position 
does not appear to have ever been properly cleared up, but Nierstrasz and Brandis 
not only found Miss Richardson’s species in the Siboga collection but another and 
new species, and as these authorities affirm that the uropods are really uniramous 
(as first described) the matter must stand at that, at present. 

The other and perhaps still more serious statement refers to the genus Orbione. 
Both Bonnier and Nobili used the uniramous character of the uropods as an 
essential feature in the diagnosis of this genus. Miss Richardson said, however, 
that the uropods were biramous and contradicted Bonnier. Chopra refuses to 
accept her view, but it is of great interest, for it may be taken to indicate a 
difficulty in the interpretation of the last abdominal segment and its appendages. 
Unless, however, Miss Richardson is correct and Bonnier, Nobili, Chopra and 
others wrong, there is no doubt that our genus differs from all the others in having 
abdominal pleura on only five segments with six segments present, and biramous 
uropods on the last. It is advisable in this connection, to point out the following 
facts: The abdominal pleura become increasingly large as one passes posteriorly 
and at a casual glance the last segment, the pleo-telson, might appear to have 
pleura agreeing in size and general form with those of the preceding segment (the 
fifth). If one did interpret the almost terminal processes as pleura it would of 
course be necessary to conclude that the uropods were uniramous, and we should 
then have agreement with the genus Orbione. 

Nobili’s figure, however, shows the sixth segment definitely continued into the 
pleural processes. Careful examination clearly reveals the difference in the present 


BY W. J. DAKIN. 269 


species. The last segment is distinctly marked off from the processes in question, 
which arise underneath it. The use of the binocular dissecting microscope with 
powerful illumination makes this very obvious. The processes at the sides of the 
pleotelson are not pleura but the exopodites of the uropods. They are so sharply 
marked off that the break can be shown in photographs as indicated in Fig. 1, 
Plate xiv (see also Text-fig. 1). 

This point has been emphasized, for it implies that other species, old and new, 
should be carefully examined. The possibility of confusion is increased owing to 
the fact that the exopodites of the pleopods are not unlike their corresponding 
pleura in appearance (Text-fig. 1). Any resemblance therefore between the 
exopodites of the uropods and the pleura of the preceding segment is not surprising. 

It is interesting to note that Nierstrasz and Brandis make the following remark 
in their introduction: “Bezuglich der Uropodien mussen wir gestehen dass uns in 
den Fallen, in welchen sie als Verlangerungen der Seiten des Pleotelsons auftreten 
und keine Grenzen wahrnehmbar sind, ein criterium fehlt, um sie als Uropodien 
oder als Seitenplatten zu deuten.” In any case the present species is certainly 
distinct and in view of the facts given above must be made the type of a new genus 
closely related to Orbione and Parapenaeon. 


Description of Species. 
CRASSIONE ARISTAEI, n. Sp. 


Female. 

Size.—The length of the specimens ranges from 10 mm. to 15 mm. The latter 
size is the most frequent. The greatest breadth of these individuals is 10 mm. The 
relation of the cephalon to the peraeon is roughly 5-1. 

Cephalon.—As long as broad from the anterior margin of the frontal lamina. 
The frontal lamina is well developed and projects forward. It is overlapped 


Text-figs. 1-3.—Crassione aristaei, n.g. et sp. 
1.—Abdomen of female, dorsal view showing biramous uropods of last segment 
between the pleura of preceding segment. x 15. 2.—Posterior ventral margin 
of frontal lamina—left half only shown. x18. 3.—Maxillipede of left side. x 13. 


270 A NEW BOPYRID PARASITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES, 


slightly at the sides by the first pleura. Its full length is longer than the breadth 
of the head. Eyes are absent. Posterior lamina of the head with branched 
processes on distal margin (Text-fig. 2). Maxillipede (Text-fig. 3) flattened and 
with flat cone-like endopodite not unlike that of Orbione species (O. halipora 
N. & B. for example). 

The antennule is three-jointed and not very different from that of the male 
(Text-fig. 5). The antenna (Text-fig. 4) is composed of four large segments and 
three, possibly four, very small terminal ones making seven or eight altogether. 

Peraeon.—The thoracic segments (see Plate xiv, fig. 1) are all distinctly 
marked off from one another, although there is a tendency for this to be less so in 
the median line in connection with the anterior free segments 3, 4 and 5 (the first 
free thoracic segment is of course really the second thoracic segment). The first 


Text-figs. 4-9.—Crassione aristaei, n.g. et sp. 
4.—Antenna of female. x 100. 5.—Antennule of male. x 150. 6.—Antenna of 
male. x 170. 7.—First peraeopod with oostegite, view of inner face. x 10. 
8.—Ventral surface of an abdominal segment of female. x 19. 9.—Uropod of 
female. x 15. 


four free segments bear very well developed pleura, particularly on the undeformed 
side. These plates, like those of Orbione species, project freely anteriorly and 
posteriorly. They have a characteristic shape and their free margins are delicate, 
without any conspicuous crenulation or cuts, although there may be slight undula- 
tions. On the undeformed side each pleuron overlaps the one in front and thus 
extends quite a little distance in front of its own segment. The pleura of the 


BY W. J. DAKIN. 271 


posterior three segments of the undeformed side of the thorax appear as continua- 
tions of the entire margin of the segments; they are somewhat triangular in shape. 
The sixth overlaps the seventh and there is a steady diminution in size. 

On the ventral surface the oostegites (Text-fig. 8) overlap so that the 
marsupium is completely enclosed. 

Abdomen.—The abdomen is about one-fifth the total length of the body and 
about as broad as long. All the six segments are distinct, the last being quite 
small. Yhe pleura are pointed and leaf-like tuberculate plates. On the non- 
deformed side the first pleuron is distinctly smaller than the last thoracic pleuron 
of this side, and the size somewhat increases so that the fifth is the largest. On 
the deformed side of the animal the abdominal pleura escape the reduction so 
obvious in the thoracic region. In fact, the abdominal pleura of this side are 
slightly better developed than those of the other side and the first abdominal 
pleuron of the deformed side is actually larger than the last thoracic pleuron. 

The ventral surface of the abdomen bears five pairs of biramous pleopods and 
one pair of biramous uropods. The external ramus of the latter is very like the 
pleuron of the fifth segment in size and shape. The tips of the exopodites of the 
pleopods may only just be seen from the dorsal surface—the exopodites of the 
uropods are of course fully exposed. The pleopods are tuberculate and the ventral 
surface of the abdominal segments between them also bears little elevations 
(Text-fig. 8). 

Mate.—Averages about 4:3 mm. long and 1:7 mm. broad. As in Orbione, 
Epipenaeon and Parapenaeon the abdomen exhibits a complete fusion of all the 
segments and there is no trace of pleopods or uropods. The illustration gives the 
proportion and shape of the head and thoracic segments which increase in breadth 
slightly to the fourth. The thoracic segments are very distinct, for each lateral 
margin projects considerably and there are very deep indentations between 
segments. Eyes are absent. The antennules (Text-fig. 5) are three-jointed, the 
antennae (Text-fig. 6) 7 or 8-jointed. The proportion of the joints is shown in the 
figures. It would appear from the literature as if the antennae of allied species 
had never been examined with a high power. One wonders, therefore, whether 
the number of antennal joints noted above is characteristic of the present species 
because it is greater than the number usually found in the allied forms, or whether 
the smaller terminal joints have been overlooked in those species. As a matter 
of fact the number of joints is frequently given in diagnosis. 


Notes on the Species—Every prawn examined, with the exception of one, was 
parasitized. Only one female and its male partner were present, the male lying 
across the abdomen of the female. Owing to the large size of the female parasite 
its presence is exactly noted externally, by reason of the large bulge occasioned on 
the branchiostegite covering it. Sometimes the parasite is on the left side of 
the prawn, sometimes on the right, but always lying with its head directed towards 
the host’s posterior end. A parasite from the right side of the host has its left 
side deformed or reduced, whilst one from the left side of the host has its right 
side reduced. No indication of any external effect of the parasite on the sexual 
characters of the host was noted, but in this species of prawn the secondary sexual 
differences are very slight and in any case we had not enough non-parasitized 
specimens to enable us to recognize minute modifications. It is doubtful whether 
any occur. 

This new species of Bopyrid is distinguished by the following features of the RU) 


female: (1) Size and relation of length and breadth; (2) the character of then ©, | ~ A 


272 A NEW BOPYRID PARASITE FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 


segments and appendages of the abdomen; (38) the incubatory cavity; (4) the 
characters of the frontal lamina, the head and thoracic pleura; and (5) possibly 
by the number of segments in the antennae. 
Locality—The prawn host upon which the species is found was trawled off 
the coast of New South Wales (off Eden) in 50 fathoms. 
The holotype is in the Australian Museum Collection, No. P.9966. 
Classification.—It being necessary to erect a new genus, the name Crassione is 
selected. The specific name chosen for the Holotype and type species of the genus 
is aristaei, from the genus of prawns, Aristeus, on which it is parasitic. 
The systematic position is then as follows: 
Class Crustacea. 
Div. Peracarida. 
Order Isopoda. 
Sub-Order HEpicaridea. 
Tribe Bopyrina. 
Genus Crassione. 


Bibliography. 

A considerable number of articles have been referred to, but since an excellent 
bibliography has been given by Chopra and by Nierstrasz and Brandis, only the 
more significant works concerned in this paper need be indicated. 

BonnIgER, J.—Contribution a l’études des Epicarides des Bopyridae. Trav. Stat. Zool. 

Wimereux, viii, 1900. 

CHoprA, B.—Indian Bopyrid Isopods. Rec. Indian Musewm, xxv, 1923. 
NIERSTRASZ, H. F., and BRENDER A BRANDIS.—Die Isopoden der Siboga Expedition, 

Epicaridea, Siboga Exped. Rep., xxxii, 1923. * 

NoBILI, G.—Nuovi Bopiridi. Atti R. Accad. Sci. Torino, xli, 1906. 
RICHARDSON, HARRIET.—Contributions to the Natural History of the Isopoda. Proc. U.S. 

Nat. Mus., xxvii, 1904. 

, Marine Isopoda collected by the U.S. Fisheries Steamer “Albatross,” Doc. U.S. 

Bur. Fisheries, No. 736, 1910. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV. 


Fig. 1.—Female Crassione aristaei, n.g. et sp., dorsal view. x 6. 
Fig. 2.—Male Crassione aiistaei, n.g. et sp., dorsal view. x 15. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XIV. 


2. 


Crassione aristaei, n.g. et sp. 1. Female (x 6); 2. Male (x 15). 


4 


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NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXVIII. 


By J. R. MALLOCH. 
(Communicated by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 


[Read 29th July, 1931.] 


I present in this short paper some data upon the family Rhagionidae which it 
is hoped will prove of interest to students of geographic distribution, as well as to 
those who are more directly and exclusively interested in the family systematically. 


Suborder BRACHYCERA. 
2 Family RHAGIONIDAE. 


This family has generally been referred to under the name Leptidae. Fabricius 
described Rhagio in “Systema Entomologica” in 1775, but rejected it in 1805 
because of its similarity to Rhagium (Coleoptera), and used instead for the same 
concept the generic name Leptis (Systema Antliatorum). The change was unneces- 
sary, but was followed by all subsequent writers until comparatively recently and 
even yet the family name Leptidae is in quite general use, but some of the most 
recent writers have reverted to Rhagio with its concomitant change in the family 
name to Rhagionidae. . 

I present below a key to the genera of the family recorded from Australia and 
Tasmania, in which I introduce some additional characters to those generally met 
with in similar treatments of the family. This action is taken to bring out the 
relations of the Australian and extralimital genera more clearly than has pre- 
viously been done, and in the notes on the genera I have attempted to point out 
the principal distinctions between those known to me and recorded as Australian. 
I have done similar work in connection with Asilidae and Stratiomyiidae in previous 
papers and I note that Hardy has dropped the use of the generic name Deromyia 
in the former family in concurrence with my statement that that genus does not 
occur in Australia. He has also accepted the character of the complete prosternum 
in the asilid subfamily Laphrinae as the distinguishing character of that group 
as pointed out in one of my papers in this series. 


Key to the Genera. 


1. Five complete posterior cells in the wing, media with four complete branches, the 
fourth emanating from the medio-cubital cross vein (m-cu) or extremely close 

to the junction of the latter with the discal cell (m ec) .................. 2 

Four complete posterior cells in the wing, media with but three complete branches, 
the third rudimentary or fused with fourth, the latter always emanating from 
discal cell (m c) very distinetly beyond the point of entry of the medio-cubital 
CROSSHAVEI FEAR CIIO NN ee Paes Soe Rats tatty cy oe watey Stl oust etter ERA abana) wR teeta eak ye ok cae a 5 

2. Arista with very distinct segmentation under a moderately high magnification (x 34) ; 
distance between apices of subcosta (Sc) and first vein (R,) on the costa not 
greater than that between the latter and apex of second vein (R,,,), the latter 

not curved forward at tip, straight or slightly undulated .. Atherimorpha White 


274 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXVIII, 


Arista without evident segmentation under a moderately high magnification (x 34); 
distance between apices of subcosta and first vein on the costa much greater than 
that between the latter and apex of second vein, the latter markedly curved 
forward at apex and sometimes connecting with apex of second vein at its 


JURCtION. With: iCOSEaS (1 AA ee uate ream el one Gate e PLOTS A oe NE eo ner ierene 3 

3. Hyes haired; fore tibiae with an apical ventral spur .......... Dasyomma Macquart 
Eyes bare; fore tibiae without an apical ventral spur ....................-...- + 

4. Arista dorsal; hind tibiae with two apical ventral spurs; metapleural hairs confined 
EO) WK FGI OAC LILENE COMAVEXSAY .coagncvooconcsngsuoo nso esouOS Atherix Meigen 


Arista apical; hind tibiae with but one apical ventral spur; metapleural hairs extending 
above the upper level of supraspiracular convexity to lateral angle of scutellum, 
covering the entire extent of disc and denser above than on the convexity ...... 
ARENT ACC PORCH ER CRIA ae ony Io RoI ONG eh A OMAR NAMA Hanon cKeRaop a teised se acelor Ky Chrysopilus Macquart 

5. Third antennal segment with a slender, tapered, unsegmented apical arista or style 
which is quite variable in length; third branch of media (M,) frequently repre- 
sented by a short spur; hind tibiae without apical spurs .... Spaniopsis White 

Third antennal segment with a stout, untapered, apical four-segmented process; third 
branch of media fused with fourth; hind tibiae with two short spurs .......... 
Suse ci ardpe sisi facet boolgs fs ghia ek Setopetistec ahh damaeia? te Austroleptis Hardy 


Genus ATHERIx Meigen. 


This genus is included on the basis of Atherix pusilla Macquart which has 
not been recorded since its original description and may not belong to this genus. 
For reference of this and other species in this paper see Hardy’s paper on the 
family (Papers and Proc. Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1919, p. 117). 


Genus Spaniopsis White. 


All the species of this genus are recorded as blood-suckers, and in addition to 
having this habit in common with Tabanidae they quite closely resemble small 
tabanids in general habitus, being much more robust than the general run of 
species in this family, the figures given by Ferguson in his paper on the genus 
(Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlix, 1915, Pl. 26) reminding one very forcibly 
of the genus Haematopota Meigen. 

In structure the genus may at once be distinguished from Tabanidae by the 
lack of well-defined segmentation of the composite third antennal segment which 
terminates in a style of variable length, and the large alar and rudimentary 
thoracic squama. In Tabanidae the slender apical portion of the third antennal 
segment is distinctly annulated, and the thoracic squama projects distinctly beyond 
the alar one. This squamal distinction is reliable as a criterion for the separation 
of the two families where the apical portion of the third antennal segment is 
distinctly segmented in certain leptid genera. 


SPANIOPSIS CLELANDI Ferguson. 

In this species the following characters are present, but without access to the 
other species I can not say which hold throughout the genus. Upper two-thirds 
or more of the frons densely haired; basal segment of antennae and the entire 
face bare, propleura and posterior portion of mesopleura haired, remainder of 
pleura and the thoracic sternum bare. In the specimens before me I can detect 
no segmentation of the slender apical process of the third antennal segment, 
although Hardy ealls it a “thickened jointed appendage.” 

Four females, Blue Mts., N.S.W., 30.3.1910 (W. W. Froggatt). United States 
National Museum. There is no reference to the specimens biting on the label, 
but the letter covering their submission to Coquillett is not available, so I am 
unaware of the circumstances surrounding the sending. 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 275 


SPANIOPSIS LONGICORNIS Ferguson. 


This species differs from the foregoing one in having the antennae very much 
longer, the third segment being distinctly longer than the head, with the slender 
portion about seven times as long as the basal width of the segment. In addition 
the sternopleura has some hairs on the upper portion which I can not detect in 
any of my specimens of clelandi, and the hairs on the posterior margin of the 
mesopleura are confined to the small isolated sclerite at the upper posterior angle 
instead of being scattered along the entire hind margin. 


Seven females, Mittagong, N.S.W., 8.5.1901 (W. W. Froggatt). United States 
National Museum. No data as to whether these specimens were biting is given on 
labels. 


Genus DAsyomMaA Macquart. 


This genus has been recorded from Tasmania by Hardy (Pap. Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Tasm., 1919, p. 123). I have examined four South American species of the genus, 
including the genotype, and present the following notes thereon so that the generic 
status of the Tasmanian species may be checked by anyone having such available. 
The hairing of the pleural sclerites is, in my opinion, of considerable importance in 
limiting the genera in this family and it is to this character that I would direct 
attention at this time. About the only references in the literature of the family 
to this character are some of quite indefinite nature by Leonard in his revision 
of the North American, and by Bezzi in his paper on South African Rhagionidae. 
Hardy makes no mention of the character in any of his papers on the family. 


The South American species of the genus have the third antennal segment 
much less elongate, or pyriform, than shown in Hardy’s Figure 6 of the paper 
above referred to, and almost identical with his Figure 3 representing the antenna 
of Chrysopilus. The arista is not noticeably segmented, and the face is bare. 
Propleura, hind portion of mesopleura, and the metapleural convexity, haired, the 
other portions of the pleura bare. Second wing-vein ending in or very close to 
apex of first on costa, third vein (R,,;) haired above to its furcation or beyond it; 
five posterior cells present, all open; anal cell open, or closed just at margin of 
the wing. Fore tibia with one, mid and hind tibiae each with two apical ventral 
spurs. 


It may be pertinent to note that Trichopalpus Philippi is a synonym of 
Dasyomma, and that Hunter in 1901 proposed to substitute Trichopalpomyia for 
the former which was preoccupied by Trichopalpus Rondani in Diptera. Also that 
Dasyomma obscurus Philippi has been recorded as a blood-sucker. 


Genus ATHERIMORPHA White. 


This genus was originally described from Tasmania, and has been recorded 
from Australia and South Africa. The latter record, by Bezzi, is rather doubtful, 
but without an examination of his species it is impossible to give a definite decision 
as to its generic status. 

Before me there are four males of a species from Molong, N.S.W. (Froggatt) 
that differ from the genotype in having the eyes closely contiguous on the front 
and possibly they belong to occidens Hardy, which was very briefly described as a 
subspecies of vernalis White in the paper already referred to (Hardy, Zc. p. 126). 
Apart from noting that all four specimens are uniform in colour and markings 
as well as in structure, and that they impress me as likely to prove specifically 

B 


276 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXVIII. 


distinct from vernalis, I do not plan to go, because of lack of other material for 
comparison, but I have also before me several specimens of a Chilean species which 
agrees very closely with the Australian one and present some notes on the 
similarities and distinctions below. The South American species belonging to this 
group are already described, but they have been placed in the genus Leptis 
(= Rhagio). 

Both groups are distinguished from Rhagio by the segmented arista, five 
segments being generally evident, the entirely bare face, the longer second wing- 
vein which enters the costa as far beyond the tip of the first vein as the tip of the 
latter is from the tip of the subcosta, and the continuation as a linear series of the 
long bristly hairs on the metapleural convexity up to almost the anterior lateral 
edge of the scutellum. In Rhagio these hairs are confined to the convexity, while 
in Chrysopilus they cover almost the entire metapleura above the level of the 
bases of the halteres. In the above features the two groups agree, as well as in 
having the mesopleura and pteropleura bare, and the sternopleura haired below 
only, but the Australian examples have some setulose hairs on the posterior 
portion of the postalar declivity just in front of the lateral angle of the scutellum, 
which are entirely lacking in the South American forms. 

The preponderance of similarities in characters over the dissimilarities would 
suggest the advisability of placing the two groups in one genus, but a division into 
two subgenera, and for the South American segregate I propose the subgenus 
Philippoleptis, with the type Leptis praefica Philippi. 


Genus CHRYSOPILUS Macquart. 


I have not seen any Australian representative of this genus but have seen 
several from the East Indies, including also one from Aru Island. Bezzi has 
recorded coeruleothorax Linder from the Fiji Islands. 

Hardy has placed the two species described by White as synonyms of aequalis 
Walker, but I rather fear that this may be erroneous, as the genus is one in 
which the colour characters have to be depended upon largely for specific dis- 
tinctions, and in other faunal regions than Australia these are quite stable and 
dependable for that purpose. 


THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA. XII. 


THE GENUS SCLERODERMA, 


By G. H. CUNNINGHAM, 
Mycologist, Plant Research Station, Palmerston North, N.Z. 


(Plates xv-xvi; six Text-figures.) 
[Read 29th July, 1931.] 


The genus Scleroderma is placed in the family Sclerodermaceae of the 
Gasteromycetes and is characterized by the simple peridium, usual irregular 
method of:‘dehiscence, pulverulent gleba and absence of a definite capillitium. 
The family is limited to the genera Scleroderma and Pisolithus, though Fischer 
(1900, p. 334) included Melanogaster and Corditubera (members of the Hymeno- 
gastraceae), Pompholyx and Sclerangium (synonyms of Scleroderma). 

Scleroderma is separated from Pisolithus by the pulverulent gleba, for in the 
latter genus the tramal plates become carbonous and persistent. The morphology 
of the genus is simple. The peridium is composed of hyphae intricately inter- 
woven to form a firm membrane, which in mature specimens is not or seldom 
clearly differentiated from the periphery of the gleba. It is usually borne on a 
short rooting base which is firmly attached to the substratum by numerous well 
developed, fibrous mycelia! strands or rhizoids. Occasionally these unite to form 
definite cords, which sometimes become aggregated and produce a columnar 
rooting base often many centimetres long. In one species (S. radicans) the hyphae 
which normally form the rhizoids become intricately interwoven to form a 
columnar, stem-like tissue which penetrates for several centimetres into the 
sandy soil in which this plant grows (PI. xvi, fig. 7). 

The peridium encloses the gleba. This is at maturity pulverulent and com- 
posed of very numerous spores mixed with a few mycelial threads, which are the 
remnants of the tramal plates. These are usually termed capillitium threads, but 
this term is scarcely applicable since these structures are not comparable with 
the capillitium of the Lycoperdaceae. The spores are of two distinct types, reticu- 
late and verrucose, and serve as excellent characters upon which to group the 
species. 

Development. 

The development of members of this genus is comparatively simple. The 
plants arise as terminal or lateral inflations on the ends of the rhizoids. Sections 
of these primordia show them to consist of interwoven hyphae without differen- 
tiation or arrangement. When plants are about 5 mm. in diameter, glebal develop- 
ment commences. Deeply staining areas arise scattered through the tissue, being 
more distinct and numerous centrally, scattered and poorly defined peripherally, 
the greater part of the plant being as yet undifferentiated. These deeply staining 
areas become aggregated into dense hyphal knots, closely and intricately inter- 
woven. At the same time the surrounding hyphae of the fructification become more 


278 THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, XII, 


densely compacted and peripherally become arranged with their long axes pre- 
dominantly radial. Further development is for a time confined to the knots of 
hyphae which, in addition to increasing peripherally in numbers, increase in size 
and shortly become oriented so that ‘most surround a lenticular zone. ‘Those 
hyphae facing towards the centre of this zone become torn apart, their free 
apices assume a clavate appearance, and become modified as basidia. They enlarge 
somewhat, and bear sessilely a variable number of spores. At first but one or 
two spores are produced upon each, but as development continues this number 
increases, so that basidia in older plants may bear from four to five spores; but 
the number and position are seldom constant. Opinions differ as to what happens 
in this plexus of hyphae and basidia subsequently. Beck (1889) claimed that in 
Phlyctospora fuscum Cda. (which Fischer, 1900, p. 336, placed under Scleroderma) 
when the spores were less than half size they became surrounded by a sheath of 
hyphal cells which served as nutritive or “nurse” cells. A similar condition was 
reported by Rabinowitsch (1894) in Scleroderma Bovista. Coker and Couch (1928, 
p. 168) found that with S. lycoperdoides Schw. the fertile tissue, including the 
basidia, was broken down into a translucent, almost structureless mass surround- 
ing and embedding the spores, which at this period were hyaline, smooth and only 
about half size. They concluded that as the basidia disappeared before the spores 
were more than half developed, this matrix served as a nutritive substance. I 
have found in S. flavidwm that the spores, shortly before they are half grown, are 
surrounded by a number of loosely attached small and hyaline cells, but that these 
soon gelatinize and embed the spores in a matrix similar to that recorded by 
Coker and Couch; and in S. Bovista a condition similar to that described by Beck 
and Rabinowitsch. 

Additional hyphal knots continue to develop between others in the tramal 
tissue, and this process continues until finally the whole of the central tissue of the 
gleba has become converted into spores (and mucilaginous investment), save the 
peripheral region and (according to the species) scattered rudiments of the 
undifferentiated gleba which persists as the so-called capillitium. There is no 
sharp differentiation between the periphery of the gleba and peridium, the zone 
being continuously interrupted by partial plates of undifferentiated tissue; conse- 
quently it often happens that when dehiscence occurs part of the peridium is torn 
away and left as a fine membrane covering the spore mass. (This additional 
tissue has been responsible for the erection of the genera Stella and, in part, 
Sclerangium). Thus both tramal plates and peridium are but undifferentiated 
potential sporogenous tissue. In many plants glebal formation continues until the 
apical portion of the peridium is almost completely converted, when there remains 
but a shell which ruptures readily. 

The genus has proved a difficult one for the systematist, there being little 
agreement as to the specific limits of the few known species. This confusion has 
arisen through attempts being made to base species upon such variable characters 
as the surface of the peridium, colour of the peridium and gleba, and: method of 
dehiscence. Within limits, these characters are useful, but too variable to be used 
alone in specific diagnosis. For example in the common species of Australia and 
New Zealand, S. flavidum, the peridium may be almost smooth, finely warted, 
areolate or, in extreme forms, covered with coarse seales. The colour may range 
from bright citron-yellow to vinaceous brown. The plant may rupture apically in 
an irregular manner, or it may break into lobes which become strongly recurved 
and in old specimens stellate, then resembling certain forms of S. Geaster. The 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 279 


gleba may vary from ferruginous to umber-brown, depending (partly) on age at 
the time of collection, and the locality in which the plant is growing, and may 
possess persistent tramal plates, or these may be wanting. This variation is not 
confined to this species alone, but is exhibited by numerous others; for S. Bovista 
may externally exactly resemble S. cepa; similarly S. flavidum may resemble 
S. aurantium, and both may resemble S. Bovista. After examining a large series 
of specimens I believe that the spores form one of the most reliable guides, as, 
if their size and markings are considered, it is often easy to place an otherwise 
difficult specimen. The spores are either definitely reticulate or else covered with 
acute spines or blunt verrucae. These characters are not readily seen unless the 
specimens are mounted in a suitable clearing agent. I use a solution of lactic 
acid in water, for if spores are mounted in this and heated to boiling point their 
markings are rendered free from obscuring matter, and may be examined 
critically. As older workers seldom recognized spore characters, it is often diffi- 
cult to decide the species with which they were dealing. Many of the species 
considered valid today were erected by Persoon or Fries, and for an interpretation 
of these in the light of spore characters it is necessary to refer to Hollos (1904) 
who was the first clearly to describe and iilustrate these structures. His work has 
therefore come to be regarded as the authoritative one for the common European 
species. Coker and Couch (1928) have likewise used the spores as one of the 
critical diagnostic features, with the result that the North American species 
considered in their publication can be recognized readily. Lloyd (1905) worked 
over the Australian and New Zealand species, and his work has come to be 
regarded locally as the standard for this region. Unfortunately he appeared to 
have had but a scant knowledge of the genus, and ignored the spores in his 
papers, consequently his diagnoses are of little value. This is exemplified by the 
material named by him in the collections I have worked over, for collections of 
S. flavidum have been referred to no less than six species, of which three are not 
known with certainty to occur in this region! 


SCLERODERMA Persoon. 


Ex Fries, Syst. Myc., iii, 1829, p. 44; Pers., Syn. Meth. Fung., 1801, p. 150, pro 
parte—Sclerangium Lev., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, ix, 1848, p. 1382.—Stelia Mass., 
Jour. Myc., v, 1890, p. 185. 

Plants solitary or in groups, subglobose, pyriform or subturbinate. Peridium 
firm, consisting of a single layer, externally frequently broken into areolae, 
verrucae or scales; contracted basally into a short rooting base which is firmly 
attached to the substratum by (usually) an abundant development of mycelial 
strands. Gleba formed of tramal plates enclosing cavities in which are produced 
the spores, becoming pulverulent at maturity. Spores globose, coloured, continuous, 
externally reticulate or verrucose. 

Type Species.—Scleroderma aurantium Pers. 

Distribution.—W orld-wide. 

The number of species which have been recorded is large, the numerous 
volumes of Saccardo’s Sylloge fungorum containing upwards of 60 species; but it is 
improbable that there are more than about one-sixth this number, the others being 
synonyms of these or of Mycenastrum, with which genus Scleroderma was regu- 
larly confused by the compilers. ; 

In Australia and New Zealand the genus is represented by the following five 
species, of which two are confined to Australia. It appears strange that the 


280 THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, XII, 


common European 8S. Geaster, S. aurantium and S. cepa have not been found in 
this region; but of the 95 collections examined, none can be referred to these three 
well-known species. Equally strange is the absence of S. Bovista from Australia, 
for this appears to be not uncommon in New Zealand. 


Key to the Species. 
Spores; stron eilys reticulate. fs “hase w weeks ies Siena Lehane ae es tee ee 1. S. Bovista. 
Spores echinulate or verrucose. 

Spores 6-10 « diameter, commonly 6-8 uw; finely and densely verruculose .......... 
BECO CURL H SUCH Hea RnR bets iodine deacaoka iol mesa Cae ich Getic MAGTHE SEM OLA sa 5, a ts lah eb peated 2. S. australe. 
Spores 10-12 ms diameter, sharply echinulate; peridium covered with fine, darker 
coloured), declduousipwaLtSitason: cee a eee en eee 3. S. verrucosum. 

Spores usually 11-14 mw diameter, or larger, coarsely echinulate or verrucose. 
Peridium thin, leathery and attached by numerous mycelial strands .......... 
IRN DSC eEM ay Lec teers A tioaa airs 5 eopckosercao tt MARS TO CR AERD Loy Fp Siatcha ib to Mh oraauals 4. S. flavidum. 
Peridium thick, hard and woody, usually attached by a firm mycelial tap- 
TOO Gg oi shapepin ty Seco isteaw agap hans euccebe acy dS saccite cutee 2 ea SA UE lS ret re 5. S. radicans. 


1. ScLERODERMA Bovista Fries. Plate xv, fig. 1; Text-fig. 1. 

Syst. Myc., iii, 1829, p. 48S. terense Berk., Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot., iv, 1845, 
p. 308. 

Plants solitary or gregarious, to 4 cm. diameter, compressed globose, firm, 
somewhat plicate below, with a short rooting base or almost sessile, and attached 
firmly to the substratum by a plentiful development of rhizoids. Peridium when 
dry tough, firm, dehiscing by irregular rupture of the apical portion, rarely by a 
definite mouth, externally furfuraceous, or less frequently areolate apically, bright 
sulphur-yellow or more often bay-brown or pallid-umber, often somewhat vinaceous; 
in section thin, 0-5 mm. or less, yellowish or vinaceous. Gleba at first violaceous, 
becoming umber-brown; tramal plates often persistent, yellow, hyphae with 
distinct clamp connections. Spores strongly reticulate, globose, 11-16 mu (com- 
monly 11-13 «), deep-umber tinged with chocolate, reticulations to 3 wu tall. 

Habitat—Growing amongst grass on sandy or cultivated soil. 

Type Locality.—Germany. 

Distribution—EHurope; North America; New Zealand. 

New Zealand: Auckland, Buried Village, Wairoa, 2/27, J. B. Cleland, G.H.C.; 
Whakarewarewa State Forest Nursery, 5/28, G.H.C.; Taranaki, Botanical Gardens, 
New Plymouth, 2/27, G.H.C.; Wellington, Wanganui, 4/25, D. W. McKenzie; 
Palmerston North, 5/30, 2/31, G.H.C.; Weraroa, 3/25, J. C. Neill. 

The characters of this species are the strongly reticulated spores, thin but 
firm, usually externally smooth peridium, and subpersistent yellow tramal plates, 
the hyphae of which possess abundant clamp connections. 

Owing to the confusion which exists in literature, few workers are agreed 
as to the characters of this species. I am following Hollos (1904, p. 1382), Rea 
(1922, p. 49) and Coker and Couch (1928, p. 163) in considering it to be the plant 
described above. 

As the plant normally grows it is firm and somewhat globose, dark in colour 
and with a well-developed rooting base; but collections from the Rotorua district 
(New Zealand) are quite yellow, and more lax. The spores are identical in both, 
however, so that it is not practicable to maintain these yellow plants as distinct, 
especially as intermediate forms occur. 

It appears strange that the species has not been represented in Australia in 
the abundant collections in the possession of Dr. Cleland. True, it has been 
recorded by Cooke (1892, p. 240) from Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland; 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 281 


but as both he and Berkeley confused the plant with S. flavidum (repeatedly identi- 
fying this as S. Bovista, as the collections at Kew show), it is evident no reliance 
can be placed upon his records. Lloyd (1905, p. 14) stated that at Kew there 
were several collections of a plant he called S. texense, and considered this was a 
form of S. Bovista. But as his diagnosis was based on the subpersistent tramal 
plates, a character equally present in S. flavidum, it becomes evident that his 
records, too, are inaccurate. 


75, pag 
Re ee a 
& 2 Sag Se = 
weve aN > 
sys ee 


Text-figs. 1-6. 
1.—Scleroderma Bovista. Spores showing reticulations. 
2.—Scleroderma australe. Spores showing fine verrucae. 
3.—Scleroderma flavidum. Spores from typical form. 
4.—_Scleroderma flavidum forma macrosporum. Spores from a plant in which 
they are larger and more coarsely warted than in the typical form. 
5.—Scleroderma verrucosum. Spores showing the somewhat sparse spines. 
6.—Scleroderma radicans. Spores showing spines. ; 
(All spores are x 1000; they have been drawn with the aid of a projection 
apparatus, from lactic acid mounts). 


S. Bovista is often found associated with healthy roots of Pinus radiata in 
the forest nursery at Whakarewarewa, and has been found similarly with straw- 
berries at Palmerston North. It is probable that the species form a mycorrhiza 
with the former host, since Peyronel (1922) found that S. “vulgare” formed 
mycorrhiza with roots of Larix decidua and Quercus robur in Italy. 


2. SCLERODERMA AUSTRALE Massee. Plate xv, fig. 2; Text-fig. 2. 


Grevillea, xviii, 1889, p. 26. 

Plants solitary or crowded, to 4 cm. diameter, commonly much less, sub- 
globose, pyriform or subturbinate, firm, basally plicate and attached by a short 
rooting base, or not infrequently sessile and attached by several scattered basal 
mycelial cords. Peridium when dry tough, tardily rupturing by irregular crevices, 
lobes in old and weathered plants becoming somewhat recurved and stellate; 


282 THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, XII, 


externally bright lemon-yellow, often bay-brown, areolate apically, and sometimes 
with smooth flattened scales of a deeper colour, or almost smooth; in section thin, 
0-5 mm., yellowish. Gleba at first violaceous, becoming umber-brown; tramal 
plates seen usually only in young plants, yellowish. Spores globose, 6-10 yu 
(commonly 6-8-5 u“), finely verrucose; spines acute at apices, broad at bases and 
only 0:5 » long. 

Habitat—Growing solitary or in small groups in sandy soil. 

Type Locality—Hndeavour River, Queensland. 

Distribution.—Australia. 

Queensland: Endeavour River (Massee, J.c.)—New South Wales: Sydney* 
(Lloyd, No. 119, as S. flavidum); Neutral Bay, 6/12*, 3/19*; The Oaks, 6/14*; 
Terrigal, 6/14*; Mt. Irvine, 6/15* (Lloyd, No. 118, as S. cepa); Milson Island, 
6/16*; Kendall, 12/17*, 3/18*; Bradley’s Head, Sydney, 4/19*; Sydney, no date* 
(two collections); no locality* (three collections).—Victoria: Grantville, J. T. 
Paul (Herb. Vic. Dept. Agr., Lloyd, as S. flavidum).—South Australia: Mt. Lofty, 
7/14*. 


SCLERODERMA AUSTRALE, Var. IMBRICATUM, Nn. var. 


Peridium to 5 cm. diameter, subturbinate, firm and rigid; attached by a small 
rooting base, almost sessile; externally covered with coarse imbricate scales, 
ferruginous in colour; in section to 2-5 mm. thick, bay-brown. Gleba umber- 
brown. Spores as above. 

Habitat.—At the base of a tree trunk in burnt ground. 

Distribution.—Australia. 3 

New South Wales: Narrabeen, 4/15* (Lloyd identified this as S. Geaster and 
it was so recorded by Cleland and Cheel, Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 1916, 
p. 114). 

This usually small species appears to be relatively common in New South 
Wales, but apparently rare in the other States. It is characterized by the small 
spores, with their fine verrucae, yellowish colour, usually strongly areolate surface 
of the peridium, and frequent attachment to the substratum by several stout cord- 
like rhizoids. Superficially, plants resemble S. flaviduwm in the yellowish colour, 
areolate upper portion of the peridium, and stellate dehiscence as shown by old 
and weathered plants; but differ in the much smaller, finely verrucose spores and 
the frequent darker colour of the surface areolae. 

The variety imbricatum was identified by Lloyd as S. Geaster. It certainly 
‘has the thick peridium and imbricate scales of forms of this species; but as the 
spores are the same as S. australe it must be considered as distinct from S. Geaster, 
in which the spores are reticulated (Rea, 1922, p. 50) or imperfectly so (Coker and 
Couch, 1928, p. 162). The size of the spores of S. Geaster is given by Rea as being 
12-15 uw, whereas Coker and Couch state they are but 5-10 uw. Apart from this 
aberrant specimen (placed under the variety imbricatum) WS. australe differs from 
S. Geaster in being much smaller, and in its different dehiscence and much thinner 
wall of the peridium. 

The plant agrees well with the description of S. australe as published by 
Massee, so I am using his name; but comparison with the type is no longer 
possible as, according to Lloyd (1905, p. 14), he was unable to find this at Kew. 


* An asterisk denotes that the collection in question is in the herbarium of Dr. J. B. 
Cleland, Adelaide; and where no collector is given, the collection has been made by Dr. 
Cleland himself. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 283 


3. SCLERODERMA VERRUCOSUM (Vaillant) Persoon. Plate xv, fig. 3; Text-fig. 5. 

Syn. Meth. Fung., 1801, p. 154.—S. areolatum Ebrenb., Sylv. myc. Berol., 1818, 
p. 27—S. pandanaceum F.v.M. ex Berk., Journ. Linn. Soc., xiii, 1872, p. 171.— 
S. Bresadolae Schulz., Hedw., xxiii, 1884, p. 163.—S. Torrendii Bres., Atti I.R. Acc. 
Net., ser. 3, viii, 1902; p: 132. 

Plants solitary, small, to 4 cm. diameter, fragile, depressed globose, not plicate 
below, contracting into a short stem-like rooting base which is attached to the 
substratum by mycelial strands. Peridium when dry fragile, lax, dehiscing by a 
small torn mouth, which later becomes torn and distorted, externally ochraceous 
or umber, sometimes with a purplish cast, typically covered with small, deciduous, 
raised, umber warts, more numerous and larger apically, absent near the base, 
which is smooth and lighter in colour; in section 0-2-0-5 mm. thick, ochraceous. 
Gleba at first with an olivaceous tinge, becoming umber; tramal plates whitish, 
becoming dingy-grey, scanty. Spores globose, sometimes subglobose, 9-12 mu in 
diameter, pallid ferruginous-brown, closely and coarsely echinulate; spines with 
acuminate apices, narrow bases, and to 1:5 uw long. 

Habitat—Growing solitary on the ground in sandy soil. 

Type Locality.—Hurope. 

Distribution—Europe; Africa; Asia Minor; Australia. 

South Australia: Mt. Lofty, 4/24*—-New South Wales: Hawkesbury River, 
6/12, J. B. Cleland (Herb. Vic. Dept. Agr.); Neutral Bay, 6/12*, 12/15*, 5/19*; 
Mosman, 5/14*, 5/19* (Lloyd, No. 520, as S. verrucosum); Bulli Pass, 4/14* 
(Lloyd, No. 121 as S. verrucosum); no locality* (two collections). 

This species may be recognized by its brittle, thin peridium, externally 
covered with darker warts, the manner of dehiscence, small but distinct rooting 
base, and the characteristic echinulate spores. The plant is usually smaller in 
Australia than in Europe, and the spores are also slightly smaller. But as I have 
small specimens from Hurope (ex Bresadola herbarium) which cannot be separated 
from the Australian plant, it is evident that our plant is but a form of the 
European one. The species is in North America replaced by the very similar 
S. lycoperdoides Schw., which differs from the Australian plant by the larger 
spores, different method of dehiscence and subpersistent hyphae of the tramal 
plates. 


4. ScLERODERMA FLAVIDUM Hllis and Everhart. Plate xvi, figs. 4, 5; Text-fig. 3. 


Journ. Myc., i, 1875, p. 88—S. caespitosum Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 1922, p. 1159.— 
S. flavidum var. fenestratum Clel. et Cheel, Trans. Roy. Soc. South Aus., xlvii, 
UD23. 10s HH 

Plants solitary or gregarious, sometimes caespitose, growing half buried until 
maturity, to 5 cm. diameter, firm, pyriform, or subturbinate, often lobed, usually 
plicate below, contracting into a mass of mycelial fibres, which occasionally form 
a conspicuous stem-like base. Peridium when dry tough, leathery and seldom 
brittle, to 1 mm. thick, dehiscing by irregular rupture into several lobes, which in 
old weathered plants frequently become recurved and stellate; pallid-straw colour, 
bright lemon-yellow, or tinged vinaceous, often drying dingy-brown, finely areolate 
above, sometimes almost smooth. Gleba at first olivaceous, becoming dingy- 
ferruginous or umber-brown; tramal plates often subpersistent, yellow. Spores 
globose, 10-14 » (commonly 10-13 “), coarsely and densely echinulate; spines 
acuminately pointed, somewhat narrow at their bases, to 1:5 » leng. 

Habitat.—Growing on sandy soil, or partially buried in clay or rock cuttings. 


284 THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, XII, 


Type Locality.—New Jersey, North America. 

Distribution.—North America; Africa; Australia; New Zealand. 

South Australia: Kuitpo, 5/21* (two collections); Mt. Lofty, 7/14*; near 
Adelaide, 1930*; Overland Corner, 12/13*; Hagle-on-Hill, 1920* (Lloyd, No. 692, as 
S. flavidum); same locality, 6/21*; no locality*. (three collections).—New South 
Wales: Milson Island, 6/12* (Lloyd, No. 120, as 8. flavidum); Sydney, 4/19*; east 
of Broken Hill, Dr. Pulleine*; Narrabri, 10/18* (Lloyd, No. 532, as S. awrantium). 
—Western Australia: Donnybrook, 8/26*; Dwarda, 8/26, W. M. Carne; Ludlow, 
8/20, J. Clark (these two collections in herb. Dept. Agr. W. Aus.).—New Zealand: 
Wellington, 5/22, J. B. Cleland*. 


forma MACROSPORUM. ‘Text-fig. 4. 

Spores larger, to 19 » (commonly 14-16 uw) and with more coarse spines, which 
sometimes appear as fused warts. Otherwise identical with the typical form. 

Distribution.—South Australia: Adelaide, Mr. Zietz*; Mt. Lofty, 5/10*, 7/20*, 
3/24*, 6/25*; Mt. Remarkable, 8/27*; no locality* (eight collections).—New South 
Wales: Sydney*; Bibbenluke, 3/13*.—Victoria: Dimboola, 7/90, 6/91 (two collec- 
tions, the former identified by Lloyd as S. Geaster, the latter as S. Bovista; both 
in herb. Vic. Dept. Agr.); Ararat, 5/18, E. J. Semmens*; Dandenong, 7/17, C. C. 
Brittlebank*.—Western Australia: Pemberton, 8/26* (two collections) ; Mundaring, 
7/25, W. M.: Carne.—Tasmania: No locality, L. Rodway.—New Zealand: Auckland, 
Waitakere, 9/21, D. Miller; Rotorua, 7/23, G.H.C.; Wellington, Botanic Gardens, 
5/22, 10/22, 1/28, G.H.C. (seven collections) ; Kelburn, 10/23, G.H.C.; Nelson, 2/20, 
G.H.C. (Lloyd, as 8S. cepa); Otago, Deborah Bay, 9/26, Miss H. K. Dalrymple; 
Dunedin, 5/22, 9/22, 7/23, Miss Dalrymple (all in writer’s herbarium). 

The characters of the species (typical form) are the firm, areolate, rela- 
tively thick peridium, method of dehiscence and frequent stellate appearance of old 
specimens, subpersistent tramal plates, and definitely echinulate spores. The form 
macrosporum appears to differ only in that the spores are larger and more 
coarsely warted; but as numerous intermediate forms occur it is not possible to 
separate it other than as a form. 

The species has doubtless been the basis of most of the records by Cooke (1892, 
p. 240) of the occurrence in Australia of S. aurantium (many plants being yellow 
in colour), S. Geaster (as in old plants the peridium becomes lobed and the lobes 
recurved and stellate), and S. vulgare (which consists of both S. aurantium and 
S. cepa); for it is decidedly variable in size, form, colour and surface markings 
and the degree of development of the mycelial rooting base. From S. aurantium 
and S. Geaster it is separated by the echinulate spores (reticulate in these two 
species), and from S. cepa (its nearest relative apparently) by the usually larger 
spores, and especially in the thicker, differently coloured, areolate peridium. As I 
have shown above, Lloyd had difficulty with the species, for he named different 
collections from Australia S. aurantium, 8. flavidum, S. Geaster, S. Bovista, (and 
from New Zealand) S. cepa and S. caespitosum (this last being based on a form not 
uncommon in New Zealand where it grows in rock cuttings, the plants being 
compacted together owing to the limited space available in the rock crevices 
in which it develops). But this is scarcely to be wondered at, since he attempted 
diagnosis upon the nature of the surface of the peridium and manner of dehiscence, 
characters which are worthless specifically in this difficult genus. 

Judging from the numerous collections I have examined, this would appear 
to be the most frequent and variable species in Australia. It is not practicable to 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 285 


maintain the variety fenestratum, for it appears in both large and normal spored 
forms and in addition in other species (as S. radicans). Brittlebank stated (vide 
Cleland and Cheel, 1923, p. 76) that the species was found at Dandenong to 
parasitize the roots of roses. 


5. SCLERODERMA RADICANS Lloyd. Plate xvi, figs. 6, 7; Text-fig. 6. 


Mycological Notes, 1906, p. 246. 

Plants solitary, to 5 ecm. diameter, subglobose, obovate or subpyriform, firm, 
plicate below, with usually a strong compact mycelial rooting base which is not 
broken into fibres but forms a solidly interwoven tissue of hyphae and sand. 
Peridium when dry hard, firm and woody, dehiscing by irregular breaking away 
of the upper portion, not lobed, long indehiscent, externally furfuraceous or 
minutely and irregularly areolate, pallid-white, becoming ochraceous; in section 
to 5 mm. thick, commonly 1:5-2 mm., but thicker below and pallid-ochraceous. 
Gleba at first ferruginous, becoming umber; tramal plates white, becoming greyish, 
seanty and practically disappearing in old plants. Spores globose, chestnut- 
brown, 12-14 w (up to 16 ww), densely, closely verrucose-echinulate; spines 
acuminate at their apices, moderately broad at their bases, and (including the 
wall of the spore) to 2 wu long. 

Habitat— Growing under scrub, often buried in sand. 

Type Locality.—Bank of the Wimmera River, Victoria. 

Distribution.—Australia. 

Victoria: Wimmera River, F. M. Reader (Lloyd, U.c.)—New South Wales: 
Baradine, 10/18*; Wangan, 10/18* (two collections, Lloyd, Nos. 553, 504, as S. 
flavidum); Narrabri, 10/18*—South Australia: Murray River*; probably near 
Overland Corner*.—Western Australia: Bindoon, 9/25, W. M. Carne. 

The species is characterized by the thick, hard and woody peridium, which 
basally attains a thickness of 5 mm., pallid colour, greyish, scantily developed 
tramal plates, and peculiar rooting base. This last consists of a dense tissue of 
interwoven hyphae in part mixed with sand, and is quite distinct from the fibrous 
rooting system of other species recorded herein. It was upon this character that 
Lloyd erected the species; but as I have shown, it differs in many other particulars 
from S. cepa, with which Lloyd stated it was closely related (possibly because of 
the usually smooth peridium). The spores are close to those of S. flavidum, so 
that plants lacking the peculiar base might be placed under that species; but the 
hard and woody, thick, light-coloured peridium and scanty tramal tissue serve to 
distinguish it. 


Doubtful and Hxcluded Species. 


a. Scleroderma aurantium Pers.—Recorded by Lloyd (Letter 66, 1917, p. 15) 
from Australia. This is a misdetermination of S. flavidum as has been shown 
under this species. 

6. Scleroderma aureum Mass., Grev., xviii, 1889, p. 26—Recorded by Massee 
from New Guinea. It was said to possess smooth spores 5 » in diameter, which 
seems improbable. The description reads as if the species were based on an 
immature specimen of S. flavidum, but the matter cannot be solved apparently, 
since Lloyd (1905, p. 14) stated that he was unable to find the type at Kew. 

c. Scleroderma cepa Pers.—lLloyd frequently recorded this species from Aus- 
tralia (Letter 17, 1907, p. 3; Letter 23, 1908, p. 3; Letter 30, 1911, p..6; Letter 53, 
iUGil4l, jo, Ids siaiwer G2, 19l6, w. 28 ineier Gd. IG 0, G82 wogaer G6, IOUT, io, 3s 


286 THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, XII, 


Letter 67, 1918, p. 10; Myc. Notes, 1921, p. 1074; Myc. Notes, 1922, p. 1120), from 
Tasmania (Myc. Notes, 1921, p. 1089) and New Zealand (Letter 8, 1905, p. 2; 
Letter 67, 1918, p. 2; and Myc. Notes, 1922, p. 1160). But from his notes and the 
specimens I have examined I believe his records to be based on young specimens 
of 8. flavidum and mature plants of 8. Bovista. (See his determinations under 
these two species). A stipitate form he figured (Myc. Notes, 1918, p. 759) as 
S. columnare. This appears to be based on a specimen of S. Bovista with a some- 
what abnormal development of the stem-like base. 


d. S. Geaster Fr.—Lloyd (Myc. Notes, 1906, p. 246; Letter 61, 1916, p. 3) 
recorded this species from Australia and (Myc. Notes, 1923, p. 1186) from New 
Zealand. I have examined specimens he has so determined and find two are 
typically S. flavidum, the third being S. australe var. imbricatum. Cooke (1892, 
p. 240) recorded the species from every State in Australia and also from Tasmania; 
but his records appear to be based on S. flavidum, as numerous collections at Kew 
labelled S. Geaster are of this species. 

e. S. olivaceum (Cke. et Mass.) de Toni.—This is a synonym of Mycenastrum 
corium (Guers.) Desv. 

f. S. pandanaceum F.v.Muell. ex Berk., Journ. Linn. Soc., xiii, 1872, p. 171.— 
This I believe to be a synonym of S. verrucosum, although the description is so 
poor as to make specific diagnosis impossible. Lloyd (1905, p. 14) was unable to 
find the type at Kew. 

g. S. phaeotrichum (Berk.) de Toni—This is a synonym of Mycenastrum 
corium. 

h. Scleroderma (Areolaria) strobolina Kalch.—This is a synonym of 
Phellorina strobilina Kalchbr. et Cke. 

i. S. umbrina Cke. et Mass.—This is a synonym of Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) 
Coker et Couch. 

j. S. vulgare (Hornem.) Fr.—This has been recorded from most of the States 
by Cooke (1892, p. 240) and from New South Wales by Lloyd (Letter 63, 1916, p. 3). 
It is now known to consist of the two species S. awrantium and S. cepa, neither of 
which, as I have shown, has with certainty been collected in this biologie region. 


Acknowledgements. 


Once again I must express my indebtedness to Dr. J. B. Cleland for the loan of 
the large number of collections in his possession. I must also thank Mr. L. 
Rodway, Tasmania, Mr. C. C. Brittlebank, late of the Department of Agriculture, 
Victoria, and Mr. W. M. Carne, of the Department of Agriculture, Western Aus- 
tralia, for the loan or donations of specimens in their collections. Thanks are 
also due to Mr. H. Drake, of this Station, for the excellent photographs repro- 
duced herein. 


Literature Cited. 

Brecx, G. R. von M., 1889.—Ueber die Sporenbildung der Gattung Phlyctospora Cda. 
Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., vii, p. 212-218. 

CLELAND, J. B., and CHEEL, E., 1923.—Australian Fungi: Notes and Descriptions, No. 4. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. South Aus., xlvii, pp. 58-78. 

Coker, W. C., and Coucu, J. N., 1928.—The Gasteromycetes of the Eastern United States 
and Canada, 201 pp. 

Cooks, M. C., 1892.—Handbook of the Awstralian Fungi, 458 pp. 

FiscHgr, Ep., 1900.—Sclerodermaceae, in Engler and Prantl, Natwerliche Pflanzenfamilien, 
i, pp. 334-338. 

Houuos, L., 1904.—Die Gastromyceten Ungarns, 278 pp. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XV. 


Scleroderma spp. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


PLATE 


Scleroderma 


spp. 


BY G@. H. CUNNINGHAM. 287 


Luorp, C. G., 1905.—The Lycoperdaceae of Australia, New Zealand and Neighboring 
Islands, 43 pp. 

PEYRONEL, B., 1922.—Nuovi casi di rapporti micorizici tra Basidiomiceti e Fanerogame 
arboree. Bull. Soc. Bot. Ital., i, pp. 7-14. 

RABINOWITSCH, LiypiA, 1894.—Beitraege zur Entwicklungsgeschichte oder Fructkoerper 
einiger Gastromyceten. Flora, Ixxix, pp. 385-418. 

REA, CARLETON, 1922.—British Basidiomycetae, 799 p.. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES XV-XVI. 
Plate xv. 

Fig. 1.—Scleroderma Bovista. x §. Note the almost sessile, smooth peridium and 
the strong development of mycelial fibres. 

Fig. 2.—Scleroderma australe. x #§. This photograph well shows the strongly 
areolate peridium, method of dehiscence, and cord-like rooting strands. 

Fig. 3.—Sclerederma verrweosum., x #. ‘The darker coloured warts and areolate 
exterior of the peridium are well shown in this photograph. A plant has been sectioned 
to show the variations in the surface markings on different sides of the same peridium. 


Plate xvi. 

Fig. 4.—Secleroderma flavidum, typical form. x 4. Note variations in the surfaces 
of the plants on right and in the centre. A stellate weathered plant is shown on the 
left. j 

Fig. 5.—Scleroderma flavidum. x 3. Plant showing the finely areolate peridium 
and strong development of the mycelial rhizoids. 

Fig. 6.—Scleroderma radicans. x 4. Note the almost smooth exterior. The strongly 
developed mycelial tap root has been broken away from this specimen. 

Fig. 7.—Scleroderma radicans. x }. Plant at top left exactly resembles the plant 
from which Lloyd described the species; on the right is shown the peculiar tap root; and 
on the lower left is shown a section exhibiting the thick woody peridium, and gleba almost 
free from rudiments of tramal tissue. 

(All photographs by H. Drake.) 


THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA. XIII. 


THE GENUS PISOLITHUS. 


By G. H. CunNINGHAM, 
Mycologist, Plant Research Station, Palmerston North, N.Z. 


(Plate xvii.) 
[Read 26th August, 1931.] 


As has been shown in the previous paper, the family Sclerodermaceae is 
limited to the genera Scleroderma and Pisolithus. The latter differs from the 
former in that the tramal plates, instead of breaking up and disappearing in 
mature plants, remain to form a honeycomb-like tissue. This is due to the 
persistence of the tramal plates, the hyphae of which are infiltrated and gelatinized 
to form a firm, carbonous, brittle tissue. The spore mass at maturity completely 
fills these cavities; and in developing plants is enclosed within a delicate hyphal 
layer, free from the carbonous tramal plates. Because of this, these spore masses 
have been termed peridiola, a term which has persisted since the days of Fries; 
but as they are not comparable with the peridiola of the Nidulariales, the term is 
a misnomer and should be discarded. In typical plants the peridium is supported 
upon a firm rooting base, and as this structure is also carbonous in mature plants, 
it frequently persists for long after the more fragile peridium has been dispersed. 
The genus is at home in warm sandy regions, and, although common in Australia, 
is confined to the thermal regions of the North Island of New Zealand. 


PisoLtitHus Albertini and Schweinitz. 


Consp. fung. Lusatiae swp. Nisk. cresent., 1805, p. 82.—Scleroderma Pers., 
Syn. Meth. Fung., 1801, p. 151, pro parte.—Polysaccum DC. et Desp., Rapp. voy. bot. 
VOuest Fr., i, 1807, p. 8.—Pisocarpium Link, Mag. Ges. nat. Freunde Berlin, iii, 
USO, Ws Bar 

Plant consisting of a peridium supported on a stem-like rooting base. Peridium 
of a single thin membranous layer, flaking away irregularly from the apex. Gleba 
divided into polygonal cells by the persistent tramal plates; cells filled with the 
spore mass, a true capillitium wanting. Spores coloured, globose, verrucose. 

Habitat.—Growing half buried in the ground in sandy soils. 

Type species, Scleroderma tinctorium (Mich.) Pers. 

Distribution.—EHurope; North America; East Indies; Africa; Australia; New 
Zealand. 

The genus contains but two, or possibly three, valid species. Of these, 
P. tinctorius has a distribution similar to that of the genus; P. microcarpus is 
confined to Australia; and P. Boudieri (Polysaccum Boudieri Lloyd, Myc. Notes, 
1904, p. 184) is confined to the Island of Corsica. Dehiscence proceeds from the 
apex downwards (as does maturation of the gleba) so that old specimens are 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 289 


often represented by the persistent sterile base alone. The persistent tramal plates 
of the gleba are characteristic and during development of the plant enclose the 
hymenial layer, which consists of a delicate layer of hyphae lying next the tramal 
plate wall, and an irregular layer interior to this composed of basidia (pear-shaped 
or somewhat clavate) bearing 4-6, practically sessile spores. The development has 
not yet been studied, so that particulars are not available. 


1. PISOLITHUS TINCTORIUS (Micheli ex Persoon) Coker and Couch. 


Gasteromycetes of EH. United States and Canada, 1928, p. 170.—? Scleroderma 
herculaneum (Pall.) Pers., Syn. Meth. Fung., 1801, p. 151.—S. tinctorium (Mich.) 
Pers., l.c., p. 152.—Pisolithus arenarius Alb. et Schw., Conspectus, 1805, p. 82.— 
Polysaccum crassipes DC. et Desp., Rapp. voy. bot. Fr., i, 1807, p. 8.—P. acaule DC., 
Fl. Fr., vy, 1815, p. 103.—Pisocarpium clavatum Nees, Syst. u. Pilze, 1816, p. 138.— 
? Polysaccum herculeum (Pers.) Fr., Syst. Myc., iii, 1829, p. 52.—P. turgidum Fr., 
l.c., p. 53.—P. olivaceum Fr., l.c., p. 54.—P. Pisocarpium Fyr., l.c—P. tuberosum 
(Mich.) Fr., l.c., p. 55—P. conglomeratum Fr., l.c-—P. arenarium (Alb. et Schw.) 
Cda., Icon. Fung., ii, 1838, p. 24.—Polysaccum tinctorium Mont., Phyto. Canariensis, 
1840, p. 87.—P. australe Lev., Ann. Sci. Nat., ser. 3, ix, 1848, p. 186—P. marmoratum 
Berk., Journ. Linn. Soc., Bot., xiii, 1872, p. 155—P. leptothecum Reich., Reise 
Oesterr. Freg. Novara um d. Erde, i, 1870, p. 134.—P. boreale Karst., Not. Faun. et 
Flor. Fenn., viii, 1882, p. 203.—Pisolithus crassipes (DC.) Schroet., Krypt. F1. 
Schles., iii, 1889, p. 706.—Scleroderma umbrina Cke. et Mass., Grev., xix, 1890, p. 
45.—Polysaccum album Cke. et Mass., Grev., xx, 1891, p. 36.—P. Pisocarpium var. 
novo-zelandica P. Henn., Hngl. Jahrb., xviii, 1894, p. 37.—Pisolithus tinctorius 
(Mont.) Fisch., Nat. Pflanzenfam., i, 1900, p. 338.—P. australis (Lev.) Fisch., I.c.— 
P. marmoratus (Berk.) Fisch., l.c—Polysaccum pusillum Pat. et Har., Jour. de Bot., 
xvii, 1903, p. 13—P. umbrinum (Cke. et Mass.) Lloyd, Lyc. Aus., 1905, p. 13.— 
Pisolithus Kisslingi Fisch., Mitt. Nat. Ges. Bern., x, 1906, p. 10. 

Plant variable in size and shape, from 3 to 18 cm. tall, to 10 cm. diameter, with 
or without a stout rooting base. Peridium a single layer, at first smooth, shining 
and pallid white or ochraceous, becoming brown or black, finally breaking away 
irregularly from the apex. Gleba divided into polygonal or lenticular chambers, 
which are larger above and peripherally, unequal in size and shape, dissepiments 
carbonous, firm but brittle; chambers occupied with the pulverulent spore mass, 
ranging in colour from ochraceous to umber-brown, sometimes tinted purple. 
Spores globose, 7-12 u» (commonly 7-9 «) diameter; epispore thin, 0:5 mw, ferru- 
ginous, covered with densely packed spines which may attain a length of 1-5 wu. 

Type Locality.—EHurope. 

Distribution.—Hurope; North America; Africa; Hast Indies; Australia; New 
Zealand. 

Queensland: (Cooke, Hdbk. Aus. Fungi, 1892, p. 243, as Scleroderma umobrina, 
Polysaccum Pisocarpium, P. australe Lev. and P. album). Moreton Bay, 6/12*.— 
New South Wales: Kurrajong Mt., 8/12"; Northbridge, Sydney, 4/16*; Narrabri, 
6/19*.— Victoria: (Cooke, Hdbk., 1892, p. 244, as P. crassipes and P. album); 
Ararat, E. J. Semmens*.—South Australia: Overland Corner, 12/13*; Mt. Lofty, 
7/14*, 6/17*, 7/24*: Belair, 6/20*; Eagle-on-Hill, 4/21*; Kuitpo, 5/21*; Beltana, 
8/21*: Fullarton, Adelaide, 5/21*, 1924*, 4/25*: Tunkalilla*;: Lake Wangany, 


* An asterisk denotes that the collection is in the herbarium of Dr. J. B. Cleland, 
Adelaide; and where no collector is mentioned, signifies that the collection was made by 
Dr. Cleland himself. 


290 THE GASTEROMYCETES OF AUSTRALASIA, XIII, 


5/23*; Pearson Island, 1/23*—Western Australia: Narrogin, 8/26*; South Perth, 
3/26, W. M. Carne.—Tasmania: (Lev., l.c., as P. australe); no locality, L. Rodway.— 
New Zealand: Auckland, Whakarewarewa, 2/27, J. B. Cleland, G.H.C.; Geyser 
Valley, Wairekei, 8/30, 2/31, G.H.C. 

This species is abundant in Australia, and is the only one found elsewhere 
(excluding the doubtful P. Boudieri). In New Zealand it is confined to the 
thermal regions of the North Island. The species is extremely variable as to size 
and shape, size of the cavities and colour of the gleba, and nature of the exterior 
of the peridium. All these variations appear to have been named at one time or 
another, but in the numerous collections examined, I find it is not possible to 
separate any one owing to the numerous intermediate forms which occur. Hollos 
(Gast. Ungarns, 1904, p. 183) has shown that the eight species named by Fries are 
all forms of this one. The prevalent form is pyriform in shape, and possesses 
a firm, black, well-developed rooting base. The peridium is exteriorly typically 
dark (though white or pallid ochraceous when immature) and smooth, but 
rugulose forms occur, especially in specimens in which the peridium is thin. 
Polysaccum album was based on a form with this pallid coloured peridium. 
When these white immature plants are bruised, pigmentation occurs, and if this 
is more or less arranged in the form of areolations, the plant assumes the appear- 
ance of the plant named Polysaccum marmoratum. The stem-like base is typically 
well developed, but is sometimes scanty or wanting (even in individuals of collec- 
tions possessing strongly developed bases) and then becomes identical with the 
form named Polysaccum tuberosum. Those forms with strongly developed bases 
were named P. crassipes. The gleba in young plants is usually ochraceous, but as 
the plant ages it changes to ferruginous, and finally to umber-brown. Scleroderma 
umbrina was based on this last condition. The spores are commonly 7-9 » in 
diameter; but forms with spores to 12 m are quite common. The epispore is 
covered with closely compacted spines which may attain a length of 1:5 uw. Certain 
species have been recorded as possessing smooth spores, which is probably an 
error, for smooth spores are not known to occur with certainty in the genus, or 
indeed in the family. 

This species was for many years known as Polysaccum crassipes (disregard- 
ing the numerous synonyms proposed by Fries) or P. Pisocarpium. But Schroeter 
(Krypt. Fl. Schles., 1889, p. 704) and Hollos (Gast. Ungarns, 1904, p. 133) have 
shown that it possessed a prior name in Pisolithus arenarius. Then Lloyd (Lyc. 
Aus., 1905, p. 18), accepting the synonymy given by Hollos (in which Scleroderma 
tinctorium Pers. was listed), pointed out that the specific name could quite well 
be that used by Persoon (which was based on the fact that the plant contained 
a yellow pigment used by the peasants of Hurope as a dye), apparently over- 
looking the fact that it had been used by Montagne for a plant from the Canary 
Islands (Polysaccum tinctorium Mont.) or by Fischer in the combination 
Pisolithus tinctorius (Mont.) Fisch. Coker and Couch accordingly listed the 
species as Pisolithus tinctorius (Pers.) Coker and Couch, which is in keeping 
with the Rules of Botanical Nomenclature. The plant may have a prior name, 
since Persoon on a previous page of his Synopsis, described as Scleroderma hercu- 
laneum a plant which was cited by Fries doubtfully as Polysaccum herculeum. ‘ 


2. PISOLITHUS MICROCARPUS (Cooke and Massee), n. comb. 


Polysaccum microcarpum Cke. et Mass., Grev., xvi, 1887, p. 28—P. australe Cke. 
et Mass., Grev., xvi, 1887, p. 29; non Lev. 1848.—P. confusum Cke. et Mass., Grev., 
xvi, 1888, p. 76. 


PLATE XVII. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


Pisolithus spp. 


BY G. H. CUNNINGHAM. 291 


Plant often with 2-3 peridia attached to the same well developed rooting base, 
to 10 em. tall, 3 em. diameter. Peridium pyriform, smooth or with raised areas 
corresponding with the glebal cavities, shining and black, this condition extending 
to the rooting base, which is black, woody and basally divided into numerous coarse 
rhizoids. Gleba ochraceous or pallid ferruginous-brown in mass, dissepiments 
carbonous, thin and decidedly brittle; chambers polygonal and closely compacted, 
less than half the size of those of P. tinctorius. Spores globose, 5-7 wu diameter; 
epispore 0-5 uw thick (including verrucae), pallid ferruginous, finely and somewhat 
sparsely verruculose, 

Type Locality—Toowoomba, Queensland. 

Distribution. Australia. 

Queensland: Toowoomba (Cke. et Mass., l.c.); Stradbroke Island, Moreton 
Bay, 9/19*.—Victoria: (Cke., Hdbk. Aus. Fung., 1892, p. 248 as Polysaccum 
confusum and P. microcarpum)—New South Wales: North Shore Line, Sydney, 
4/14*; Sydney*; no locality* (2 collections) —Tasmania: Flinders Island, Bass 
Sts., 11/12*. 

This is a distinct species characterized by the low specific gravity of the 
plant, the black shining exterior of the unopened peridium and rooting base, pallid 
ochraceous gleba, exceedingly fragile dissepiments and small spores. The latter 
are finely verruculose, and not covered with the coarse spinous processes of the 
preceding species. 

The plant was first named as Polysaccum microcarpum, then in the same 
work on the following page it was again named as Polysaccum australe. As this 
latter name was preoccupied, being applied by Leveille many years previously to 
a plant from Australia (now known to be P. tinctorius), Massee changed it to 
Polysaccum confusum. The spores were stated to be smooth! 


Doubtful Species. 


Polysaccum? degenerans Fr., Pl. Preiss, ii, 1847, p. 139—This was recorded by 
Cooke (Hdbk. Aus. Fung., 1892, p. 245) from Swan River, Western Australia. As 
the plant was collected associated with Scleroderma flavidum (misnamed 
S. Geaster) it is probably a weathered form of that species. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII. 


Fig. 1.—Pisolithus tinctorius. x $#—Two small forms, the one on left showing 
the mottled condition not uncommon on unopened plants; that on the right sectioned 
to show the large cavities of the gleba and the sturdy rooting base. 

Fig. 2.—Pisolithus tinctorius. x % approx.—A rooting base of a weathered specimen 
showing the persistent nature of the carbonous dissepiments of the gleba and the strong 
development attained by the rooting base in certain plants. 

Fig. 3.—Pisolithus microcarpus. x 2#—Typical plant in centre; on right, caespitose 
form; on left, section showing the small glebal chambers and fine fragile dissepiments. 

Fig. 4.—Pisolithus tinctorius. Spores x 750. 

Fig. 5.—Pisolithus microcarpus. Spores x 750. 

Photographs by H. Drake. Spore drawings are original and were prepared with the 
aid of a projection apparatus from lactic acid mounts. 


NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA. XXIX. 


By J. R. MALLOCH. 
(Communicated by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 


(Two Text-figures. ) 
[Read 26th August, 1931.] 


In this paper I present a résumé of our knowledge of the Australian members 
of the family Piophilidae with the description of a new species, the description of a 
very striking new genus and species of Helomyzidae, and some data on certain 
genera of Tachinidae with descriptions of two new species of the genus Palpostoma 
Robineau-Desvoidy. The recorded occurrence of the genus Catharosia Rondani is 
also dealt with on the basis of the material upon which it was included in the 
Australian list. 

Family PIOPHILIDAE. 


There are but two genera of this family recorded from Australia, Piophila 
Fallen and Chaetopiophila Malloch. The two species of the former that have been 
found here have been placed in different subgenera by Duda, cassei Linné being 
the genotype of Piophila, sens. str., and contecta Walker has been referred by that 
author to Protopiophila Duda of which the type is latipes Meigen. Piophila is 
distinguished from other subgenera by the microscopically granulose or alutaceous 
mesonotum with its three widely separated series of microscopic hairs on the disc, 
one pair of dorsocentrals, and no presutural. Pyrotopiophila has the mesonotum 
rather evenly haired and with four pairs of dorsocentrals, the anterior two pairs 
very short and fine and hardly distinguishable from the surrounding hairs. 


Genus PIoPpHILA Fallen. 
PIOPHILA LATIPES Meigen. 


I recorded this species in a preceding paper in this series (These PROCEEDINGS, 
50, p. 316) but afterwards, when Duda distinguished the Australian and Huropean 
forms on certain characters of the bristling of the thorax and the structure of the 
fore tarsi, I changed my determination to contecta Walker, described from 
Australia. However, I have since come into possession of specimens from North 
America and have also received from Dr. Duda a specimen of the European latipes 
and can find no distinctions in characters that would justify me in accepting the 
specimens from the three regions as distinct species. The Huropean species has 
not previously been recorded as occurring in North America and with this 
additional information the distribution of the species is now extended to include 
Australia as well as that continent and Europe. 

As the species are carrion feeders this distribution is to be expected and it is 
not at all unlikely that other species of the genus may be found in Australia, 
especially on dead animals found on the seashore. Quite a large percentage of 
species occur in both the Nearctic and Palearctic regions. 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. 293 


Genus CHAETOPIOPHILA Malloch. 


In distinguishing this genus from Piophila I made use of the presence of a 
pair of quite well developed bristles on the anterior margin of the interfrontalia 
in addition to four pairs of dorsocentrals, but made no mention of the flattened 
and haired dorsal surface of the scutellum. With the acquisition of a second 
specimen, apparently of a new species, I am inclined to consider this last character 
generic. 


There are some striking differences between the genotype and the new species 
now before me, hut the former is known to me from a single female specimen while 
the other is represented by one male. It is hardly possible that the distinctions in 
colour and structure are due to sexual dimorphism, and I accept them as dis- 
tinguishing two species pending the discovery of additional material. The synopsis 
presented below will serve to distinguish the species. 


A. Wings without outstanding bristles on costa, with the usual closely placed fringe 
of minute setulae; pleurae entirely fulvous yellow; scutellum subtriangular, the 
apex narrowly rounded and without warts at bases of the apical bristles, the 
sides slightly carinate basally; hind legs fulvous yellow; bristles of the thorax 
WelladistinswiShed ironiethe hainse ees ci Geile see acerca hyalipennis Malloch 


AA. Wings with outstanding biack bristles from before apex of auxiliary vein to near 
apex of second, those at end of first vein longer than diameter of costal vein; 
sternopleura black except on upper margin; scutellum elongate triangular, 
narrowly transverse at apex, and with a wart at base of each of the apical 
bristles, the sides quite sharply carinate on entire extent; fore and hind femora 
and tibiae largely blackened; bristles on anterior portion of thorax hardly 
distinguishable from the long blackish hairs ............ .... scutellata, n. Sp. 


CHAETOPIOPHILA SCUTELLATA, Nl. Sp. 


dg. General colour similar to that of the genotype, shining dark fulvous yellow, 
a black mark on each upper angle of frons and one over ocelli, all of which extend 
downward over back of head to a slight extent; third antennal segment and apices 
of palpi black. Thorax with three quite broad black vittae, the short vittae on each 
side behind suture which are evident in the genotype are indistinguishable here, 
but the sternopleura is black except along upper margin and the postnotum is black. 
Abdomen glossy-black. Legs with most of fore femora and tibiae and apices of hind 
femora blackened. Wings clear. Halteres brownish-yellow. 


Structurally similar to the genotype except in being larger, and having the 
scutellum longer and more distinctly carinate on upper lateral margins, and the 
wings with outstanding costal bristles. The legs have very much longer and more 
dense hairs on all segments than in the genotype, but this may be a sexual 
character. Length, 5 mm. 

Type, Botany Bay, N.S.W. (H. Petersen). 


The type was lent to me for description by Dr. Aldrich of the United States 
National Museum, and it will be deposited in the collection of the Museum. 


Nothing is known of the larval habits of this genus, but the larvae of Piophila 
may be found commonly in carrion and decaying animal matter or even preserved 
meats or cheese and it is probable that those of Chaetopiophila will be found to 
have similar habits. The flies frequent flowers and are readily taken by sweeping. 
Most of the species of Piophila are northern in their occurrence and are, as already 
noted above, very frequently taken on the seashore or the banks of rivers, and 
especially near dead animals, 


294 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXIX, 


Family HELOMYZIDAE. 


In a recent revision of the New Zealand species of this family I have given 
to the group a much broader scope than given to it by Hendel and Czerny in 
recent works on the Palearctic and world’s faunas respectively. I felt in doing 
so that it was the only course to pursue as, unless I broadened the definition and 
therefore the scope of the family, I would necessarily have to increase the number 
of families, and, as the latter is already entirely too great, I preferred to adopt the 
former course. In doing so I was compelled to drop the family name Trichoscelidae 
recently accepted by Hendel, and many of the New Zealand forms and also those 
of South America, as well as a few at present known to me from Australia which 
would fall more or less definitely into that group, are according to my present 
method component parts of Helomyzidae. One of those genera is described herein 
and it departs from the generally accepted type of Helomyzidae even more than 
do the more typical Trichosceline forms. In fact, it is at present unique in the 
structure and armature of the frons. The lack of well developed costal bristles is 
not exceptional as there are several genera accepted without question as belonging 
to the family in which these are either undeveloped or very poorly so. The small 
size of the dorsal preapical bristle of the tibiae is worth noting, but this character 
is rather variable. 


Genus CAIRNSIMYIA, N.g. 


Generic characters.—F rons very distinctly depressed on upper half, at vertex 
with an almost V-shaped excavation, the posterior ocelli well forward of the hind 
margin of eyes and almost in line with, or slightly in front of, the single upper 
orbital bristle on each side, which is about one-fourth from hind margin of frons 
when viewed from above; two strong vertical bristles situated rather high on each 
side of vertical cavity; postverticals and postocellars lacking; ocellars quite long, 
situated on each side of anterior ocellus and directed laterally; frons longer than 
wide, narrowed near hind margin; profile of head as in Text-figure 1; aristae bare; 
antennae rather widely separated, the space between their bases flattened; centre 
of propleura and the prosternum with fine short hairs; propleural bristle present; 
mesopleura without bristles, except a fine one on centre of hind margin; sterno- 
pleura with three or four upper marginal bristles; dorsocentrals one pair; 
scutellum haired on disc, with four marginal bristles. Wings with the auxiliary 
vein running very close to first vein apically but not connected with it; costa 
without bristles, ending at apex of fourth vein; sixth vein ceasing a- short 
distance from margin of wing. Legs normal, the preapical dorsal bristle very 
small... 

Genotype, the following species. 


CAIRNSIMYIA CAVIFRONS, 0. Sp. 


3, &. Clay-yellow, slightly shining, with brown or fuscous markings. Head 
with brown dusting which is changeable on frons according to the angle from 
which it is viewed; face blackish on centre, especially below and on labrum; 
third antennal segment darkened on upper margin. Thorax with yellowish-brown 
dusting, mesonotum with five reddish-brown vittae, the central three broken and 
more or less connected on part of their courses, the sublateral pair broader and 
usually complete, notopleural suture brown; pleura with more golden dusting and 
with a reddish vitta across mesopleura, the scutellum with two brown spots on 
base. Abdomen with each tergite broadly brown at base. Each tibia with two 
brown annuli. Wings with many dark marks (Text-fig. 2), 


BY J. RB. MALLOCH. 295 


Hyes bare, frons with some fine black hairs. Mesonotum with rather closely 
set short decumbent dark hairs, one humeral, two notopleurals, one supra-alar, 
two postalars, one pair of dorsocentrals and one pair of acrostichals before 
scutellum. Abdomen ovate; hypopygium of male complex. Femoral bristles very 


/ 
22754) 
Zu) 


Text-fig. 1—Head of Cairnsimyia cavifrous from the side, and from 
in front (partial). 
Text-fig. 2.—Cairnsimyia cavifrons, wing. 


fine, noticeable only on the fore pair; mid tarsi in both sexes with some short 
stout black bristles at apices of the segments below. Length, 5 mm. 


Type, male, allotype, and two paratypes, Cairns, Queensland, and Kuranda, 
Queensland, from the Lichtwardt collection in the Deutsches Entomologisches 
Institut, Berlin. 


A paratype will be sent to the Australian Museum through the kindness of 
Dr. Walther Horn, director of the institute which owns the material. 


Family TACHINIDAE. 
Genus CATHAROSIA Rondani. 


In my Catalogue of this family published in a preceding paper of this series I 
have listed a species of this genus described by Curran, varicolor, from Australia. 
I have recently been able to examine two paratypes, a male and female, in the 
United States National Museum and state definitely that the species does not 
belong to Catharosia. The Jatter has at least one distinct bristle on the central 
part of the propleura, the lower calypter is narrow, and rounded at apex, and the 
female has the ovipositor prong-like. In Curran’s species the centre of the 
propleura is bare, the lower calypter is large, widened apically, and almost trans- 
verse at apex, and the ovipositor of the female is stout and curved forward below 
abdomen. The only character that might cause one to associate the Australian 
species with Catharosia is the venation of the wing, both genera having the first 
posterior cell closed at a considerable distance from the margin of the wing, and 
with a long straight petiole. I have examined the genotype of Catharosia and 
those of certain closely related genera and find them in agreement in the three 
essential characters listed above. 


Merely to point out the erroneous placement of varicolor is insufficient 
reason for this note, and I desire to indicate that the species belongs to a genus 
very close to Hyalomyia, as is proven by the lack of strong dorsal bristles on the 
abdomen, the general structure of both sexes, the wing venation, and the large 


296 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXIX, 


lower calypter. There is a puparium mounted with the male which I have seen 
here and this agrees closely with that of American species of Alophora Robineau- 
Desvoidy (= Hyalomyia) described by C. T. Greene, and others of the same genus 
seen by me from India. It is possible that the genus Austrophasia Townsend may 
be utilized for the reception of varicolor, as it agrees very well with rufiventris 
Macquart, the genotype, but it is evidently distinct specifically from the latter. 


The host of varicornis is Dysdercus sidae which is also the host of Alophora 
auriventris Curran described on the same page as the former. As far as known 
all the species of the group attack Hemiptera; the host of Catharosia is unknown. 


Genus MaAcropia Malloch. 


In a recent letter from Dr. C. H. T. Townsend acknowledging receipt of my 
papers on Australian Tachinidae he informed me that this genus was probably 
synonymous with Anaperistommyia Townsend. An examination of the genotype 
of the latter proves that this suggestion is correct. At the same time I examined 
the genotype of Halidaya Egger, and the only distinction between that genus and 
the first one that I could discover consisted of the lack of setulae on the fifth wing- 
vein on its upper surface. I am not inclined to accept this as a generic character 
and in all probability the genera will be accepted as synonymous in any compre- 
hensive treatment of the family. In fact Bezzi has included species with setulose 
and bare fifth veins in his key to the species of Halidaya (Bull. Ent. Res., 16, pt. 2, 
1925, p. 121). Townsend in his original description of Anaperistommyia (Suppl. 
Ent., No. 14, 1926, p. 15) cited as his genotype optica, n. sp., and stated that: this 
was identical with the species described by Bezzi under the name Halidaya lutei- 
cornis Walker. He stated that the species described by Walker was probably 
distinct from that identified as it by Bezzi, but gave no specific reason for the 
opinion except in citing the localities, Walker’s species being from Gilolo and the 
other from Sumatra. Townsend gave H. argentea Egger as probably congeneric 
with optica. The latter is Huropean, and is most closely similar to the Australian 
species in colour characters. It will be necessary to make a careful comparative 
examination of Australian and European examples to determine their status. 
Bezzi placed the genus Halidaya in the subfamily Thelairinae and recorded the 
host of H. luteicornis Walker (optica Townsend) as Parnara mathias, and its 
occurrence in Malacca, Seramban, and Taiping, Federated Malay States. He also 
stated that he had seen examples from Canton and Hangchow which are in the 
collection of the United States National Museum. The genus Halidayopsis 
Townsend (Hnt. Mitt., 16, 1927, 282) is very closely related to this one, but I have 
not seen the genotype. tot 


Genus PALPOSTOMA Robineau-Desvoidy. 


PALPOSTOMA ARMICEPS, 0. Sp. 


©. Head testaceous yellow, with whitish dust which is most distinct on the 
frontal orbits and parafacials, aristae brownish, hairs and bristles fuscous, a 
few below posterior margin of mouth opening yellowish. Thorax rather darker 
coloured than head with the mesonotum almost entirely infuscated and grey- 
dusted, the usual four vittae dark-brown but not conspicuous; pleura with fuscous 
marks covering almost all of sclerites except propleura, dusted like the mesonotum. 
Abdomen coloured as the thorax, but more noticeably grey-dusted and the dorsum 


BY J. R. MALLOCH. ar) 297 


with dark-brown dots at bases of the hairs and bristles which are less fused on 
the third visible tergite than on those anterior to it. Legs tawny-yellow. Wings 
greyish-hyaline, veins yellowish. Calyptrae whitish. Halteres yellow. 

Frons at narrowest point not wider than third antennal segment, much widened 
to anterior margin, the orbits separated and with numerous short strong hairs and 
a series of bristles along inner margins; verticals short and fine, not longer than 
the ocellars; no forwardly-directed orbitals present; parafacials at base of antennae 
a little wider than third antennal segment, with very short but stout black setulae, 
and about half as wide as height of cheek, the latter with many spine-like bristles 
adjacent to the rather short stout vibrissa; third antennal segment about three 
times as long as second; palpi moderately long; proboscis with the apical section 
about as long as palpi and the palpi-like apical processes distinct in type. Thorax 
with the usual bristles, but the anterior intra-alar long, the sternopleurals 1 + 1, 
and some fine erect dark hairs on lower margin of anterior spiracle; sides of 
scutellum haired on entire extent anteriorly, apex slightly emarginate. Abdomen 
conical, lateral bristles on all tergites, second visible tergite with a pair of central 
apical bristles, third with a complete series of apical bristles which are much 
stronger than those on the fourth tergite. Fore tibia with one or two posterior 
submedian bristles; mid tibia with the ventral bristle very short; hind tibia with 
two anteroventral bristles. First posterior cell of wing with the petiole more 
than half as long as inner cross-vein; outer cross-vein sinuate, connecting with 
fourth vein about two-thirds from inner cross-vein to bend of fourth. Length, 
10 mm. 

Type, Townsville, Qld., no other data (F. H. Taylor). In United States 
National Museum. Lent to me for description by Dr. J. M. Aldrich. 


PALPOSTOMA SUBSESSILIS, n. Sp. 


3, °. Differs in colour from the preceding species in having the mesonotum 
almost without infuscation, and less noticeably whitish dusted, the vittae appearing 
less dark and dividing the dust anteriorly but not as distinctly posteriorly, the 
male having the dust on the greater portion of the postsutural portion more 
yellowish than whitish; pleura unspotted. Abdomen with a trace of a dark 
dorsocentral vitta anteriorly, and the third and fourth visible tergites largely 
dark brown, with greyish dusting, and dark dots at bases of the hairs and bristles. 

Differs structurally from armiceps in having the frons of the female narrower, 
distinctly narrower than the third antennal segment, that of the male practically 
linear, the bristles adjacent to the vibrissae not nearly as strong, and the anterior 
thoracic spiracle bare below. Most of the specimens have a short bristle on the 
anterodorsal surface of the fore tibia beyond its middle, and there is usually a 
weaker lower anterior sternopleural bristle present. The first posterior cell of the 
wing is usually closed just at the margin of the wing and more rarely it is very 
short petiolate, the petiole being almost indistinguishable except with a high power 
lens; the outer cross-vein is not beyond midway from inner cross-vein to bend of 
fourth, but usually noticeably nearer to the cross-vein than to the bend. In other 
respects very similar to armiceps. Length, 8-10 mm. 

Type, female, Sydney, N.S.W., 2.12.1923; allotype, topotypical, 1.1.1924; para- 
types, topotypical, various dates in November, December, and January, 1923-24 
(Health Dept.) ; five specimens Woy Woy, various dates in September, 1930 (R. W. 
Burrell), reared from puparia in abdomen of host, a scarabaeid beetle. 

Last-mentioned five specimens in United States National Museum. 


298 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN DIPTERA, XXIX. 


Genus Prospna St. Fargeau and Serville. 
Mr. GC. H. Curran has recently added two new species to the Australian list 
and I present below the references. 


PROSENA VARIEGATA Curran. 


Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 22, 1929, p. 509. 

A large species, 10-12 mm. in length, with the frontal vitta obsolete above in 
the male, the legs very long and reddish, with the tarsi black. Lacking many of 
the details used in my recently published key to the Australian species of the 
genus and without information as to the bristling of the mid tibia and structure 
of the hypopygium, it is impossible to determine whether this species was in the 
material which I had before me. 

Locality, Gravesend, Queensland, J. Mann. 

Female not described. 


PROSENA VARIA Curran. 


Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., 22, 1929, p. 509. 

This species is darker in colour than the preceding one, with the legs black 
and only the tibiae reddish, but the structural details are even less satisfactorily 
dealt with and, as in the other case, it is impossible to place the species in my key. 
Length, 9 mm. 

Locality: New South Wales. Schrader. 

No information is given as to the disposition of the type specimens. 


Genus DEtTA Malloch. 


This generic name was used in my preparation of the manuscript of a recent 
paper on the family as a tentative appellation and unfortunately was allowed to go 
through the press as the name of the genus (These PROCEEDINGS, 55, 1930, p. 332). 
The name is preoccupied by Delta Saalmuller in Insecta and I propose to replace 
it with Deltomyza n.n. 


Genus VORIELLA Malloch. 


The genotype cited (These PROCEEDINGS, 55, 1930, p. 335), recedens, n. sp., is a 
tentative name for wniseta which was not changed when the manuscript was finally 
checked for the printer. 


Genus ApintiAa Malloch. 


In a recent letter Dr. C. H. T. Townsend informs me that this genus is very 
close to, if not identical with, Neophryxe Townsend. 

The genotype of the latter is in the collection of the United States National 
Museum and an examination discloses the fact that it has prosternal setulae 
which are, as indicated in my original description of <Apilia, lacking in my 
genotype. 


ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, A STUDY OF A FODDER GRASS 
IN ARID AUSTRALIA. 


By T. G. B. Ossporn, Professor of Botany, University of Sydney, 
J. G. Woop, Lecturer in Botany, University of Adelaide, and 
T. B. PALTRIDGE, Field Officer, C.S.1.R. 


(Plate xviii; fourteen Text-figures. ) 


[Read 26th August, 1931.] 


I. INTRODUCTION. 

The genus Stipa belongs to the tribe Agrostidae of the family Gramineae and 
different species are found on the plains and arid-steppe regions of both hemi- 
spheres where they form an important part of the forage. They are commonly 
termed “Spear grasses’”’ on account of the sharp pointed “seed” which has a long, 
usually tightly twisted awn. 

Stipa nitida S. & H. is the common spear grass in South Australia within 
the area bounded by the 8-inch isohyet. It is the most important fodder grass for 
sheep and is one much sought after by these animals. The investigation to be 
described in this paper was undertaken primarily to discover the effect of grazing 
and enclosure upon this grass, but the work has developed into a more detailed 
study of the autecology of the species. 

The research was carried out at the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve (Osborn, 
1925), an area of 1260 acres protected by rabbit- and sheep-proof fencing. This 
reserve is situated in saltbush-plain country in the north-east of South Australia. 
It forms, together with the laboratory adjacent, the Arid Flora Research Station 
of the University of Adelaide. Work at the centre was initiated by one of us in 
1926. Since March, 1928, it has been carried on with the aid of a grant from the 
Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Industvial Research. This has enabled 
the scope of the work to be extended and made ix possible to station a Field Officer 
at the Reserve. The first-named author desires to express his gratitude to the 
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research for their generous assistance. He 
also wishes to thank the Council of the University of Adelaide for the facilities 
afforded him at Koonamore subsequent to his departure to the University of Sydney. 

The Koonamore Vegetation Reserve is situated about forty miles north of the 
railway station of Yunta on the Broken Hill—Peterborough line, at an altitude 
of about 650 feet. The average rainfall at Koonamore Head Station, four miles 
distant from the Reserve, over a period of forty years, is 8:42 inches. 


II. THE STATUS AND DESCRIPTION OF STIPA NITIDA S. & H. 
Considerable confusion has surrounded the status of the species in question. 
It was originally known as Stipa scabra Lindl. var. auriculata J. M. Black, but on 
revision of the Australian members of the genus (Hughes, 1921) it was found that 
Stipa scabra Lindl. of Black’s “Flora of South Australia’ was in reality Stipa 


D 


300 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


scabra Benth. partim, and the species was renamed Stipa variabilis Hughes. On 
page 15 of the Kew Bulletin, 1921, Stipa scabra Lindl. var. auriculata J. M. Black 
is given as a synonym of Stipa Drummondiu Steud. which Miss Hughes mentions 
as being closely allied to Stipa variabilis Hughes. 

In further work on the Australian Stipas (Kew Bulletin, 1922) Stipa 
Luehmannii Reader is given as a synonym of Stipa Drummondii Steud., and on 
page 670 of Black’s “Flora of South Australia (Additions and Corrections)” Stipa 
Luehmannii Reader and Stipa horrifolia J. M. Black are given as synonyms of 
Stipa Drummondii Steud. Black previously (“Flora of South Australia’, p. 66) 
had considered that his Stipa horrifolia might prove to be a dry country form of 
Stipa Luehmannii Reader. These species are obviously different from Stipa scabra 
Lindl. var. auriculata J. M. Black. 

In the Kew Bulletin, 1927, Summerhayes and Hubbard published a description 
of Stipa nitida S. & H. which is the species in question and of which Stipa scabra 
Lindl. var. awriculata J. M. Black is a synonym. 

The plant in question is usually erect, varying in height from a few centi- 
metres to about 50 centimetres, with stems about 2 millimetres thick and with 
glabrous or scabrous-pubescent leaves. The leaf-blades are involute-filiform, 5-20 
centimetres long; the lower sheaths are also pubescent. The ligule is very short, 
ciliate and extended into a conspicuous auricle on one side. 

The panicle is loose, unilateral, 10-30 centimetres long, pale-green and 
shining, and is soft and silky to the touch, the rachis and branches being minutely 
pubescent. The outer glumes are narrow, hyaline and subequal, the lower one 
being 10-12 millimetres long, 3-nerved near the base and the other one rather 
shorter and sub-5-nerved. The flowing glume is narrow, white-pubescent, and 4-6 
millimetres long with the callus. The awn is capillary, much-curved, about 6 
centimetres long and is minutely pubescent. 

The plants do not form a sward, but occur as scattered individuals forming 
fairly dense tussocks in sandy soils or wherever the soil is suitable in other 
communities. Under more favourable conditions with better water-relations and 
with better establishment the plant is a perennial, but usually tends, under the 
rigorous summer conditions of arid Australia, to become an annual. This point 
will be considered in greater detail under “Germination”. Plate xviii, fig. 1, shows 
well the habit of the grass and the character of a flourishing community on sandy 
soil. The tussock form of the plant is illustrated in Plate xviii, fig. 2, where 
also grazed stumps are visible. In Plate xviii, fig. 3, is shown a community of 
plants killed by the drought of 1929. 


III. MrrHops AND HRRORS OF METHODS. 

Two methods have been utilized in the investigations. First, that of perma- 
nent quadrats set out and first surveyed in May, 1926. These quadrats are 100 
square metres in area, the sides being 10 metres. They have been charted every 
three months from April, 1926, to the completion of this work in 1931. The 
results of the quadrat studies will be given in a later section. 

For the study of the effect of the biota upon spear grass, we have used a 
second method which has proved successful. Thirty-one posts at approximately 
equal intervals around the four fences of the Reserve have been numbered and 
taken as observation posts. This gives 124 observation posts in all, and since the 
numbered posts are to be found on every soil type which occurs around the fence, 
readings from these may be considered to give a fair sample of the vegetation of 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 301 


the area. For the purpose of estimating the vegetation, every three months during 
the period from May, 1928, to March, 1931, an observer marched 20 paces in a 
direct line from each numbered post and at right angles to the fence. At the 
20th pace the observer dropped a metre-square frame at his feet and recorded the 
number of Stipa plants occurring in the square metre; at the same time records 
were made of the number of Stipa seedlings, the number of “tufts” and “tussocks”, 
the number of dead Stipa plants, the soil type, and also the approximate number 
of other plants which were present. Stipa plants with only two or three leaves 
were classed as seedlings, small compact plants up to about 10 centimetres high 
with many leaves as “tufts”, and mature plants with a well defined tussock habit 
as “tussocks’’. Two observers usually worked together, the one inside the Reserve 
and the other outside. The Reserve has not been stocked since its enclosure, 
whereas the paddocks adjoining it have been stocked, so that by means of this 
method an estimate of the effect of sheep grazing on Stipa nitida can be obtained. 


The length of pace of the three observers varies; and sometimes the metre- 
square may be dropped on a spot not quite in a direct line with the numbered 
observation post. It was necessary therefore to get an idea of the probable range 
of error of our readings. With one or two exceptions, all the counts were made 
by some pair of the three authors. In August, 1930, independent counts of the 
Stipa plants, both inside and outside the north fence, were made by each of the 
three of us, and from these numbers the standard deviation of the mean and the 
range of our error were calculated. These results have given us the fullest 
confidence in our figures and show that 31 observation posts are sufficient to give 
us.a true sample of the frequencies inside and outside each of the Reserve fences. 
The individual counts were made at a time when there was present the greatest 
number of Stipa plants which we have found in the course of our investigations. 
The results are as follows: 


Inside. Outside. 
JEGAW ee oo 358 ame 33 790 283 
T.G.B.O. Maemmcton Mica For 804 259 
FS OE Rea etey a pees sete ph hoe en Mn toeS 805 269 
Mean OP res OM RPE ee a ar sae 800 270 
The standard deviations of these means are: 
Tasi@ee) tl Oa ee Ce ee A ee, SOO steer 
QORSHICIO SS ao one ee Oo oe) atom ee ete. 8) 


The error of counting is greater outside the Reserve where the effect of grazing 
comes into play and where the plants are more scattered. Here the length of 
pace of the observer affects the figures more than in the more uniform area inside 
the Reserve, but the differences are very small. The divergences between the 
lowest and highest readings of the different observers are 8% outside the fence 
and 2% inside the fence. 


IV. CLIMATIC FACTORS. 

In this section we give data as to the climatic factor during the period covered 
by this investigation. Only those data relevant to the growth of Stipa are given 
here. We reserve a fuller discussion of the climate for a later communication on 
the ecology of the district. 


Rainfall. 
Light falls of rain in an arid region when the svil is dry and dusty do not 
penetrate the ground to an extent sufficient to reach the roots of the plant. It has 


302 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


been pointed out by Cannon (1921), Osborn and Wood (1923), and Osborn (1925) 
that falls of this ‘ineffective’ type are common to much of arid Australia and that 
they render the figures for the total annual rainfall unreliable as a true indication 
of the value of rainfall to the vegetation. 


Cannon (1921) considered 15 points of rain to be the minimum effective rain- 
fall if it fell during a dry period. We consider this figure to be rather low and 
from considerable and extended observations think that about 25 points is nearer 
the minimum amount of rain that is effective during a dry period. Lighter falls 
do not penetrate the soil more than 2-3 cm. 


In Table 1 are given the monthly falls of rain together with the number of 
rainy days, and days on which more than 25 points fell. All rainfall data are 
given in points, 100 points = 1 inch. 

Our series of observations extended over the period of one of the worst 
droughts recorded in the north-eastern districts of South Australia. Over the 
period of 15 months from August, 1928, to October, 1929, only 176 points of rain fell. 
It will be seen also that there were five consecutive months without any fall of 
rain at all and ten consecutive months without an effective fall of rain. 


The combined effects of drought and stocking on Stipa nitida will be analysed 
later (pp. 314-322). 


Temperature. 

The temperature in arid Australia, as in other desert and semidesert regions, 
shows a high diurnal range. The difference between maximum and minimum 
temperatures is from 30° to 40° F. over practically the whole year. Maximum 
temperatures are high during the Summer, and from November to March inclusive 
the average monthly maximum temperature is approximately 90° F. During this 
period temperatures of 100° F. or higher are frequent. 


The temperature reaches its lowest value from the middle of June to the 
middle of July. The average daily maximum temperature at this time is 63° F., 
and the average minimum temperature may fall below 32° F. (30-:1° F. for July, 
1929). Frosts are frequent during June and July, and somewhat less so in August. 
They are only of occasional occurrence in May and September. The rise in tempera- 
ture from August to October is rapid, as is also the fall from April to June, so 
that well marked hot and cold seasons occur. The temperature data for three 
years are shown in Table 2. 


The humidity data are of interest although they do not concern Stipa nitida 
particularly. The average daily maximum humidity for the year is 85%. The 
average minimum humidity may fall below 35% at any time from September to 
March inclusive. Our records show that in every month the mean maximum 
exceeds 80% humidity and that, excluding the winter months, the mean minimum 
falls below 40%. We are dealing then with a climate of extremes as regards 


humidity, which during the same twenty-four hour period may be moist but also 
dry. 


Germination of Stipa nitida, and Duration of the Plant. 
Germination tests of the fruits of Stipa nitida have shown that the percentage 


of germination is low and also that the fruits are exacting in their requirements 
for germination. 


303 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 


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304 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


At first the fruits were placed in Petri dishes in pure washed sand, with water 
or KNO, solution added, sufficient to bring the sand to 60% of saturation point 
with water; fifty seeds were planted in each dish. The tests were carried out in 
a multiple temperature incubator at the following temperatures Centigrade: 4°, 8°, 
12°, 15°, 21°, 24°, 31°, 33°, and 38°. One series was tested using distilled water 
only, and another using 0°5% KNO, solution. At each temperature the tests were 
carried out in triplicate.’ In addition an alternating series was carried out as 
follows: (a@) 8 hours at 38°, followed by 16 hours at 12° each day; (0b) 8 hours at 
38°, followed by 16 hours at 15° each day. 

Under these conditions there occurred only a 1% germination at 24° C. No 
seedlings appeared at any other temperature. 

The seeds on examination proved all to contain embryos. The fruits used in 
the test were obtained from the Stipa crop following the rains of February, 1930. 
Since it was suspected that a “Maturing Factor” might be operative, seeds from 
the same batch and from a batch collected later were repeated for germination 
three months later under identical conditions. No germination occurred at any 
temperature. Immersion in strong sulphuric acid, and in liquid air, and also 
removal of the glumes all failed to cause germination. 

An experiment was now set up to test germination under saturated conditions. 
Fruits, collected February, 1930, were placed on blotting paper saturated with 
distilled water in the light on Copenhagen incubators. Under these conditions, 
seedlings appeared at 24-25° C. (75-77° F.) after two to three days. After 10 
days a 28% germination was shown. The optimum temperature range is apparently 
restricted. Under similar conditions the percentage germination at 20° C. (68° F.) 
was only 6%. 

It is obvious from these experiments that the seeds will only germinate under 
conditions of saturation of the soil with water. In addition, the seeds are photo- 
sensitive. In light at 24° C. the average percentage germination after 10 days was 
28; in darkness after the same period the average germination was only 12%. 
Seeds from the same batch at 28° C. in darkness showed only 2% germination 
after 16 days but upon being illuminated at the same temperature for three days 
the germination rose to 12:5%. 

Unlike some photosensitive seeds (Gassner, 1930; Morinaga, 1926) alternations 
of temperature have no effect in increasing the percentage germination, as the 
following results show: 


Two series of alternating temperatures, 8 hours at 28° C., followed by 
16 hours at 20° each day; 50 seeds each in triplicate: 


In light after 10 days; germination 12:0%. 
In dark after 10 days; germination 2:5%. 


Light in arid Australia is probably never a limiting factor, but two facts 
elucidated from the germination tests, namely, the relatively high optimum tem- 
perature and saturated soil conditions, explain the incidence of Stipa in the arid 
country. Widespread germination of Stipa on Koonamore has always occurred in 
the hot season (from October to April) when the average temperature does not 
fall below 80° F., and, secondly, has always followed heavy rainfall as the follow- 
ing table shows: 


Germination. Rainfall. 
September, 1926. August-September, 1926 .. 3:28 inches 
March, 1928. February, 1928 .. .. .. 38-90 inches 


February-March, 1930. December, 1929 .. .. .. 3:27 inches 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 305 


The incidence of rain sufficient to cause germination also has a bearing on the 
length of life of Stipa plants. Analyses of the charts of Quadrat No. 2, a one 
square metre quadrat on sandy soil charted every three months, give the following 
data: $ 


Germination. Died. Length of Life. 
September, 1926. September-December, 1927. 12-15 months. 
April, 1928. December, 1928. 9-10 months. 
March-June, 1930. December, 1930-February, 1931. 10 months. 


In all these cases the plants acted as annuals, although, in the case of plants 
germinated in September, i.e€., at the beginning of the hot season, the plants 
persisted for 15 months. 


On Quadrat No. 1, a one metre quadrat on loamy soil mapped every three 
months, several grass seedlings were recorded in September, 1926, following the 
heavy rains of August-September of that year and of these seedlings four can be 
traced as adult plants through successive mappings to August, 1930. These four 
plants actually died between the August and December, 1928, mappings but their 
dried remains persisted until August, 1930, at the end of the drought period when 
their place was taken by Bassia patenticuspis. These plants therefore persisted 
alive for about 27 months and during this period they flowered twice, first in 
November, 1926, and secondly in August, 1928. These plants were established 
early in the hot season (September, 1926) and this early establishment contributed 
largely to their perennial nature. 


Phaenological Data. 


The time when the plants reach maturity depends naturally upon the time of 
appearance of the seedlings. No definite flowering or fruiting period occurs, but 
these take place at any time from April to January. Normally, when the seed- 
lings follow February rains, the plants begin to flower heavily about August and 
shed their fruits before December, that is flowering usually occurs towards the 
end of the cold season and the development of the fruit during the early months 
of the hot season. The following phaenological records are of interest in this 
respect. 


25-9-26.—Odd plants in flower. 

25-5-28—Odd plants in flower, passing to fruit. 

4-928 —Plants fruiting. 

17-9-28.—Fruiting freely. 

26-11—28.—Late fruiting. 

8—4—29.—-Shooting from base of old plants on “fire quadrats”.* 
2-10-29.—Large plants on “fire quadrats” have ripe seed. 
3-1-30.— Fruiting of plants on ‘fire quadrats”. 

31-3-30.— Seedlings appearing. 

20-5-30.—Plants plentiful, some large. 

15-7-30.— Plants have flowers. 

29-7-30.—Flowering and fruiting. 

17—8—30.—Flowering and fruiting. 


* During the drought year 1929 no green Stipa plants were present except on certain 
“fire-quadrats” where the plants had good water relations, and complete protection from 
rabbits. 


306 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


V. EHEpAPHIc FACTORS. 
The Soil Types. 

That portion of the sheep station of Koonamore on which the Reserve is 
situated is part of an elevated peneplain encircled by hills. These hills are formed 
chiefly of Lower Pre-Cambrian gneisses and schists overlain by Upper Pre- 
Cambrian deposits consisting in the main part of quartzites and a consolidated 
mudstone, and penetrated frequently by pegmatite dykes. Sometimes the Lower 
Pre-Cambrian rocks are exposed. 

The soils of the plains are derived from these sedimentary and igneous rocks. 
The drainage of the whole area is internal and the streams and watercourses on 
and around the Reserve find their way into a large lake in a depression forming 
the lowest point of the Koonamore basin. 

The Vegetation Reserve itself averages about 650 feet in height and is of an 
undulatory nature. There is a complex system of low sandhills alternating with 
harder soil on the flats (Text-fig. 1). These flats are silty loam towards the 
western side and in the centre, but on the eastern side the soil is a hard loam 


: fe) 
ASSIA 
PARA DOXA 
4049 
Ke Pees 
ATRIPLEX LSA, 
4 


Be 


Sages) PIVOPORUT 7) lo 


BL UE BUSH 
SALT BUSH 


BLUE BUSH 


[ 
= 


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ER WEN prranordxy 
t , 


wyoP0RUM SL UE BUSH (S) 


GLUE BUSH 


PUILGAL 


J0 2b £6 24 a2 20 4 6 a V4 10 6 6. @ 2 
Text-fig. 1—Sketch map of the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve based on a 
prismatic compass survey. The form lines represent approximately 10-foot 
intervals. The heavier first form line is also a boundary between the sandy and 
loamy soil types. The position of the quadrat systems and transect lines within 
the Reserve is shown, also the various permanent photograph points (P.P.). The 
main vegetation types are indicated on the map. Scale, 1 inch = 500 metres. 

J.G.W. fecit. 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 307 


“mixed with a good deal of nodular travertine limestone. On this latter soil type 
are developed the dwarf Chenopodiaceous shrublands already described by Osborn 
and Wood (1923). The sandhill-plain areas carry usually various open scrub 
‘communities of which mulga (Acacia aneura), wattle (Acacia Burkittii), black oak 
(Casuarina lepidophloia), Sandal wood (Myoporum platycarpum), turpentine 
(EHremophila Sturtii) and bullock bush (Heterodendron oleaefolium) are the most 
important trees and shrubs. 

These soil types, namely, sand and sandy loam, silt flat, and hard loam with 
travertine limestone, are the three outstanding types on the plains in arid South 
Australia. Analyses are given in the following tables showing the percentage of 
the different fractions in the three soil types collected from typical areas in the 
-Reserve. 


(a). Soil from sandhills carrying mulga and wattle with Stipa. 
A. 0-9 inches. B. 9-18 inches. 


Fraction. Percentage. Percentage. 

Gravel he TA MILCR en IPE TCA TOE hast acy sme Nil Nil 
Coarse sand BSA octet ot dias (ere omen Myer at 63-2 58-6 
PLING USA Gt cc versie cisues| Gisws-P ev nichae. Neen pala 26:5 28:8 
Silt A ARN? Wc cg © teveyh Deen Mui rata | foas 1:1 0:7 
EMIT CRIS DC sie Mspsy © Mien cried eet ueeeh Whee eh pneece 2°2 2:3 
Clay ROR oy eo Wat ta este E Le kee aan Were) aus 3°6 3:7 
Loss on acid treatment .. See LSet ase 0-7 2-8 
OSS fone iesnition: 35. Fes. ise Geo et vols 1-4 2:3 
IMOTSCMIM CAA Ae) Sey) eee: Pr Ree. Ra Oa 1:0 1-0 

Totals BOE Wag Crt, AERA aR cl gi hewy Ace ay 99-7 100-2 


The profile shows practically no variation, but consists of a buff-coloured coarse 
‘sand until the underlying silt is reached. This depth is variable. 
The reaction of the soil is alkaline, pH = 8-08. 


(bo). Soil from silt flat. 
This sample is from a typical silt flat in which the water does not remain for 
-any length of time after rain, but flows away. The percentages of the various 
fractions are: 


Fraction. Percentage. 
Gravel Og TCM Te ceo eg ce TP CHORD ER Dee BRS Ve Bee Nil 
Coarse sand ae METI ly Ott Uc al ne WP RAED 6 14-9 
IDIMNE SamGy ese he > ki eecvy ewe) Gus Verse | bees 19-7 
Silt Sey ee PEE Sy 2) ARNY Me ARRAY rm A ra OMA a 6:6 
Fine silt Edens Shae Pee MR Ee ere WIN Liar 3 29-2 
Clay Ses ak = cee apc Pas phe) Uses Ese 16°3 
Loss on acid treatment .. .. See ACS MRE 1:0 
Loss on ignition nk SES Me eyeen Vases aud 4-9 
Moisture ae RRL Saal SEER es a Pe Rae 5-4 

RG Cate or bop an ak i aCe et an ee Tm ra 98-0 


The profile shows a matrix of a uniform buff colour, with pockets, more or less 
‘porous, of a chocolate-brown colour. The soil in the pockets is stickier and contains 
more clay than that of the matrix. The depth of this soil varies, but is uniform 
in texture usually for several feet. The surface of the silt flats cracks into shallow 
diapers on drying. The soil reaction is alkaline, pH = 7:73. 

These flats after rain carry a wealth of ephemeral plants, but permanent plants 
-are few, the chief species being Myoporum platycarpum, Heterodendron oleaefolium, 


E 


308 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


Eremophila scoparia, EHremophila longifolia, Cassia Sturtii, Cassia eremophila and 
Lycium australe. 


(c). Hard loam soils with nodular travertine limestone.—‘Saltbush soils’. 


As indicated above, these soils are typical of the elevated plains (and indeed 
closely resemble the mallee soils of the wetter areas) and carry a dwarf shrubland 
consisting chiefly of saltbush (Atriplex vesicarium) and bluebushes (Kochia plani- 
folia and K. sedifolia), the latter species being developed particularly where the 
soil contains much travertine limestone near the surface. Analysis of the various 
fractions in a typical soil of this type gave the following results: 


Fraction. Percentage. 
Gravel Le ata OM NED eI MCLy Back tote © Bosc Nil 
Coarse sand cM ah iccs Ne mcaer tachce (me Kona R yee 55:9 
Miner Sania worn, ep teen ew | Pestay eho use Ae eco een 25-6 
Silt ee eRe ean! Mea ee LS ied oreo Sora 2°5 
Fine silt yet) De aush ) Droteivk Wansea Maretey unl sys is ore 6-1 
Clay Tea Misdssty pecetin meen Ui Eeren. Mitcdeen Wecctm yi | arog 5-6 
Loss on acid treatment iia cae Hes te 0-6 
Loss on ignition duds hay IR sua, ees 2-1 
Moisture Sooty vere, Nadiad estec. Puteeepecen ev case, mate 1:6 

100-0 


The travertine nodules were not taken into account in this analysis but were 
sieved off. 


A profile of this soil type is as follows: 


0- 3 inches.—Silt and fine sand (cocoa-coloured) with small nodules of traver- 
tine limestone. 

3-12 inches.—Similar soil with plentiful nodular travertine. 

12-21 inches.—Solid crust of travertine limestone. 

21-28 inches.——Nodular travertine limestone, fairly small but densely packed. 

28-46 inches.—Similar to above fraction, but with a fair amount of small 
lateritic ironstone nodules. 


The reaction of the upper soil, 0-12 inches, is alkaline, pH = 7:81. 


The Frequency of Stipa in Relation to Soil Type. 


The distribution of Stipa nitida in relation to soil type is characteristic. This 
species is essentially a plant of sand and sandy-loam soils. This point is brought 
out clearly in Text-fig. 2, which is a chart showing the soil types around the fence 
of the Reserve, and the frequencies of Stipa plants in relation to these types. The 
numbers refer to the observation posts. The actual numbers of plants present 
per square metre at each post are indicated. These figures represent the frequencies 
in August, 1930, following the rains of December, 1929. The correlation existing 
between number of plants and the sandy soil is obvious from the figure. 


Analyses of our data show that seedlings frequently are found on bare loam 
and on bare loam with travertine, but, although they may form small plants if a 
series of rains follow the rains causing germination, they rarely reach maturity and 
never form large tussocks. On the other hand the plants in the sandy or sandy- 
loam areas persist and form tussocks. 


The same effect of soil type in relation to persistence of seedlings is illustrated 
in the quadrat chart in Text-fig. 3. This chart is from quadrat numbered 40 A, an 
area of 100 square metres. The soil is chiefly a hard loam with much travertine 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 309 


rubble and normally carried a dwarf shrubland of Kochia sedifolia and Atriplex 
stipitatum, but was in a retrograde phase owing to heavy stocking prior to the 
enclosure of the Reserve. Small islands of more sandy or silt soils occur, how- 
ever, and these are outlined in the figure. This chart shows the occurrence of 
seedlings and plants of Stipa nitida in August, 1928, before the incidence of the 


SUM CBA cb) Sue Weenie Um IBY te ys UAE i ley ROME BPO WG hiergy ee 


d TL LL/) 
SOME CRRi co a 240 M22) so Nig) Hips mate (2g tB ee Ghee 
S 


Text-fig. 2.—Plan showing the frequency of Stipa nitida in relation to soil type 

on 21/8/30. The plan represents the fences of the Reserve with the observation 

posts numbered. The soil types are indicated as follows: diagonal hatching, 

sand; vertical hatching, silt; blank, hard loam; dotted, hard loam with limestone 
rubble. The points represent actual numbers of plants. 


drought of 1929; the mature plants are restricted to the sand or silt soils. The 
chart for this quadrat in March, 1930, after the drought period, showed that the 
Stipa plants were dead and had disappeared from the quadrat with the exception 
of tussocks remaining on the sandy islands. At this time living seedlings were 
present following the rains at the end of December, 1929, and were restricted to 
the sandy-loam areas in which the old tussocks remained. 


310 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


The Importance of Litter. 

The occurrence of the living Stipa seedlings around the old tussocks on the 
sandier soil, brings into prominence the importance of litter in relation to the 
occurrence of Stipa plants. There is a twofold significance in the occurrence of 
litter and of dead stumps of shrubs or of the living shrubs themselves. In the 
first place, the litter and the bases of the shrubs act as nuclei around which sand 
collects. It must be remembered that in arid Australia strong winds and dust- 


Text-fig. 3—Quadrat chart of 40A, 30/8/28 (scale 1/100), showing relation of 

Stipa plants to soil type. A dot indicates small Stipa plants or seedlings, S 

indicates a large fruiting plant. The areas outlined with a full line have a 

layer of sand or silt on the surface. Areas outlined with a broken line are 

mounds of sand under blue-bushes. The rest of the area consists of a hard 
loam with travertine limestone nodules. 


storms are of frequent occurrence, especially during the summer. Small accumu- 
lations of sand, and also the higher sandhills of arid Australia, invariably show 
better water relations than do the barer soils, for not only do they act (in the 
case of sandhills) as reservoirs of water but a sand covering forms an efficient 
mulch which prevents evaporation from the hard loam soils. 

In the second place, litter and the shrubs tend to collect the fruits of Stipa, the 
awns becoming entangled in the litter. During heavy fruiting a veritable felt of 
tangled awns forms on the surface of the soil in and between objects that arrest 
the fruits. 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 311 


The charts shown in Text-figs. 4 and 5 represent two observations on quadrat 
numbered 30; and show clearly the above-mentioned effects. This quadrat has an 
area 100 square metres and is situated at the junction of an occasionally flooded 
silt flat with slightly higher sandy ground. The dividing line between the two 
soil types lies approximately on a line drawn from the top left-hand corner of the 
quadrat to the bottom right-hand corner; the sandy soil lying to the right of the 
dividing line. 

In Text-fig. 4 are shown the Stipa plants occurring on the quadrat following 
the rains of September, 1926. At this time of the year the ground was covered 
with much litter of Bassia patenticuspis, one of the pioneer Chenopodiaceous plants 


Text-fig. 4.—Quadrat chart of 30, 2/3/27 (seale 1/100), shcwing relation of 
Stipa plants to litter. S indicates Stipa plant. The area covered with litter of 
Bassia patenticuspis is outlined and shaded. 


of bare areas. The plants of Stipa are practically confined to the area covered 
with litter. Text-fig. 5, on the other hand, shows the distribution of Stipa in May, 
1928, following the rains of February of that year. By this time the litter of 
Bassia patenticuspis had disappeared and the importance of dead stumps and 
woody litter around which sand has become concentrated is clearly shown. 

Stipa nitida occurs throughout the dwarf shrublands of Atriplex and Kochia 
which form the climax formation in arid Australia on certain hard loam soils with 


312 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


travertine limestone. The Stipa here is always found following summer rains in 
the sandy mounds around the bases of the shrubs. It is, therefore, in its adult 
form a member of the climax formation on the plains as well as a normal con- 
stituent of the sandhill-scrub community which is an edaphic co-climax of the 
Chenopodiaceous shrublands. 


Text-fig. 5—Quadrat chart of 30, 25/5/28 (scale 1/100), showing relation of 

Stipa plants to mounds of sand underneath bushes of Kochia sedifolia or around 

the dead stumps of that plant. S indicates Stipa plant. The area occupied by 
the mounds is outlined by a dotted line. 


The Root-Systems of Stipa nitida in relation to soil type. 


The strong development of Stipa nitida on sandy soils and its failure to persist 
in the hard loam soils with travertine rubble becomes quite clear when the root 
systems of the plants are compared. 


Text-fig. 6 shows the root systems of seedlings and young plants in sandy soil. 
Following germination, the primary root descends quickly to a depth of 30-40 
centimetres. This takes place when the plant has only 3-5 leaves, and the height 
of the plant above ground is 3-5 centimetres. The system of the adult plant is 
illustrated in Text-fig. 7. The whole is made up of a superficial system with 
copious root-hair development which enables the plant to utilize the light falls of 
rain so characteristic of arid Australia, and a more diffuse deep-seated root system 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE, 


co} fo) 
v0 
P e 
a fe) 
Qa 
a 
4 
a rm 
rm a 2 
= 
ie) 
ies] 
= 
a Ww aA 
VI bes) 5 
m wn 
una 
> 
a b G 


Text-fig. 6.—Development of root systems in Stipa nitida. The systems illustrate 

progressive stages of development in sandy soil. The first chart (a) is that of 

a seedling 4 cm. high, with five leaves; (b) is from a seedling 5 em. high and 

(ec) from a young plant 10 cm. high commencing to tiller. The very early estab- 

lishment of the primary root to a depth of 30-40 cm. can be seen, and also the 

establishment of the two absorptive zones, the one superficial and the other 
more deep seated. T.B.P. del. 


oO 
=) 
PrP 
is] 
rm 
= 
ie] 
4 
U 
Ve a 
fa) 4 
n 
> 


Text-fig. 7.—Root system of adult tussock of Stipa nitida growing in sandy soil. 

The diffuse nature of the lower roots with root hairs tapping the lower water 

supplies and the marked development of the superficial system are here illustrated. 
Tae aels 


313 


ay! 


314 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


which taps the underground water reserves. Root hairs are developed on these 
deeper roots at a depth of 20-40 centimetres. 

In the hard loam soils with limestone rubble the root system is different. It 
will be recalled that a hard crust of travertine limestone usually occurs in this. 
soil at a depth of about 30 cm. and that the soil is hard and dry. In this soil 
seedlings of Stipa nitida develop in a similar fashion to those in sandy soil by 
sending a primary root to a considerable depth (Text-fig. 8a). Larger plants 
have a different root system however. The superficial system is developed as. 


oO 
oO 
ie] 
re r=) 
ie] pany 
ro] 
a aQ 
ne Cal 
rm 
nm = 
= 
ro] 
rd =) 
a vw a 
ro] 
Ss a 
is) > 
n a b 


Text-fig. 8—Root systems of Stipa nitida growing in hard loamy soil with much 

travertine limestone rubble. The seedling develops as in the sandy soil, but 

the different character of the root system of the adult plant, when compared 

with those growing in sand, is apparent. The superficial system develops as 

usual, but instead of the diffuse system seen in sand, a much branched system 
is formed with no absorptive hairs. T.B.P. del. 


in sandy soils, but the deeper system is less effective. Instead of a diffuse system,. 
the roots branch frequently and occupy a considerable portion of the soil, but root 
hairs are not developed on the deeper roots down to a depth of about 40 cm. when 
they reach the travertine crust. The root system of an adult plant in this soil type 
is shown in Text-fig. 8b. It follows that, after rains, Stipa plants can establish. 
themselves on the hard loam soils; but when the soil dries out, as occurs rapidly 
on the saltbush plains, the deeper roots are not in contact with the water reserves. 
of the soil and death of the plant follows. 


VI. Biotic FACTORS. 
Description of the Biota. 

Arid Australia, although of great extent, does not carry a large sheep popula-: 
tion owing to the sparseness of the ground covering. The average carrying 
capacity of the country in which our investigations were carried out is 
approximately 40 sheep to the square mile, i.e., one sheep to 16 acres. The herbage: 
and grasses form the main forage, but a certain amount of browsing of the 
shrubby perennials always occurs, and in particular, saltbush (Atriplex vesicarium): 
palatable on account of its high salt content (Wood, 1925) is utilized. 

Certain habits of sheep must be taken into account in a study of their effect 
upon the vegetation, and two characteristics stand out in particular. First, sheep: 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 315. 


never travel very far from permanent water (dams or bores); the usual radius 
at which sheep feed around water is from 2 to 3 miles. Therefore in large 
paddocks (20 square miles and upwards) there occur areas of ungrazed vegetation. 
The second feature to be taken into consideration is the fact that sheep graze 
down the wind, particularly during the summer months. During these months 
the prevailing winds are from south to south-west so that the southern side of 
a paddock tends to become eaten out and trampled to a considerable degree, while 
conversely, the north side of the paddock shows very little effect of grazing. Thus 
there arise the “fence effects” frequently seen in arid Australia. On examining an 
east-west running fence between two paddocks, the ground in the paddock to the 
north of the fence may be almost bare, while on similar soil but to the south of 
the fence the ground may support a healthy growth of perennial vegetation (cf. 
Osborn, 1925, Pl. xxiv, fig. 2). 

The relation of the Vegetation Reserve to the surrounding paddocks can be 
seen in Text-fig. 9. The area chosen for the Reserve was originally a sheep 
“camp” in the south-eastern corner of Lake Paddock. Sheep grazing on that 
paddock tended to work down wind and to congregate in the scrub growing in this 


N LAKE PADDOCK MUSTERING 
PADDOCK 


e LABORATORY 
' VEGETATION 


RESERVE 


SOUTHERN 
GROSSe ae 


BORE 


FINNS PADDOCK 


Text-fig. 9.—Diagram to show relation of the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve to 
the adjacent paddocks. Not to scale. Southern Cross Bore is about 4 miles 
to the west of the Reserve. 


area. These were probably induced to remain there partly to gain shelter and 
also because they would smell water in some of the dams of Finn’s Paddock across 
the fence. In this way any harmful effects of stocking became intensified and the 
area almost denuded of perennial vegetation, owing to the combined effects of 
grazing and trampling. This occurred in Lake Paddock for a distance of about 
two miles from the southern fence. 


With the enclosure of the Reserve it will be seen that two new fences were 
made as arbitrary lines cutting off the enclosure from the surrounding denuded 
country in Lake Paddock. The north and west fences of the reserve crossed 
ground that at the time of enclosure was destitute of perennial Chenopodiaceous 
undershrubs. On either side of the two new fences the vegetation was in an equally 
degenerate state. Consequent upon the erection of the fences the portion lying 
outside the north fence of the Reserve became the new southern boundary of Lake. 


316 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


Paddock. This area, therefore, and to some extent that outside the new western 
fence of the Reserve, became subject to the severe stock-effects experienced in such 
a portion of a paddock. On the other hand, the area inside these new fences was 
protected from all grazing influences and the natural vegetation was free to 
regenerate there. 

The two remaining fences of the Reserve were old boundary lines. That at 
the south had the northern portion of Finn’s Paddock beyond it. This area then 
showed no harmful effects of grazing and had a good ground cover of Chenopodia- 
ceous shrubs (Osborn, 1925, Pl. xxiv, figs. 1 and 2, shows photographs of this fence 
in 1925). The eastern fence of the Reserve divides it from Mustering Paddock, a 
small enclosure of some 16 square miles which for most of the year carries only a 
few ration sheep. Only at shearing time (usually August-September) is it heavily 
stocked by successive flocks of sheep remaining in it for a night or two. Along 
the boundaries of the Reserve this Paddock supports a dwarf shrubland of Atriplex 
vesicarium or Kochia sedifolia. 

In addition to the grazing of sheep the effect of rabbits cannot be neglected. 
These vermin are present in numbers which fluctuate from season to season. The 
influence of their feeding has probably been of equal importance on all sides out- 
side the Reserve. Inside the Reserve their numbers are kept as low as possible by 
systematic poisoning and stopping of the warrens. It has, however, not been prac- 
ticable to exterminate them. Their effect inside the Reserve, except along the 
south fence, can be regarded as negligible so far as the present contribution is 
concerned. Occasional browsing by kangaroos, which are relatively rare, completes 
the list of animals which affect grazing. Kangaroos rarely remain in the Reserve 
for long owing to the presence of one of us who is constantly at the Research 
Station. 

Under this section of the biotic factors we give practically the whole of our 
data from the metre counts along the various fences. These measure chiefly the 
influence of the biota, but the influence of drought conditions is also included and 
the disentangling of these two effects will be explained below. 


Frequencies of Stipa in relation to grazing. 

In the upper two curves in Text-fig. 10 are graphed the total numbers of plants 
of Stipa nitida on our metre counts, inside and outside the four fences of the 
Reserve on different dates; in the lower two curves are shown the numbers of 
plants around the four fences which reached maturity, i.e. “tussocks’’. 

It will be seen that the number of plants which germinated following the 
February rains of 1928 reached their maximum in August of that year. These 
plants reached maturity and were fruiting heavily in September, 1928. Inside the 
Reserve the total number of plants recorded remained at approximately the same 
level until August, 1929, although they were all dead by December, 1928, i.e., soon 
after the beginning of the 15 months’ drought. The violence of the climatic factors 
did not destroy these plants, however, until August, 1929, when, with the onset of 
summer, the strong wind erosion caused a gradual decrease in their numbers 
which reached a minimum in March, 1930. The drought broke with heavy rains 
at the end of December, 1929, and the numbers rose again in March, 1930. Inside 
the Reserve, therefore, potential fodder existed during the whole drought period. 

Outside the Reserve, where the combined effects of drought and stocking were 
operative, the total number of plants gradually fell from December, 1928, to June, 
1929, and from this time onward the numbers fell rapidly to zero in December, 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. BH7/ 


1929. Over this period heavy stocking occurred along the northern and western 
fences (the sheep watering at Southern Cross bore to the south-west of the 
Reserve) and the consequent trampling aided the rapid wind erosion. The 
differences in the condition of the ground inside and outside the Reserve fences 
can be judged from the photographs in Pl. xviii, figs. 3 and 4. The photographs 
were taken from the same observation post on the north fence, and the denuded 


a) 
kK 
FEE 
x 
— 
Ee 
SS 
—~ 
= 1a00) 
= 
< 
ro) 
GZ 
cry 
fea 
= 
Z 


(23 sz su Lei 12-28 3-29 6-29 8-29 12-29 3-30 6-30 6-30 12-30 yt 


INCHES 


RAINFALL 


Text-fig. 10.—Curves showing total numbers of Stipa plants inside and outside 

the four reserve fences at different dates; and also numbers of large plants 

(tussocks). The monthly rainfall is also graphed. 1. Total Stipa plants inside 

the Reserve fences counted in the experiment; 2. Total Stipa plants outside the 

Reserve fences; 3. Total number of tussocks inside the Reserve fences; 4. Total 
number of tussocks outside the Reserve fences. 


and trampled nature of the soil together with the large amounts of dung are 
evidence of the heavy stocking outside the Reserve. Inside the fence is a typical 
area of dry Stipa tussocks. 

With the rain of February, 1930, the drought broke and a “normal cycle’ to 
March, 1931, followed. 

The relation of the “normal cycle’ to the “drought cycle” becomes clearer 
in the curves of Text-fig. 11, in which are shown the numbers of small plants and 
seedlings, and the number of dead plants both inside and outside the Reserve 
fences on different dates. Two normal cycles are shown, the first from March, 
1928, to March, 1929, all the plants being dead on the latter date; and the second 
normal cycle from March, 1930, to March, 1931. The drought cycle from March, 
1929, to March, 1930, shows the gradual disappearance of the dead plants. 


318 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


For the purposes of evaluating the effects of enclosure we have utilized 
“index numbers” which are expressed graphically for the total numbers of plants 
in Text-fig. 12. The “inside index number” is the percentage of Stipa plants 
inside the Reserve to the total number of plants inside and outside as recorded 
by our method of counting. The “outside index number” is the converse of this: 
the percentage of plants outside the Reserve to the total number of plants. 


NUMBER OF PLANTS 


ya ofs fe yo 93 ops nfs 3/30 so 3/s0 yaa 3/at 
DATE 


Text-fig. 11.—Curves showing (S) numbers of small plants and seedlings and 

(D) numbers of dead plants, around reserve fences during the period of investiga- 

tion. (1) Number of small plants and seedlings inside the Reserve fences; (2) 

Number of small plants and seedlings outside the Reserve fences; (3) Number of 

dead plants inside the Reserve fences; (4) Number of dead plants outside the 
Reserve fences. 


Counts were first made in March, 1927, about 18 months after the enclosure: 
of the Reserve. The index number is here 50, indicating that equal numbers of 
plants occurred both inside and outside the Reserve. Since May, 1928, counts have 
been made every three months. The normal cycle over the season March, 1928, to 
March, 1929, showed that enclosure and consequent protection from grazing had 
raised the value of the datum index line inside the Reserve to 60. This value 
remained constant until June, 1929, when drought effects began to be appreciable. 
The constancy of the index number over this period is remarkable and serves as a 
check on the accuracy of our methods of counting. The constancy of the index 
number means that during a normal cycle the combined effects of the grazing and 
climatic factors do not disturb the balance between the plants outside and inside 
the fences of the enclosure; although plants outside the fences may be grazed they 
do not disappear and may shoot again and act as potential centres for seed 
dispersal. 


With the onset of the drought the inside index numbers rose rapidly reaching~ 
the value of 88 in December, 1929, and indicating that practically all the plants 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 319 


outside the Reserve had disappeared. During this period the combined influences 
of drought and grazing were affecting the plants outside the Reserve. 


INDEX NUMBER 


1927 s/s 9/28 ns yr 6/9 6/28 nps ¥0 s/w 4/30 rpo ap! 
DATE 


Text-fig. 12.—Graph showing the index numbers of total number of Stipa plants 
around Reserve fences. Upper curve, inside index number; lower curve, outside 
index number. 


After the breaking of the drought with the rains of February, 1930, a new 
‘datum line has been established for the inside index number with a value of 74. 
Over this normal cycle from March, 1930, to March, 1931, again the balance has 
been maintained but owing to the influence of the preceding drought combined 
with stocking, the percentage of plants occurring outside the area has been very 
appreciably reduced. It may be said that, should another series of drought cycles 
now intervene during which stocking occurred, the amount of spear grass growing 
in the stocked areas would tend to diminish to a still greater extent. 


As things stand at present, over the period of our investigations the amount of 
spear grass in the paddocks around the Reserve has been reduced to one-half from 
May, 1927, to June, 1930. That this disappearance of the grass is due primarily 
to sheep grazing and not directly to the drought is made clearer when the cases 
‘of the individual fences are considered. 


During the period of our investigations the north and west fences outside the 
reserve (in Lake Paddock, Text-fig. 9) have been stocked almost continuously. 
The south fence outside the reserve (in Finn’s Paddock) was stocked heavily up 
to December, 1928, but from that time to the close of our investigation, and 
including the drought period it has been stocked only very lightly, there being no 
evidence of trampling or dung along the Reserve fence. 


The west and north fences show a similar type of curve for the index numbers 
to that of the index number of the total fences. The curve for the index numbers 
of the west fence is given in Text-fig. 13. In 1927 the inside index number was 52. 
This rose to 57 during the normal cycle of 1928-1929 and reached 100 at the peak 
‘of the drought period in December, 1929, when there were no plants present outside 
the fence. In the following normal cycle, the inside index number reached a new 


320 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


datum line at 78. Outside this fence the number of Stipa plants has been more 
than halved during the period May, 1927, to March, 1930. 


INDEX NUMBER 


a7 s28 i iis yas 6/33 Od nae yso Cha) y2 nyse ys 
DATE 


Text-fig. 13.—Graph showing the index numbers of plants along the west fence 
of the Reserve. Upper curve, inside index numbers; lower curve, outside index 
numbers. 


The index numbers for the north fence have not been expressed graphically, 
but they are essentially similar in character as can be seen from the following 
table. 


Table showing value of the inside index number along the north fence at 
different dates. 


Index Index 
Date. Number. Date. 2 Number. 

Wien, UMA oo ao. oa so 4B IDyxqeranlnere, IMB Go so co 8 
May, 1928 Mis, MRL PARA STF IDS MEN, ORO ~s5 ao oe oo 8&2 
AUIS USE. MO 8rme A pay Wags BoP tee. DS June, 1930 Pee Terry ab eee ctiskc. # AN ke) 
IDeoenoge, UDB ss so oo DS AUP USE, O80) Se. eer gies lente ie 
MENA, WO So cele oo) 7 IDeCerenloxer, IMO ce co oo We 
June, 1929 OH RAL RE hatin bi Marchy ali 3s Ger tiie SN 5k ee an 710) 
PACU EUS tl 9)2:9 i aie ee ee YT, June, 1931 Cae «cet eb eS) LER) Gan Sioce 


In contrast to these two fences is the south fence (Text-fig. 14). It has been 
mentioned already that the paddock (Finn’s) outside this fence was not stocked 
during the drought period. 

Along the south fence, when the enclosure was first made, there were prac- 
tically no plants inside the Reserve, since this was the most eaten-out section of 
the paddock. By May, 1928, there were approximately equal numbers of Stipa 
plants inside and outside the Reserve (Text-fig. 14). At this time the inside index 
number was 45 and at the close of the first normal cycle (August, 1928) it was 48. 
During the drought the maximum value for this index number rose only to 49 
and at the onset of the second “normal cycle” (March, 1930) it was again 48. 
Since this date it has shown a slight but steady rise during the 1930 “normal 
cycle”. The index numbers for this fence, therefore, have remained approximately 
constant over the whole of the period investigated, and the balance of the plants, 
inside and outside, has not been very appreciably disturbed. The fluctuations of 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 321 


the curve are possibly due to rabbits, for our field notes show that many of the 
grasses both inside and outside this fence have been grazed by them, particularly 
in 1928 and again in 1930. The present trend of the curve is slightly favourable 
to the Reserve, the inside index number being now in the neighbourhood of 60. 
This is probably only to be expected after five years’ enclosure. 


NUMBER 
& 


INDEX 


1927 Spe ype ape aps ops spo nfs apo spo 4/30 R/30 
DATE 


Text-fig. 14.—Graph showing index numbers along south fence of the Reserve. 
Curve marked with crosses, inside index numbers; other curve, outside index 
numbers. 


The lack of marked change along this fence, which has been unstocked out- 
side the Reserve, proves conclusively that during a drought cycle climatic factors 
alone do not disturb the balance between the plants; but that when excessive 
trampling and grazing aggravate the adverse action of the climatic factors (as, 
for instance, along the north and west fences), the grass is virtually exterminated. 


The data for the total numbers of plants around the fence bear out the 
conclusions drawn from the index numbers. The following table shows the actual 
numbers of Stipa plants recorded by our metre counts inside and outside the 
Reserve fences in August, 1928, and August, 1930, that is, before and after the 
drought period. 


Inside. Outside. 
Fence: N. Ss. BR. W. N. Ss! BK. W. 
JNU, IDAS 5a 60 ac 740 385 560 A SOV uD Sie 414 U4 483 
PANIES Gey 93.0) wheel seven © Rae 800 506 706 HBO co AAO 357 76 160 


The reduction in the number of plants along the north and west fences out- 
side the Reserve is so striking that further comment is unnecessary. 


The number of Stipa plants along the east fence outside the Reserve on the 
hard loamy soil with limestone nodules in Mustering Paddock has remained at a 
constant low level. The larger numbers of plants along this fence inside the 
Reserve are due to the presence of several sandhills as indicated in Text-fig. 1. 


Even more striking evidence of the damage wrought by stock and rabbits can 
be seen from a comparison of the numbers of large plants, tufts and tussocks, 
inside and outside a heavily grazed fence. For this comparison we have selected 


322 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA, 


the north fence. The absolute numbers of large plants by our method of sampling 
inside the Reserve and outside and the inside index number calculated from them 
are shown in the following table: 


Table showing actual numbers of large Stipa plants inside and outside the north 
fence together with the inside index numbers. 


Date. Large Plants. Index Number. 
Inside. Outside. Inside. 
May, 1928 Saag Ma Leta uty A aaah cami 18 9 66 
(AUIS US EMMIS eel) tlk eee ieee ee! ens 146 84 63 
Mecemberw a9 2B vos 0 sie. le chews Fede A aL 64 73 
March, 1929 .. te a aha cee ane — — — 
June, 1929 Hone vale, (Aceh Land Reetihit Oe sae — — — 
PMUISUISt Cel ZO Mine tah wate cic enee a hie 74 0 100 
December, 1929 Ae MY ger ROA Ae 30 0 100 
Maren 9300 nk feo ti, MAO a aie 42 0 100 
June, 1930 SOME ots MA ee RT ces miles 85 25 133 
AUIS UISt OBI nai rs Weal | segs eae 62 32 66 
WMecember, (9380 voy fee | ee ee eee 130 18 88 
Marchal Oa Vis, lee) ery) Cees oot meee 78 62 56 
June, 1931 Fe ere error: © erssa mets 221 8 96 


In this table the larger plants only have been considered because they are the 
plants of chief fodder value, and also the potential sources of seed. At the present 
time they are practically exterminated along this fence outside the Reserve. Yet, 
as can be seen from the rainfall table, the 1930-31 season has been a “good” one, 
although there have been no soaking rains to produce a general germination of 
Stipa seeds. In June, 1931, there were many herbage plants other than Stipa out- 
side the fence, but grass was conspicuously absent. That grazing by stock and rabbits 
is responsible can be seen from certain small rabbit and sheep proof enclosures 
erected in the paddock near to the fence. One such, near observation post 10, had, 
in June, 1931, 8 tufts of Stipa within it on an area of about 1 square metre. This 
is aS many as were recorded by our samples along the whole length of the fence 
outside the Reserve. 


VII. STIPA NITIDA IN RELATION TO THE OTHER HERBAGE. 


There remains to be considered the other herbage associated with Stipa nitida. 
The chief plants are Bassia patenticuspis (Bindyi), Zygophyllum ovatum (squash) 
and Tetragonia eremaea (spinach). Of these plants Bassia patenticuspis and 
Tetragonia eremaea reach their maxima coincidently with Stipa nitida. Zygophyl- 
lum ovatum appears before the other plants, immediately following early summer 
rains. Zygophyllum ammophilum appears later in March to June; as the name 
implies it is almost restricted to sandy soils. With the early summer rains, 
Salsola Kali (buckbush) and Chenopodium cristatum also become plentiful. 


The chief interest, as far as our records of the herbage other than Stipa show, 
is the persistence of Bassia patenticuspis throughout the whole of the drought 
period. The drought resistance of the Chenopodiaceous plants is remarkable and is 
probably due in no small measure to their capacity for water absorption through 
their leaves (Wood, 1925). The success of Bassia patenticuspis as a pioneer 
colonizer of bare areas is also reflected in this drought resistance. 


BY T. G. B. OSBORN, J. G. WOOD, AND T. B. PALTRIDGE. 323 


There appears to be relatively little loss of Stipa plants through competition 
with other plants, probably owing to the early development of the deep root 
system. In dense masses of litter under occasional trees, and particularly among 
the fallen phyllodes of Acacia Burkittii in the sandhills, seedlings disappear. In 
favourable situations following rain enormous numbers of seedlings, chiefly of 
small ephemeral plants, appear. Two examples from our metre counts illustrate 
this point: 

(1) 500 Tetragonia eremaea, 119 Stipa nitida, 6 Zygophyllum ammophilum, 

2 Hrodium cygnorum, 5 Calotis hispidula, 5 Helipterum moschatum, 5 
Calandrinia volubilis. 

(2) 10 Stipa nitida, 60 Tetragonia eremaea, 3 Brachycome pachyptera, 
Sonchus oleracea, 3 EHrodium cygnorum, 1 EHrodium cicutarium, 
Euphorbia Drummond, 1 Lavatera plebeja, 8 Bassia patenticuspis, 
Helipterum moschatum, 2 Trisetum pumilo, 1 Daucus glochidiatus, 
Calotis hispidula, 5 Geococcus pusillus. 


wre do 


Such dense aggregations of plants as these are unusual, however, and Stipa 
nitida is generally a member of an open community on sand or sandy loam. 


VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. 


1. The investigations described in this paper were carried out at the 
Koonamore Vegetation Reserve in the north-eastern district of South Australia. 
They form part of a more extensive programme having as its object the study of 
the arid flora of this area. The Reserve forms the Arid Flora Research Station 
of the University of Adelaide. The work described herein has been aided, in 
part, by a grant from the Commonwealth Council for Scientific and Industrial 
Research. 

2. Stipa nitida S. & H. is the most important fodder grass in the north-east 
of South Australia. It is a species demanding very definite requirements of its 
habitat. Plants only reach full maturity, forming large tussocks, on sandy or 
sandy-loam soils. On soil of this type Stipa nitida may form a constituent of any 
of the major communities in arid South Australia. 


3. A correlation exists between the soil type and the root system developed. 
This consists of a fairly compact surface-rooting portion and a more diffuse 
deeper-rooting part extending to a depth of over 40 cm. By means of this double 
root-system the plant is able to utilize light falls of rain that wet the surface soil 
only, in addition to tapping the deeper water reserves of the soil. 


4. The nature of the seed-bed is of importance. The ideal seed-bed is of sand. 
Litter, consisting of the dead remains of other herbage, plays an important part in 
entangling the fruits of the grass. Seeds will germinate on hard loamy soil but 
fail to reach maturity there. 

5. The percentage germination of the seed is low. Laboratory experiments 
have shown that the soil must be saturated and that light is a factor. 

6. Observations show that germination in the field is best following late 
summer rains. The active growing season extends throughout the autumn and 
winter months. Flowering occurs towards the end of the cold season and spring 
months, and the fruits are shed in the early summer months. 

7. The influence of grazing upon the grass has been studied by means of an 
extensive quadrat system both inside the Reserve and also in the adjacent 
paddocks. It has been possible in this way to make a comparison between the 

F 


324 ON THE AUTECOLOGY OF STIPA NITIDA. 


entirely protected plants of the Reserve and those outside it which have been 
subjected to different intensities of grazing. 

8. By utilizing “index numbers” which express the ratio between the plant 
growing inside or outside the Reserve and the total number of plants, it has been 
shown that the balance between the plants inside and outside the fences has 
been seriously affected by the combined effects of grazing and drought during the 
period of our investigation. 

9. Considerations of the individual fences have shown that the intense drought 
conditions which prevailed during 15 months of our investigation have not been 
the only cause of the reduction in number of plants and failure of the grass to 
regenerate outside the Reserve. 

10. Large numbers of sheep which have been compelled of necessity to water 
at definite bores and dams in the vicinity have seriously diminished the numbers 
of plants without the Reserve. This has been effected in two ways—-(i) by 
obliterating, through grazing and trampling, plants that would serve as potential 
seed centres (“nurse” plants); (ii) the soil, following the removal of most of 
the plant cover, has assumed a labile state in which it is easily moved by wind 
or heavy rains. When this occurs a hard loamy soil with nodules of travertine 
limestone is exposed and on this soil type Stipa nitida fails to establish itself. 

11. This investigation shows that only by careful control of grazing during 
drought periods can the population of Stipa plants be maintained. It also shows 
that on an area that shows degeneration of the plant cover, as e.g. the Reserve 
itself prior to enclosure, “spelling” (leaving the area ungrazed) for one or two 
years very materially benefits the Stipa population. 


Literature Cited. 

CANNON, W. A., 1921.—Plant Habits and Habitats in the arid portions of South Australia. 
Curn. Inst., Publ. No. 308, 1921. 

GASSNER, G., 1930.—Untersuchungen ueber die Wirkung von Temperatur und Tempera- 
turkombinationen auf die Keimung yon Poa pratensis und anderen Poa-Arten. 
Zeit. f. Botanik, 23, 1930, 767. 

HucuHess, D. K., 1921.—A Revision of the Australian Species of Stipa. Kew Bulletin, 1921. 

MorINAGA, T., 1926.—The effect of alternating temperatures upon the germination of seeds. 
Amer. Journ. Bot., 13, 1926, 141. 

OsBoRN, T. G. B., 1925.—On the Ecology of the Vegetation of Arid Australia. Intro- 
duction and general description of the Koonamore Reserve for the Study of the 
Saltbush Flora. Trans. Roy. Soc. Sth. Aust., xlix, 1925, 290. 

OsporRN, T. G. B., and Woop, J. G., 1923.—On some halophytic and non-halophytie plant 
communities in arid South Australia. Trans. Roy. Soc. Sth. Aust., xiv, 1923, 388. 
Woop, J. G., 1925.—The selective absorption of chlorine:ions; and the absorption of 
water by leaves in the genus Atriplex. Aust. Journ. Haupt. Biol. and Med. Sci., ii, 

1925, 45. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII. 


1.—Vigorous community of Stipa nitida in light sandy soil on the Reserve, showing 
tussock habit and open nature of the community. Rainfall, 365 points in February, 1928. 
Photographed 25.8.28. 

2.—Tussocks of Stipa nitida. The grazed plants near the pocket knife grew prior 
to the fencing of the Reserve (length of handle, 34 inches). 

3.—Photograph taken from observation post No. 17, along north fence inside the 
Reserve, showing good growth of tussocks of Stipa nitida on sandy soil, June, 1929. These 
are dead at this period. 

4.—Photograph taken from same observation post, No. 17, along north fence outside 
the Reserve in Lake Paddock. Note complete absence of Stipa nitida, although the soil 
type is the same. The trampled nature of the soil and the large amounts of dung are 
evidences of the heavy stocking. June, 1929. 


‘sep owes oy} UO Usye} fF puB g SYdeIsoO}OUT 


“OADTISO OpIsjno YIMOIS JO s.oUEeSqGYV ° “QATISOY oOpIsul WIMoIY 62 
t Z € tsut ~w) ts 


PLATE XVIII. 


‘ppv Ddr O SMVOSSN YT °% ppiyv vdigsy jo AuNnuUWIOD SNOIOSI . 
StS iL ots rte b pele 


Proc. Linn. Scc. N.S.W., 1931. 


REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. SUPPLEMENTARY. 
By A. JEFFERIS TURNER, M.D., F.E.S. 
[Read 30th September, 1931.] 


This instalment consists of corrections and additions to the families previously 
treated in this revision, together with some new species belonging to groups that I 
have revised at earlier dates. 


Family LYMANTRIADAE. 


IcTa TANAOPIS Turn. 
9. Pale reddish-ochreous. Antennae short; very shortly bipectinate. Wings 
rudimentary. Tibial spurs short; posterior tibiae without middle spurs. 
Mr. W. B. Barnard took this semi-apterous female together with two male 
examples at Cape York, North Queensland, in April and May. 


PORTHESIA ALIENA Butl. 

Hitherto known only by the British Museum type from the Peak Downs, 
Queensland. I rediscovered this species at Charters Towers in June, 1927, and it 
probably has an extensive inland distribution. My examples were three males 
expanding 30-32 mm. The distinguishing feature of this species is the coloration 
of the abdomen, which varies somewhat. It is ochreous or orange-ochreous, and 
sometimes the bases of the segments are fuscous on the dorsum. The underside 
of the hindwings is not ochreous in my examples, but the underside of the fore- 
wings has a fuscous-brown costal line from base variably developed. 


PORTHESIA MELANORRHANTA, 0D. SD. 


wednvoppavtoc, sprinkled with black. 

®. 33 mm. Head, thorax and palpi white. Antennae white; pectinations in 
female 5. Abdomen grey-whitish; tuft in female large, ochreous. Legs white; 
anterior pair ochreous-tinged. Forewings oval-triangular, costa strongly arched, 
apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, strongly oblique; 10 absent; white very 
sparsely irrorated with large blackish scales; cilia white. Hindwings with termen 
rounded; white; cilia white. 

North Queensland: Palm Islands in May; one specimen received from Mr. 
G. H. Hardy. We await with interest the discovery of the male of -this very 
distinct species. 


j ACYPHAS PELODES. 

Euproctis pelodes Low., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1893, p. 150.—Orgyia retino- 
pepla Low., ibid., 1905, p. 176. 

&. 24-28 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, abdomen, and legs brown or whitish-brown. 
Antennae brown or whitish-brown; pectinations in male 8 to 10. Forewings 
triangular, costa straight to near apex, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; 


326 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


uniformly brown, or suffused with whitish-brown leaving a darker basal patch, an 
outwardly curved transverse line at one-fourth, a subcostal median discal dot, and 
a sinuate line from three-fourths costa to two-thirds dorsum; an interrupted 
whitish sinuate transverse line just beyond this; cilia brown. Hindwings with 
termen rounded; brown; cilia brown. Underside brown. 

New South Wales: Broken Hill in October; South Australia: Adelaide. Two 
specimens from the Lower Collection in the South Australian Museum. The 
latter is believed to be the type of pelodes, the former is the type of retinopepla. 
The differences between them are, I am convinced, merely varietal. My former 
conjectural identification of pelodes was very wide of the mark. 


ACYPHAS ANELIOPA. 

Orgyia aneliopa Low., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1915, p. 478. 

do. 30 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown; face and palpi ochreous-brown. 
Antennae brownish; pectinations in male 12. Abdomen clothed in long ochreous 
hairs. Legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex round- 
pointed, termen gently rounded, oblique, fuscous-brown; an ill-defined fuscous 
discal mark beneath costa beyond middle; a suffused, fuscous, nearly straight line 
from costa before apex to dorsum before tornus; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with 
termen rounded; fuscous; cilia fuscous. Underside fuscous. 

South Australia: Pinnaroo. Described from one example in the Lower 
Collection. 


HABROPHYLLA EURYZONA Low. 


Euproctis pycnadelpha Low., Trans. Roy. Soc. 8. Aust., 1903, p. 28, is a slight 
aberration of this species. I have examined the type. 


EUPROCTIS EPAXIA Turn. 


I took a much better example of this species at Kuranda last June, and can 
therefore give a better description. 

3d. 20-26 mm. Head and palpi pale-orange. Antennae whitish-ochreous; 
pectinations in male 10-12. Thorax and abdomen orange. Legs whitish-ochreous; 
anterior and middle tibiae and tarsi with long orange hairs. Forewings oval- 
triangular, costa strongly arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, moderately 
oblique; orange-ochreous; costal margin and veins pale-ochreous; two broad trans- 
verse fasciae purple-fuscous or reddish-fuscous, densely irrorated with whitisa; 
first subbasal, not reaching costa, defined posteriorly by a pale-ochreous line; 
second subterminal, indented anteriorly above middle, projecting posteriorly in 
middle and beneath costa, defined anteriorly by a pale-ochreous line; cilia pale- 
ochreous with an orange-ochreous median line. Hindwings with termen rounded; 
pale-ochreous; cilia pale-ochreous. 


EUPROCTIS EMPREPES, 0. SD. 

éumpemes, CONSPicuouUs. 

6. 25-33 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, abdomen, and legs pale-ochreous. Antennae 
pale-ochreous; pectinations in male 8. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, 
apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; ochreous-yellow; a paler outwardly 
curved transverse line from one-third costa to one-third dorsum; a similar line 
from two-thirds costa to two-thirds dorsum, angled outwards in middle; first line 
preceded by a reddish-brown moderate fascia from dorsum extending half-way 


BY A. J. TURNER. 327 


towards costa; second line followed by a narrow, more or less interrupted, reddish- 
brown fascia, not reaching costal margin, strongly angled outwardly in middle; 
cilia ochreous-yellow. Hindwings with termen rounded; pale-ochreous; cilia pale- 
ochreous. 

The fasciae are narrower than in epawia, differently formed, and not irrorated 
with whitish. 

North Queensland: Kuranda near Cairns in August; Herberton in April; 
Ravenshoe in December; four specimens (F. P. Dodd and W. B. Barnard). 


EUPROCTIS OCHRONEURA, DN. SD. 


@xpovevpos, with pale nerves. 

do. 21 mm. Head and thorax pale-ochreous. Palpi 1, terminal joint minute; 
ochreous. Antennae pale-ochreous; antennal pectinations 10. Abdomen ochreous; 
tuft paler. Legs pale-ochreous. Forewings suboval, costa strongly arched, apex 
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; pale-ochreous with orange-ochreous markings; 
a subbasal line outwardly dentate; a suffused partial fascia from costa about one- 
fourth half-way across disc; a narrow fascia from costa before middle to two-fifths 
dorsum, wavy; a broader suffused fascia from three-fourths costa to three-fourths 
dorsum, traversed by pale streaks on veins, strongly outwardly curved; a sub- 
terminal fascia intersected by pale streaks on veins; cilia whitish-ochreous barred 
with orange-ochreous. Hindwings with termen rounded; 3 and 4 short-stalked, 
5 approximated; orange-ochreous; cilia as forewings. 

®. 24 mm. Antennal pectinations 10. Wings paler, markings suffused and 
very indistinct. 

There seems to be no difference in the antennal structure of the two sexes. 

North Queensland: Cape York in October and November; two specimens taken 
by Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the types. 


Genus Dura. 


In my revision the characters of this genus are correctly given, but in the key 
there is an error. Dura should fall under (9), 7 of forewing arising from well 
before 10, and then be separated by 11 connected with or closely approximated to 12. 


DURA NIVEA. 


Imaus niveus B-Bak., Novitat. Zoolog., 1904, p. 409. 

6. 68 mm. Head white. Palpi white; external surface blackish. Antennal 
stalk white; pectinations in male 8, ochreous. Thorax, abdomen, and legs white; 
pectus white with a blackish spot behind each eye. Forewings triangular, costa 
strongly arched, apex rounded, termen moderately rounded, scarcely oblique; 11 
connected with 12; uniformly white but with raised scales, which, when rightly 
illuminated, are seen to form an embossed pattern of the markings common in the 
genus, namely circular spots beneath costa at one-third and one-half; from the 
latter an incompletely defined series of spots to one-third dorsum, a sinuate line 
of spots from three-fourths costa to two-thirds dorsum, and a subterminal series 
of spots; a series of minute marginal fuscous dots between veins around apex and 
termen; cilia white. Hindwings subquadrate, termen with a prominent rounded 
angle on vein 3; white; cilia white. Underside white. 

Mr. Bethune-Baker’s description is very imperfect, but it can hardly refer to 
any other species. 


328 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


North Queensland: Kuranda near Cairns; one specimen taken by Mr. A. P. 
Dodd. Also from New Guinea. 


LAELIA FURVA, Nl. SD. 
furvus, dark. 

_ 6. 30-33 mm. Head orange-ochreous. Palpi 3; orange-ochreous. Antennae 
fuscous-grey; patagia orange-ochreous. Abdomen fuscous-grey. Legs grey; 
anterior pair orange-ochreous. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, apex 
rounded, termen nearly straight, not oblique, rounded beneath; fuscous-grey; cilia 
grey. Hindwings with termen rounded; fuscous-grey; cilia grey. 

Perhaps this is only a local race of L. obsoleta. 
North Queensland: Cape York in June; two specimens received from Mr. 
W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


Family ANTHELIDAE. 
PTEROLOCERA ISOGAMA, N. Sp. 

isoyauos, equally mated. 

6. 54-58 mm.; 92. 52-64 mm. Head, palpi, thorax, abdomen, and legs fuscous- 
brown. Antennae in male fuscous, pectinations in male extremely long (16 
to 20); in female brown with short (13) fuscous pectinations. Forewings 
triangular, narrower than in amplicornis, costa in male sinuate, in female nearly 
straight, apex round-pointed, termen gently rounded, strongly oblique; uniform 
fuscous-brown; cilia brown. Hindwings with termen rounded; colour as forewings. 

The male agrees structurally with amplicornis, but may be easily distinguished 
by the different shape of forewings—narrower, more elongate, termen much more 
oblique—and their uniform coloration. The female is very similar and fully 
winged, contrasting markedly with the completely apterous female of amplicornis. 

Western Australia: Beverley, Quairaiding, and Cunderdin; four specimens. 


Family BOMBYCIDAE. 
CoTANA AROA. 

Nervicompressa aroa B-Bak., Novit. Zoolog., 1904, p. 392. 

6. 38-40 mm. Head reddish-brown. Antennae dark fuscous; pectinations in 
male 4. Thorax ochreous-grey. Abdomen reddish-brown. Legs brown. Forewings 
triangular, costa straight to two-thirds, thence moderately arched, apex rounded, 
termen slightly rounded, not oblique; basal area sharply defined by a straight line 
from midcosta to before mid-dorsum, ochreous-whitish, containing a. broadly 
suffused, outwardly curved, transverse, fuscous, subbasal line, followed by a thickly 
outlined fuscous ring; beyond median line a very broad pale fuscous suffusion, 
broader above middle; terminal area pale-grey, containing two more or less distinct, 
parallel, transverse, fuscous, crenulate lines, and a suffused subapical, terminal, 
fuscous blotch; cilia fuscous, towards termen pale-grey. Hindwings with termen 
strongly rounded; orange-ochreous; an oblique fuscous line from mid-dorsum 
towards but not reaching costa at one-third; two crenulate fuscous, subterminal 
lines; cilia fuscous, on dorsum orange-ochreous. 

North Queensland: Cape York in November; five specimens received from Mr. 
W. 8B. Barnard. Also from New Guinea. 


Family NoropoNTIDAF. 
SYNTYPISTIS ARISEMNA, N. sp. 
adpiceuvos, very stately. 


BY A. J. TURNER. 329 


3. 65 mm.; ?. 88-87 mm. Head with a sharp median crest of scales; greenish- 
grey; face brown-whitish above, brown beneath. Palpi 1, ascending; pale-brownish, 
posteriorly fuscous. Antennae grey; pectinations brown, in male 12, in female 6. 
Thorax crested posteriorly; greenish-grey mottled centrally with brownish. 
Abdomen grey. Legs brown-whitish. Forewings oval, costa strongly arched, apex 
rounded, termen very obliquely rounded; greenish-grey, in female more whitish 
in subbasal and terminal areas; three rather confused, dentate, fuscous lines near 
base, the last oblique to one-sixth dorsum; two strongly but irregularly dentate 
transverse fuscous lines at one-third, the first more strongly marked in female, 
between them some brownish suffusion; similar but less strongly dentate transverse 
lines at two-thirds, the second more strongly marked in female; no defined discal 
spot, but some brownish mottling in female; terminal area paler, and suffused with 
whitish posteriorly; a dentate line near termen, the dentations being connected 
along veins with terminal edge; cilia pale brownish mottled with greenish-grey 
and pale fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; cilia grey, apices 
whitish. 

North Queensland: Cape York in April; three specimens received from Mr. 
W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


PHERASPIS EPIOCOSMA, 0. SD. 


HmvoKoouos, softly adorned. 

6. 45-47 mm. Head and thorax ochreous-brown-whitish. Palpi 1, ascending; 
ochreous-whitish irrorated with dark fuscous, posterior surface dark fuscous. 
Antennae fuscous becoming ochreous-whitish towards base; in male shortly ciliated 
(3). Abdomen ochreous-brown-whitish. Legs pale ochreous; tarsi annulated with 
fuscous. Forewings elongate-oval, costa straight to middle, thence rounded, 
termen very obliquely rounded; pale ochreous-grey, brownish-tinged, with some 
fuscous irroration towards costa and on veins; markings dark fuscous; a fine line 
from midcosta towards tornus abruptly curved inwards in mid-disc, thence twice 
sinuate to one-third dorsum; just beyond this are traces of a discal spot; two fine 
parallel lines from costa at five-eighths and three-fourths, at first outwardly 
oblique, then bent and finely dentate to dorsum at two-thirds and five-sixths, 
anastomosing above dorsum; three fine parallel black streaks beneath apical fourth 
of costa, the uppermost fine and short, the middle one wedge-shaped with base 
anterior, the lowest longer and somewhat anterior; a subterminal series of 
blackish dots; cilia whitish mixed and obscurely barred with brown. Hindwings 
with termen gently rounded; pale ochreous; a suffused fuscous terminal line; a 
blackish spot edged marginally with whitish at tornus; cilia pale ochreous, on 
termen mixed with fuscous. 

North Queensland: Cape York in October; two specimens received from Mr. 
W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


DESTOLMIA ATALOPA, DL. SD. 

aradwros, delicate. 

6. 42 mm. Head whitish; sometimes a transverse line on face. Palpi 1, 
porrect; whitish, upper surface towards base fuscous. Antennae whitish-ochreous; 
in male with long pectinations (8) nearly to apex. Thorax whitish; anterior and 
posterior crests ochreous-tinged anteriorly. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs whitish; 
anterior and middle tarsi annulated with fuscous. Forewings elongate-oval, costa 
gently arched, apex rounded, termen obliquely rounded; whitish with some fine 


330 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


fuscous irroration, partly ochreous-tinged in disc; veins finely irrorated with 
fuscous; two short longitudinal blackish streaks in posterior part of cell, and two 
beneath cell towards base; three dark fuscous dots followed by white dots on veins 
at three-fourths; sometimes an interrupted, oblique, short, dark fuscous streak 
from apex; cilia dark grey; apices and slender bars on veins whitish. Hindwings 
with termen gently rounded; grey; cilia as forewings. 

Western Australia: Denmark in March; two specimens received from Mr. 
W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


ANTIMIMA CORYSTES, 0. SD. 

kopvoTys, wearing a helmet. 

©. 40 mm. Head grey; face with a short, conical, obtuse, anterior process, 
excavated at apex. Palpi moderate, obliquely ascending; dark fuscous mixed with 
white anteriorly. Antennae grey, darker towards apex. Thorax dark grey with 
some whitish hairs. Abdomen grey, posteriorly mixed with whitish. Legs fuscous 
mixed with whitish; posterior pair mostly whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, 
costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen moderately rounded, moderately 
oblique; grey with some whitish irroration; markings blackish; a short suffused 
line from costa near base to middle of disc; a fine crenulate line from two-fifths 
costa to two-thirds dorsum; orbicular circular, slenderly outlined, containing a tuft 
of raised scales, immediately beyond this line; reniform similar but transversely 
oval, at three-fifths, suffusedly connected with costa; a strongly sinuate, slightly 
dentate line from four-fifths costa to four-fifths dorsum, succeeded by some 
whitish points on veins; an obscure whitish subterminal line; a terminal line 
interrupted on veins; cilia grey mixed with whitish. Hindwings with termen 
rounded; dark grey; basal area pale grey; cilia pale grey, apices whitish. 

Western Australia: Collie in November; one specimen. Type in Coll. Lyell. 


SCYTROPHANES AMBLYIODES, 0. Sp. 

auBdAvwdns, dull, obscure. 

3d. 45 mm. Head and thorax grey with some whitish hairs. Palpi 24; grey, 
posterior surface fuscous. Antennae grey; pectinations in male 10, ochreous- 
fuscous. Abdomen grey-whitish. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous with whitish 
irroration. Forewings rather narrow, suboblong, costa gently and uniformly 
arched, apex rounded, termen rounded, oblique; fuscous irrorated with grey- 
whitish so as to appear grey; a very short blackish median streak from base; 
two clesely parallel fuscous transverse lines from one-fourth costa to one-third 
dorsum; two sinuate fuscous closely parallel lines from three-fourths costa to 
three-fourths dorsum; a subterminal series of fuscous dots; cilia grey. Hindwings 
about 13, termen gently rounded; 6 and 7 coincident; grey-whitish with some 
grey suffusion near termen; cilia grey. 

Very similar to Gallaba eusciera. 

Tasmania: Hobart (Snug River, I. Harman) in April; one specimen in Coll. 
Lyell. 


Genus GALLABA WIk. 


Recent discoveries show that this genus is not such a small one as was 
thought. As the species are very retired in their habits and rarely taken, we may 
expect further discoveries. Most of them are obscure and so closely similar as to 
require careful discrimination. The following key may be useful. 


BY A. J. TURNER. 331 


imEMonewiane su with hapexmansled! Eisai cio ccahveils. 4 oo) Aer SE eR eee ese 2 
LOGE WANES mawA tis pe xe OUI OCC pa dswepstencstar Kay Sat omer tar.g ciets Sci saeeee oweys veia GA Maa iseey aiiatlel co ewaulsnec@s tae 3 
2. Forewings with subdorsal blackish streak from base ..................4.. eugraphes 
Forewings without longitudinal streak from base ...................... ochropepla 
3. Forewings with orbicular and reniform well-developed and touching ...... diplocycla 
Forewings with orbicular or both stigmata obsolete ...............2.2c2ceeeveee 4 
4. Forewings with short white streak from base ..............2c2ceeceeeees basinipha 
HonewineSewithout sowie: basal (Stree Ke ges aicncwer ce avec. cneleheseuebe ne eteneokensielerane oheheseveue leven eie 5 
DLOne wane Siwith LemMitOrm ODSOLEEE! stim wi ciersie esse eel ele edeleusin nie clslele eyereie) sO 46 ee 5). eusciera 
HOLewINES with ereniform™e GIStimc Caceys rence ter enccie ewe le ait eit iaiel ties eh asic enaie cicimeeren here 6 
6. Forewings with reniform blackish-centred, narrow ...............2.-2+-0:: duplicata 
Forewings with reniform not blackish-centred, not narrow ................ dysthyma 


GALLABA DIPLOCYCLA, D. Sp. 

OimAoKuKAos, With double circles. 

°. 46 mm. Head whitish with a few dark fuscous scales. Palpi 23; whitish, 
upper surface blackish. Antennae grey; pectinations in female 34. Thorax dark 
fuscous with slight whitish irroration. Abdomen pale grey. Legs fuscous with 
whitish-grey hairs. Forewings oblong, costa arched near base, thence nearly 
straight, apex rounded, slightly oblique; grey; near base and on middle of costa 
suffused with whitish; two parallel sinuate blackish lines near base; two wavy 
transverse lines at one-fourth; orbicular and reniform circular, outlined with 
whitish and confluent, their centres blackish, the latter in middle; following these 
are three strongly sinuate slightly dentate lines at about two-thirds; a subterminal 
slightly dentate line; cilia grey. Hindwings grey becoming whitish towards base; 
cilia grey, on dorsum whitish. 

New South Wales: Mittagong in November; one specimen. Type in Coll. 
Goldfinch. 


GALLABA BASINIPHA, N. SD. 


Baowpos, with white basal mark. 

36. 48 mm. Head and thorax brown with white irroration. Palpi 34; brown 
with white irroration. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs brown with white irroration; 
posterior pair whitish-grey. Forewings elongate, narrow, costa moderately arched 
to middle, thence straight, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, moderately 
oblique; fuscous-brown; a short slender white subdorsal streak from base; reni- 
form represented by a short oblique slender fuscous bar with pale edges; some 
vague fuscous mottling but no defined markings; cilia fuscous. Hindwings ample, 
termen rounded, slightly sinuate; whitish-grey; cilia whitish-grey. 

New South Wales: Mt. Kosciusko in December; one specimen. Type in 
Coll. Goldfinch. 


GALLABA EUSCIERA, DN. SD. 

evcklepos, dark. 

9. 46 mm. Head and thorax fuscous irrorated with whitish. Palpi 23; 
whitish irrorated with fuscous. Antennae whitish-grey; pectinations in female 3. 
Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs grey; anterior pair fuscous mixed with whitish. 
Forewings suboblong, costa evenly and moderately arched, apex rounded, termen 
rounded, scarcely oblique; fuscous uniformly and densely irrorated with whitish 
so as to appear grey without brownish tinge; markings fuscous; two faintly 
indicated transverse lines near base; two closely parallel dentate transverse lines 
from one-fourth costa to one-third dorsum; a wavy inwardly oblique line from 


332 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


three-fifths costa to mid-dorsum; two closely parallel wavy sinuate transverse 
lines from three-fourths costa to two-thirds dorsum; an irregularly dentate sub- 
terminal line posteriorly edged with whitish; cilia grey. Hindwings with termen 
slightly sinuate; whitish, towards dorsum broadly fuscous-grey; cilia grey, apices 
paler. 

New South Wales: Emmaville, near Glen Innes, in December; one specimen. 


GALLABA DUPLICATA. 

Gallaba duplicata W1k., Cat. Brit. Mus., xxxii, p. 458. 

3, 2. 36-42 mm. Head and thorax fuscous-brown mixed with whitish. Palpi 
in male 3, in female 4; whitish mixed with fuscous. Antennae grey; pectinations 
in male 12, in female 5. Abdomen pale grey. Legs ochreous-whitish; anterior 
pair irrorated with fuscous-brown. Forewings suboblong, costa strongly arched 
near base, thence slightly, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique; pale 
grey irrorated throughout with fuscous-brown; markings fuscous, more developed 
in male; two short angulated lines from costa near base; two closely parallel 
irregularly dentate transverse lines from one-fourth costa to one-third dorsum; a 
small obliquely transverse mark margined with whitish in disc beyond middle; 
three closely parallel denticulate lines from about midcosta to beyond mid-dorsum, 
strongly outwardly curved around discal mark; an irregularly denticulate sub- 
terminal line; cilia pale fuscous, bases barred with pale grey. Hindwings with 
termen rounded; uniformly pale grey somewhat ochreous-tinged; cilia pale grey, 
apices whitish. 

I have found it necessary to redescribe this species owing to its close 
similarity to the following. 

Queensland: Brisbane; Stradbroke Island; Coolangatta. I have recorded this 
species also from Sydney, but would not now be sure of this locality. 


GALLABA DYSTHYMA, DN. Sp. 

ducbupos, gloomy. 

6. 48 mm.; 9. 50 mm. Head fuscous with fine whitish irroration. Antennae 
fuscous; pectinations in male 10, in female 3. Palpi 34; fuscous with whitish 
irroration. Thorax fuscous, sometimes brownish-tinged. Abdomen pale grey. 
Legs fuscous with some whitish irroration; posterior pair grey. Forewings sub- 
oblong, costa strongly arched to one-third, thence straight, apex rounded, termen 
rounded, scarcely oblique; fuscous sometimes brownish-tinged posteriorly; reni- 
form small, obscure, slenderly outlined in pale grey; a dark fuscous crenulate 
line from beneath three-fourths costa to three-fourths dorsum, preceded by a faint 
parallel line; some longitudinal dark fuscous streaks before termen; cilia fuscous. 
Hindwings ample, termen rounded, sinuate; grey; cilia grey. 

New South Wales: Mittagong in March and April; two examples in Coll. 
Goldfinch. 


Genus DICERATUCHA. 

Diceratucha Swin., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xiv, 1904, p. 133. 

Face with a strong anterior chitinous process, excavated in middle. Tongue 
present but short. Palpi rather long, porrect, thickened with rough hairs; terminal 
joint concealed. Antennae of male shortly ciliated, becoming dentate towards 
apex. Thorax with short anterior and posterior crests; tegulae rather long, erect, 
and thickened towards apex. Posterior tibiae with two pairs of spurs. Forewings 


BY A. J. TURNER. 333 


with two from about four-fifths, 3 from shortly before angle, 5 from about midway 
between 4 and 6, 6 from below upper angle, areole rather large, 7 and 10 arising 
from it separately. Hindwings with 2 from about four-fifths, 3 from midway 
between this and angle, 5 from middle of cell, 6 and 7 stalked, 12. approximated 
to cell from base to about three-fourths. Type, D. xenopis Low. 

This genus has been wrongly referred to the Oenochromidae, but should be 
placed in the Notodontidae near Gallaba. There is no trace of a humeral angle at 
the base of vein 12 of the hindwing, and the neuration is typically notodontid in 
every respect. This is confirmed by the scaling of the thorax and pattern of the 
forewings. Certainly the chitinous projection of the frons is exceptional in this 
family, but this is an adaptation to facilitate the emergence of the imago, and is 
common in Australia, especially in arid regions, in many genera of the Noctuidae, 
Boarmiadae, and Oenochromidae. 


DICERATUCHA XENOPIS. 


Oenone xenopis Low., Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 1902, p. 227.—Diceratucha 
xenopis Swin., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7), xiv, 1904, p. 133. 

6; 9. 25-35 mm. Head fuscous; frontal projection ending in an upper median 
and paired lateral acute spinous processes. Palpi fuscous. Antennae fuscous; 
in male simple and very shortly ciliated, becoming laminate towards apex. 
Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous with some whitish irroration; posterior pair mostly 
whitish. Forewings oval-triangular, costa strongly and uniformly arched, apex 
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; grey with some dark fuscous and whitish 
irroration; a blackish sinuate line from one-fourth costa to two-fifths dorsum, 
becoming strongly oblique towards dorsum; a small distinct circular orbicular 
spot at one-third, pale brownish edged with blackish; a similar but larger trans- 
versely oval reniform spot just beyond middle; a fuscous transverse median line, 
not always distinct, from before middle of costa, strongly angled outwards above 
middle, thence sinuate to dorsum beyond middle; a blackish line from beyond 
middle of costa, strongly curved outwards around reniform, then curved inwards 
to two-thirds dorsum, slightly dentate; a pale dentate subterminal line, sometimes 
indistinct; an interrupted blackish terminal line; cilia grey mixed with fuscous 
and whitish. Hindwings broad and ample, termen rounded and slightly bowed in 
middle; grey; terminal line and cilia as forewings. 

New South Wales: Broken Hill; Bourke (Helms); Victoria: Birchip; 
Brentwood. 


Family LIMACOopDIDAE. 


PARASA DNOPHERA, 0. SD. 

Ovopepos, dark. 

®. 40 mm. Head fuscous with some whitish hairs. Palpi 2; dark fuscous. 
Antennae fuscous; in female slightly dentate. Thorax dark fuscous, anteriorly 
suffused with brownish. Abdomen dark fuscous; tuft whitish. Legs fuscous; 
tarsi annulated with whitish. Forewings triangular, costa straight to three- 
fourths, apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique; 7 connate, 8, 9 stalked, 10 
separate; dark fuscous; a subtriangular fuscous-brown dorsal blotch from one- 
third to tornus; apical area suffused with whitish, its anterior edge above blotch 
finely dentate; a fine blackish line, indented above middle, from four-fifths costa 
to tornus; cilia fuscous-grey. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; fuscous; 
terminal edge, except towards tornus, suffused with whitish; cilia grey with a 


334 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


whitish median line. Underside of both wings fuscous with a narrow whitish 
terminal suffusion. 
North Queensland: Cape York in June; one specimen. Type in Coll. Barnard. 


THOSEA THRENOPIS, N. Sp. 

Opnuwrts, mournful. 

¢. 30-32 mm.; 9. 40 mm. Head, thorax, palpi, abdomen, and legs brown. 
Antennae pale ochreous-grey; in male with a double row of moderate pectinations 
(3) continued almost to apex. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa straight to 
apex, apex rounded, termen strongly rounded, slightly oblique; 7, 8, 9 stalked, 10 
separate (3 ¢, 1 2); dark brown broadly suffused with fuscous in median area; a 
straight oblique whitish line from five-sixths costa to two-thirds dorsum limits 
this suffusion posteriorly; a fuscous line immediately follows; terminal area 
paler; cilia brown. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey-brown; cilia grey- 
brown. 

North Queensland: Cape York in November; four specimens received from Mr. 
W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


Genus CHALCHOSCELIS. 


To the definition of this genus should be added: Thorax with a posterior crest. 
Abdomen with dorsal crests. These are present in the type species, though not so 
pronounced as in that here described. 


CHALCHOSCELIS EULOPHA, DN. SD. 


evAogos, well crested. 

6. 26mm. Head dark fuscous; face mixed with brownish. Palpi 2, ascending; 
fuscous. Antennae fuscous; pectinations in male brownish, very long (12), ceasing 
rather abruptly at three-fifths. Thorax with bifid posterior crest; dark fuscous 
mixed with brownish. Abdomen with high bifid dorsal crest on first segment, very 
small crests on second and third segments; fuscous, towards apex pale brownish; 
basal crest anteriorly brown, posteriorly dark fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi and 
posterior tibiae brownish. Forewings oval-triangular, costa gently arched, apex 
rounded, termen obliquely rounded; 7 and 10 connate with 8, 9; fuscous; apical 
and terminal half brownish; a finely but irregularly dentate pale line from three- 
fifths costa to two-fifths dorsum; an outwardly curved fuscous line from four-fifths 
costa to tornus; cilia brownish obscurely barred with fuscous. Hindwings with 
termen strongly bowed; pale brown; cilia pale brown, apices whitish. 

North Queensland: Cape York in June; one specimen. Type in Coll. Barnard. 


Family OENOCHROMIDAE. 


Genus APOTHETA, n. gen. 

amoferos, hidden. 

Face not projecting, clothed with rough projecting hairs. Tongue strongly 
developed. Palpi moderate, porrect; second joint with long rough hairs beneath; 
terminal joint moderate, cylindrical, obtuse. Antennae in male bipectinate to apex. 
Thorax stout, densely hairy above and beneath. Femora hairy. Posterior tibiae 
with middle spurs. Tarsi spinulose. Forewings with areole long and narrow, 11 
free, 9 and 10 long-stalked from cell, 9 anastomosing shortly with the stalk of 7 
and 8. Hindwings with 3 widely separated from 2, approximated to 4, 5 from 


BY A. J. TURNER. 335 


middle of cell, 6 and 7 connate, 12 closely approximated to cell from near base to 
near its end. 

Nearest Phallaria Gn., from which it differs by the frons not projecting, and 
the approximation of 3 and 4 of the hindwings to cell. From Onycodes Gn. it 
differs in the hairy face, palpi and thorax, and the long approximation of 12 of 
hindwings to cell. The type species has the cryptic coloration of many Boarmiadae. 


APOTHETA TANYMITA, D. sp. 

Tavuuitos, With long threads. 

6. 38-44 mm. Head fuscous; face white. Palpi 24; fuscous. Antennae grey- 
whitish; pectinations in male 6. Thorax and abdomen grey. Legs grey; posterior 
tibiae and tarsi mostly whitish. Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight 
but slightly sinuate before apex, apex acute, termen strongly rounded, oblique, 
dentate; grey with slight fuscous irroration; a median subcostal fuscous dot; a 
nearly straight but slightly waved fuscous line from one-fourth dorsum to middle 
of disc; a similar line edged anteriorly with whitish from mid-dorsum to just before 
apex, in one example gently and uniformly concave, in another rather strongly 
bisinuate; ‘cilia dark grey, apices between dentations whitish. Hindwings with 
termen not rounded, dentate; as forewings, but without first line and with second 
line straight to just before costal end. 

Western Australia: Merredin, in July; two specimens received from Mr. L. J. 
Newman. 


Family LARENTIADAE. 
POECILASTHENA PHAEODRYAS, D. SD. 


gpatodpvas, a dusky woodnymph. 

6. 33 mm. Head dark green; fillet narrowly white; face fuscous. Palpi 
minute; fuscous. Hyes in male enlarged, width of eyes considerably more than that 
of thorax. Antennae fuscous, towards base paler; ciliations in male minute. 
Thorax dark green. Abdomen dark green. Legs whitish-ochreous-grey. Fore- 
wings triangular, costa straight to middle, thence strongly arched, apex acute, 
slightly pointed, termen nearly straight but slightly sinuate; strongly oblique; 
dark green; a darker median subdorsal discal dot; slight white irroration forming 
numerous slender obscure interrupted or crenulate transverse lines; cilia dark 
green. Hindwings subquadrate, termen wavy, acutely angled on vein 4; as fore- 
wings but median discal dot at one-third. 

Allied to P. sthenommata Turn., but much darker, white markings very 
obscure, termen of forewings not crenulate. 

Queensland: National Park (3,000 ft.) in Mareh; one specimen. 


CHLOROCLYSTIS PLINTHOCHYTA, DN. SD. 


mAwvOoxuTOs, suffused with reddish. 

3, . 16-19 mm. Head whitish; face pale reddish. Palpi 14; fuscous. 
Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. Thorax whitish with some reddish 
scales. Abdomen whitish; a dull reddish basal band on dorsum. Legs pale 
fuscous; posterior pair whitish. Forewings triangular, costa nearly straight, 
apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique; whitish, towards base and termen 
with some fuscous suffusion, median area suffused with dull reddish; a suffused 
fuscous costal streak to two-fifths; a curved line from two-fifths costa to two-fifths 
dorsum, fuscous, anteriorly suffused, posteriorly sharply defined; a broad median 


336 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


dull reddish fascia incomplete towards costa, its posterior edge ill-defined, with a 
short obtuse projection beneath costa; a fine indistinct whitish subterminal 
line; beyond this a fuscous suffusion interrupted by a whitish spot below middle; 
cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly bowed in middle; a subbasal fascia 
dull reddish mixed with fuscous; a postmedian fuscous line sharply angled in 
middle and beneath costa, preceded by some suffusion; a double subterminal line 
and some terminal suffusion fuscous; cilia whitish. 

I formerly described this as the female of C. pyrrholopha, but I have both 
sexes and they are alike. The female of that species remains unknown. 

North Queensland: Kuranda, near Cairns, in September and May; Millaa- 
millaa near Herberton, in November; three specimens. 


CHLOROCLYSTIS CELIDOTA, ND. Sp. 


KknAvdoTos, suffused. 

6. 18 mm. Head pale grey. Palpi 14; fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in 
male minute. Thorax fuscous; anterior margin pale grey. Abdomen fuscous, paler 
towards apex. Legs whitish; anterior pair fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa 
nearly straight, apex rounded, termen slightly rounded, oblique; whitish densely 
but not uniformly suffused with fuscous; lines slender, fuscous; antemedian from 
two-fifths costa to two-fifths dorsum, evenly curved; postmedian from three-fifths 
costa to three-fifths dorsum, curved, slightly and very obtusely angled above and 
below middle; both lines edged posteriorly by whitish lines; terminal area paler, 
with a whitish subapical suffusion; cilia whitish mixed with fuscous. Hindwings 
with termen rounded; fuscous; a large suffused whitish tornal blotch; a post- 
median fuscous line, not angled; a similar subterminal line, slightly dentate; cilia 
as forewings. 

North Queensland: Dunk Island in May; one specimen. 


CHLOROCLYSTIS STENOPHRICA, Nl. Sp. 
oTevoppikos, narrowly rippled. 


9. 21-24 mm. Head whitish-grey with some fuscous scales. Palpi 2; fuscous 
with some whitish scales. Antennae grey. Abdomen grey with some fuscous 
irroration. Legs fuscous; tarsi narrowly ringed with whitish; posterior pair 
whitish. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, apex round-pointed, termen 
nearly straight, oblique; whitish with fuscous irroration and markings; the latter 
consist of numerous fine wavy transverse lines; antemedian from one-third costa 
to one-third dorsum, preceded by three parallel lines; postmedian from two-thirds 
costa to two-thirds dorsum, with a moderate acute posterior median angle, pre- 
ceded by two finer lines and succeeded by another; a line from three-fourths costa 
to three-fourths dorsum parallel to postmedian and with similar acute median 
angle; a fine dentate whitish subterminal line; a blackish terminal line inter- 
rupted on veins; cilia fuscous with indistinct whitish bars opposite veins. Hind- 
wings with termen bisinuate, only slightly rounded; pale grey; three pnirs of 
fuscous dots representing short lines starting from dorsum, near base, at one-third, 
and between these; postmedian at two-thirds, consisting of a series of fuscous dots 
reaching middle, followed by a whitish line; another series of fuscous dots follows 
this; a faint whitish subterminal line; terminal line and cilia as forewings, but 
the latter paler. 

Queensland: Bunya Mts. (3,500 ft.) in March; New South Wales: Ben 
Lomond (4,500 ft.) in February. Two specimens. 


BY A. J. TURNER. 337 


ScoOTOCYMA TRANSFIXA, D. Sp. 

transfizus, pierced through. 

%. 33-86 mm. Head, thorax and abdomen fuscous-brown. Palpi 14; fuscous- 
brown with a few whitish scales. Antennae fuscous. Legs fuscous; tibiae and 
tarsi annulated with pale ochreous; posterior pair almost wholly pale ochreous. 
Forewings broadly triangular, costa moderately arched, apex rounded, termen 
rounded, oblique, crenulate; brown with numerous fine crenulate transverse fuscous 
lines; a fine white subbasal transverse line; a broad darker median band defined 
by fine white lines, anterior from one-third costa to one-third dorsum, slightly 
dentate, posterior from two-thirds costa to three-fourths dorsum, with rounded 
dentations, and a strong double median projection; a fine white line from base to 
termen along median vein; this emits a fine branch from costal side near base, 
which rejoins it at end of cell, forming a narrow loop; white lines from the end of 
this loop along veins 4 and 5 to termen; a fine white crenulate subterminal line; a 
fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous-brown. Hindwings with termen rounded, 
dentate; as forewings but without subbasal and antemedian white lines, and with 
longitudinal white lines on veins 4 and 5 only. Underside ochreous-whitish with 
suffused fuscous transverse lines and discal dot and a narrow pale postmedian 
fascia on both wings. 

Queensland: Jandowae near Dalby; National Park (3,000 ft.) in February; 
two specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


LARENTIA TENUIS, D. SD. 

tenuis, feeble. ; 

6, 2. 24-25 mm. Head whitish sometimes ochreous-tinged. Palpi 14, rough- 
haired; dark fuscous, towards apex whitish. Antennae fuscous; pectinations in 
male 12, extreme apex simple. Thorax ochreous mixed with fuscous. Abdomen 
whitish-ochreous irrorated with fuscous; some median dorsal dots. Legs dark 
fuscous; tibiae and tarsi annulated with ochreous-whitish. Forewings triangular, 
costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen slightly rounded, moderately 
oblique; ochreous-whitish with fuscous and ochreous markings; a subbasal fuscous 
fascia connected with base along costa; a dentate ochreous transverse line doubly 
edged with fuscous at one-fourth; a moderately broad median fuscous band 
containing imperfectly developed darker crenulate lines, anterior edge wavy from 
one-third costa to one-third dorsum; towards costa the band contains a whitish 
area in which is a rather large round blackish median discal spot; beyond band is 
a whitish line, followed by a fuscous-edged fine ochreous line; a fine crenulate 
whitish subterminal line; terminil area fuscous interrupted by subapical and 
median whitish spots; an interrupted dark fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous 
with several whitish-ochreous bars. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; a 
fuscous median dot at one-third; obscurely paler wavy post-median and sub- 
terminal lines; cilia whitish-ochreous birred with fuscous. 

Queensland: National Park (3,000—4,000 ft.) in March; four specimens. 


Family GEOMETRIDAE. 
CHLOERES PRASOCHROA, 0. SD. 


mpacoxpoos, green like a leek. 

6. 25 mm. Head green; fillet whitish; face pale-green. Palpi 1, slender; 
whitish. Antennae white; pectinations in male 10. Thorax and abdomen green. 
Legs whitish. Forewings triangular, costa arched at base, thence straight to four- 


338 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


fifths, apex pointed, termen slightly rounded, slightly oblique; green; costal edge 
whitish from near base to apex; transverse lines very slender, whitish, indistinct; 
antemedian from one-fourth costa to one-third dorsum, nearly straight; postmedian 
from five-sixths costa to three-fourths dorsum nearly straight; cilia whitish. Hind- 
wings with termen slightly bowed on vein 4; colour and cilia as forewings; an 
elongate semilunar whitish mark in middle with concavity posterior; postmedian 
at three-fourths, curved, slightly wavy. 
North Queensland: Charters Towers, in August; one specimen. 


Family Nocrumpask. 
DASYGASTER ATRATA, Nn. SD. 


atratus, clothed in black. 

o. 40-42 mm. Head and thorax blackish. Palpi 1; external surface blackish 
except apices of joints, these with anterior and internal surfaces pale grey. 
Antennae blackish; in male biciliated in tufts, each tuft accompanied by a slightly 
longer bristle (1). Abdomen fuscous. Legs fuscous; tarsi with whitish rings. 
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa very slightly arched, apex rectangular, termen 
straight, crenulate, rounded beneath, not oblique; dark fuscous with obscure 
blackish markings; an obscure series of costal spots; three minute whitish dots on 
posterior fourth of costa; orbicular small, longitudinally oval, pale with darker 
centre, suffusedly surrounded with blackish; reniform larger, containing a dark 
ring; claviform represented by a blackish suffusion; a fine irregularly dentate 
transverse line at two-thirds; some longitudinal streaks in terminal area; a fine 
pale dentate subterminal line, sometimes obsolete; cilia dark fuscous with a fine 
pale basal line. Hindwings with termen bisinuate, wavy; fuscous; paler near base; 
cilia fuscous, apices and bases paler. 

New South Wales: Ben Lomond (4,500 ft.) in February; three specimens. 


Genus CYCLOPRORA, n. gen. 

kukAotpwpos, with rounded prow. 

Tongue strong. Palpi moderate, ascending, shortly rough-scaled; terminal 
joint very short, obtuse. Antennae in male simple, minutely ciliated. Face 
smooth, rounded, prominent. Thorax with anterior and posterior crests. Abdomen 
with crests on basal and third segments, minute crests on following segments. 
Posterior tibiae rough-haired on dorsum. MHindwings with cell 3/5; 3 and 4 
separate, 5 obsolete from middle of cell, 6 and 7 connate. 

Allied to Cosmodes Gn., with which it agrees in the long cell of hindwing, 
but differs in the prominent face. 


CYCLOPRORA ARIDOXA, N. SDP. 

aptoogos, splendid. 

6. 28 mm. Head brown; face white. Palpi 1; blackish, terminal joint and 
apex of second joint white. Antennae dark fuscous; ciliations in male minute. 
Thorax blackish; an anterior brown spot; tegulae except bases pale-green. 
Abdomen whitish; a median dorsal series of blackish spots. Legs blackish; tibiae 
and tarsi with white rings; posterior pair more whitish. Forewings rather 
broadly triangular, costa gently arched, apex rectangular, termen rounded, towards 
tornus wavy, not oblique; green, white, and brown, with blackish markings; basal 
area and a quadrangular subcostal blotch about middle white, remaining area 
green; a spot on base of costa prolonged towards, but not reaching a dot on dorsum 


BY A. J. TURNER. 339 


near base; costal edge white interrupted by blackish bars; an outwardly curved 
transverse line at about one-fifth, edged anteriorly white, preceded by a suffused 
brown spot, followed by a confluent quadrangular subcostal spot and a short 
longitudinal bar below middle; a triangular spot with base towards costa indents 
the median white area; postmedian line from beneath two-thirds costa to two- 
thirds dorsum, forming a posterior median rounded prominence, edged white 
posteriorly, followed by a brown fascia, which does not reach margins; a similar 
but finer subterminal line; a fuscous tornal blotch and a smaller one on apical 
part of termen; cilia whitish with dark fuscous bars. Hindwings with termen 
rounded; whitish towards base; a bisinuate postmedian grey line; terminal area 
grey; cilia whitish with a grey median line. 

Queensland: Toowoomba, in March; one specimen received from Mr. W. B. 
Barnard, who has the type. 


BATHYTRICHA PHAEOSTICHA, 0D. SD. 


gatoortxos, dark-lined. 

6, . 20-26 mm. Head fuscous or fuscous-whitish. Palpi 1; fuscous. Antennae 
ochreous-whitish; in male shortly bipectinate. Thorax grey-whitish, anteriorly 
more or less fuscous. Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs fuscous-whitish or whitish. 
Forewings elongate-triangular, costa nearly straight, apex rounded-rectangular, 
termen not oblique, rounded beneath; grey-whitish; a pale fuscous longitudinal 
median streak more or less developed; sometimes also slender streaks beneath 
costa, above dorsum, and on veins in terminal area; an obscure postmedian series 
of fuscous dots; a more distinct series of terminal dots; cilia grey-whitish. Hind- 
wings with termen rounded; whitish; cilia whitish. 

Queensland: Bunya Mts. (3,500 ft.) in February and March; a series taken 
at light. 


DINOPRORA STALIDOSEMA, D. Sp. 


oTaniOoonuos, peg-marked. 

3, 9. 30-32 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi 1%; whitish-ochreous; basal 
two-thirds of outer surface of second joint dark fuscous. Antennae fuscous; 
ciliations in male very short (3). Abdomen whitish-grey. Legs fuscous; tibiae 
and tarsi with whitish rings; posterior pair mostly ochreous-whitish. Forewings 
elongate-triangular, costa straight, apex rounded-rectangular, termen moderately 
rounded, slightly oblique; brownish-fuscous; some minute brownish costal dots; a 
fine indistinct fuscous line from one-fourth costa to one-third dorsum; orbicular 
small, round, brownish; reniform brown-whitish with a central fuscous line 
continuous with ground-colour beneath, its outer inferior angle shortly produced; 
a fine crenulate fuscous postmedian line from two-thirds costa to two-thirds 
dorsum, curved outwardly to below middle, thence inwardly; some indistinct 
brownish dots representing subterminal line; a fine interrupted terminal line; cilia 
fuscous, apices pale brownish. Hindwings ample, termen slightly sinuate; whitish 
with some grey suffusion towards termen; a fine interrupted terminal line; cilia 
whitish. 

New South Wales: Bourke (Helms); Broken Hill, in April; two specimens. 


CARADRINA ARGONEPHRA, 0. SDP. 


apyovedpos, with white reniform. 


340 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


3d; §. 30 mm. Head and thorax brownish-fuscous. Palpi 12; fuscous; 
anteriorly towards apex brown-whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 
short (2/3). Abdomen grey. Legs fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa straight; 
apex rounded-rectangular, termen slightly rounded, scarcely oblique; brownish- 
fuscous; markings fuscous; a costal spot at one-fourth giving rise to a fine 
crenulate line to one-third dorsum; orbicular indicated by a minute pale dot; reni- 
form rather small, shining white; outlined with fuscous, closely preceded by a 
slender pale transverse line; a faint median line, obsolete towards costa; post- 
median double from two spots on costa beyond middle, strongly curved outwards, 
then inwards.and wavy to two-thirds dorsum; sometimes a series of longitudinal 
streaks before termen, interrupted by a pale subterminal line; a terminal line; 
cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen slightly sinuate; pale grey; cilia pale grey. 

Differs from C. conjinis Wlk. in the shorter broader forewings and absence 
of plical streak, as well as the white reniform, which may not be constant. 

Western Australia: Perth; two specimens received from Mr. W. H. Matthews. 


CARADRINA ASBOLAEBA, DT. SD. 

aoBodavos, sooty. 

3, 2. 28-80 mm. Head fuscous. Palpi 143; fuscous; apices of second and 
terminal joints whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male short (2/3). Thorax 
fuscous; apices of patagia narrowly whitish. Abdomen and legs grey. Forewings 
elongate-triangular; costa straight except at base and apex, apex rounded- 
rectangular, termen slightly rounded, scarcely oblique; fuscous; orbicular indicated 
by a minute whitish dot; reniform very small, rounded or transversely oval, 
whitish or brownish; cilia fuscous. Hindwings with termen rounded; grey; cilia 
grey. 

Victoria: Birchip, in April (Goudie); two specimens. 


Genus CLYTOSCOPA, n. gen. 

kAuTooKoTos, of noble appearance. 

Tongue strongly developed. Frons not projecting, but with a superior tuft. 
Palpi long, ascending, reaching vertex; second joint long, densely thickened with 
appressed scales, which form a small posterior apical tuft; terminal joint moderate, 
porrect, partly concealed. Antennae of male shortly ciliated. Thorax with a 
posterior crest. Abdomen without crests. Posterior tibiae almost smooth. Fore- 
wings with 2 from about two-thirds, 7, 8, 9 stalked from areole, 7 arising before 9, 
10 arising separately from areole or 10 disconnected and areole absent. MHind- 
wings with cell about two-fifths, 3 and 4 connate, 5 well developed from about one- 
fourth, 6 and 7 connate, 12 anastomosing strongly with cell at one-fourth. 

Allied to Cerynea and Hyposada. Differs from both in the structure of the 
palpi, the thoracic crest, the strong anastomosis of 12 with cell of hindwing, and 
the absence of stalking of 3 and 4; from Cerynea in the longer cell of hindwings, 
which is, however, shorter than in Hyposada. Type, C. iorrhoda. 


CLYTOSCOPA IORRHODA, 0D. Sp. 

iops0d0¢, purple-rosy. 

3, 2. 28-30 mm. Head reddish-brown. Palpi 2; reddish-brown. Antennae fuscous; 
ciliations in male %. Thorax reddish-brown; tegulae violet-tinged. Abdomen 
ochreous-grey-whitish. Legs reddish-violet; anterior pair and middle tibiae 
fuscous. Forewings triangular, costa gently arched, more strongly towards apex, 


BY A. J. TURNER. 341 


apex pointed; termen straight, but with a strong projecting tooth on vein 
4; brown, partly and irregularly suffused with violet-rosy; on costa this is inter- 
rupted by four suffused brown spots at one-sixth, one-third, middle and two-thirds; 
a fuscous line from base along fold to one-sixth, then angled and straight to touch 
second costal spot, there right-angled and straight to lower angle of cell; an 
oblique fuscous line from mid-dorsum to vein 3 shortly beyond cell, its extremity 
in a line with terminal part of first line; an inwardly-oblique sinuate line from 
three-fourths costa, sharply curved outwards above middle, and again sinuate 
almost to termen, then describing a hairpin bend and joining extremity of second 
line; these lines are partly edged with white and rosy above and posteriorly; 
similar short lines from near base of dorsum to first angle of first line, and from 
three-fourths dorsum to vein 2, connecting first and second lines above middle; 
three short longitudinal lines running into termen, and an irregular spot between 
the first and second of these; cilia brown with several fuscous bars. Hindwings 
with termen rounded, bisinuate; reddish-violet with a paler median band and 
basal area; a terminal series of fuscous dots, into which run short suffused fuscous 
lines; cilia ochreous-whitish. 

Very distinct and remarkable in colour and pattern. 

Queensland: Bunya Mts., in November; four specimens received from Mr. 
W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


CLYTOSCOPA SERENA, N. Sp. 


serenus, clear, bright. 

do. 26-28 mm. Head and thorax purple-brown. Palpi long, ascending, 
appressed to frons; second joint long, exceeding vertex with a small posterior 
tuft of scales; terminal joint short porrect. Antennae fuscous; ciliations in male 1. 
Abdomen whitish-ochreous. Legs whitish-ochreous; anterior and middle pairs 
crimson-tinged. Forewings triangular, costa slightly arched, more strongly towards 
apex, apex acute, termen with a strong acute tooth on vein 3; 7, 8, 9 stalked, 
10 disconnected; purple-brown; marked with white lines partly suffused with 
purple-rosy; two short diverging lines from base parallel to costa and dorsum; an 
inwardly oblique line from one-third costa, bent at a right angle in middle, and 
thence straight to mid-dorsum; a posterior line from three-fourths costa to mid- 
dorsum, interrupted in middle; a fine longitudinal line in disc between these; five 
short longitudinal lines running into termen, with some pale suffusion between 
them; cilia brown. Hindwings with termen rounded; dull purple-rosy becoming 
whitish-ochreous near base; cilia purple-rosy. 

Similar in colour, though different in pattern, to the preceding. Probably 
they are cryptic in both cases. 

Queensland: Toowoomba, in September; Bunya Mts., in November; four 
specimens received from Mr. W. B. Barnard, who has the type. 


EUPRORA CRYPSICHLORA, ND. Sp. 

Kpuy-xAwpos, with hidden green. 

do, 9. 26-28 mm. Head and thorax brown-whitish with some fuscous irrora- 
tion. Palpi 14; fuscous mixed with brown-whitish. Antennae fuscous; ciliations 
in male 1, in female 4. Abdomen grey-whitish with fuscous irroration. Legs 
fuscous; tibiae and tarsi with brown-whitish rings. Forewings triangular, costa 
scarcely arched, apex rectangular, termen slightly rounded, scarcely oblique; pale 
fuscous, faintly greenish-tinged, mixed with darker fuscous; basal area paler, with 


342 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA, 


an incomplete, outwardly curved, transverse line near base; a darker transverse 
fascia before middle; its anterior edge concave and preceded by a fine fuscous 
parallel line, between these above middle is a small oblique whitish spot repre- 
senting orbicular; posterior edge with an acute median tooth above which rests 
the reniform, rather large, whitish, with a fine included oval line; costa with pale 
spots at one-fourth, one-half, and three dots between last and apex; a darker sub- 
terminal shade, ill-defined anteriorly, with large irregular projections above and 
below middle; an interrupted dark fuscous terminal line; cilia fuscous. Hind- 
wings with termen rounded, bisinuate; pale fuscous; a fuscous terminal line; cilia 
pale fuscous. 

This differs from the two species of Huprora previously described in the shape 
of the forewings, which are triangular and not elongate. 

Queensland: Bunya Mts. (3,500 ft.) in February and March; a series taken. 


Family PSYCHIDAE. 
PLUTORECTIS PANTOSEMNA, 0. Sp. 


mavTooeuvos, grand, stately. 

d. 38 mm. Head, thorax, abdomen, and legs orange. Palpi blackish. Antennae 
blackish; pectinations 10. Forewings (apices damaged) orange; a thick black 
costal streak. Hindwings with termen strongly rounded; orange. 

The finest Australian species. 

Western Australia: Lennox; one specimen taken by Mr. J. K. Ewers. Type 
in Coll. Lyell. 


Family PHYCITIDAE. 
ERNOPHTHORA MILICHA, 0. Sp. 


pecAtxos, gentle. 

do, %. 18 mm. Head whitish. Palpi 2%, ascending; whitish mixed with dark 
fuscous; terminal joint wholly dark fuscous. Antennae grey; in male thickened, 
slightly laminate, minutely ciliated. Thorax and abdomen whitish. Legs whitish- 
grey; tibiae and tarsi with whitish rings; anterior pair mostly fuscous. Fore- 
wings narrow, posteriorly dilated, costa gently arched, apex round-pointed, termen 
slightly rounded, slightly oblique; white suffused with pale grey; a blackish dot 
on fold at one-fifth, longitudinally elongate, another subcostal at two-fifths; sparsely 
scattered blackish scales in disc beyond this, these tend to form a minute median 
dot, and another beneath two-thirds costa; a fine blackish terminal line; cilia pale 
grey, apices white, with a fine blackish median line. Hindwings 23; termen gently 
rounded; whitish; a fine fuscous terminal line; cilia as forewings. 

Agrees exactly with Meyrick’s generic definition, but in one hindwing of the 
female example vein 5 separates just before termen. 

Queensland: Yeppoon, in October; National Park (3,000 ft.) in March; two 
specimens. 


Genus CREOBOTA, N. gen. 

kKpeoBoros, Carnivorous. 

Tongue absent. Maxillary palpi large with broadly dilated tuft of scales at 
apex. Labial palpi curved, ascending; second joint long, thickened with appressed 
scales; terminal joint short, stout at base, acute. Forewings with 4 and 5 stalked, 
8 and 9 stalked. Hindwings with cell over one-half, 2 from well before angle of 
cell, 4 and 5 stalked. 


BY A. J. TURNER. 343 


Except that the cell of hindwings is longer, this agrees in neuration with 
Hypargyria Rag., but differs in the absence of a tongue and the broadly dilated 
maxillary palpi. It has, I believe, no near relationship to the Anerastianae. 


CREOBOTA COCCOPHTHORA, 0. SD. 

koxko@0opos, destroying scale insects. 

Q. 21-22 mm. Head and thorax fuscous. Palpi fuscous, towards base whitish. 
Antennae grey. Abdomen brownish; apices of segments whitish; basal segment 
grey. Legs dark fuscous irrorated, and tarsi ringed, with whitish; middle and 
posterior tibiae mostly white. Forewings narrow, dilated posteriorly, costa straight, 
apex rounded, termen rounded, slightly oblique; fuscous-grey; costal area broadly 
suffused with white; a dark fuscous median dot at one-fourth; a blackish dot above 
middle at two-thirds; an oblique fuscous shade from apex sharply defined 
anteriorly; cilia grey, on apex fuscous. 

Black Mt., Canberra, in May; three specimens received from Mr. A. L. Tonnoir, 

with the following life history: ‘“‘The Phycitid caterpillar has a curious mode of 
life. It builds a protective sheath in the shape of a very loose and flexible cocoon 
without leaving any definite opening. The outside of this cocoon is sticky, so 
that it gets a good hold on the twigs among the scale insects. When the larva 
wants to displace itself, it walks in this cocoon, which rolls round its body, just as 
would happen in the case of a person sewn inside a sack and trying to progress 
by walking on all fours. When the caterpillar wants to feed, it pokes its head 
anywhere through the rather loose walls of this sheath.” The scale was an 
Hriococcus. 


Family PYRAUSTIDAE. 
SCOPARIA EUTACTA, ND. SDP. 

evUTakTos, neat. 

go. 17 mm. Head whitish; face grey. Palpi 2; white with a broad fuscous 
median band. Maxillary palpi fuscous. Antennae grey; ciliations in male minute. 
Thorax fuscous with some whitish scales in patagia and tegulae. Abdomen grey; 
tuft and underside whitish. Legs white; tibiae (except posterior) and tarsi 
broadly ringed with blackish. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa straight to 
near apex, apex pointed, termen nearly straight, oblique; white with general 
blackish irroration; a curved antemedian white transverse line at one-fourth, its 
outer edge breadly blackish; confluent with this are two brown-blackish spots, 
above and below middle, representing probably orbicular and claviform; some 
blackish dots on costa; an irregular brown-blackish spot at two-thirds representing 
reniform, and another at five-sixths, both confluent with costal spots; postmedian 
line sinuate, white, ill-defined; a series of blackish spots on termen and tornus; 
cilia white with an interrupted blackish subbasal line. Hindwings with termen 
sinuate; whitish; cilia whitish with a faint grey antemedian line. 

Best characterized by the narrow forewings, in which typical spots are 
replaced by small brown-blackish suffusions confluent with other markings. 

Queensland: National Park (4,000 ft.) in March; two specimens received from 
Mr. W. B. Barnard. 


ScCOPARIA NIPHETODES, 0. Sp. 
vipeTwons, SNOWY. 
do, 2. 16 mm. Head blackish. Palpi 14; blackish; at base white. Antennae 
whitish becoming fuscous near base; ciliations in male minute. Thorax white; 


344 REVISION OF AUSTRALIAN LEPIDOPTERA. 


patagia fuscous. Abdomen whitish. Legs whitish; anterior and middle tibiae and 
tarsi with fuscous annulations. Forewings narrowly triangular, costa straight to 
hear apex, apex rounded, termen nearly straight, slightly oblique; white; basal 
markings represented by some scattered blackish scales forming a very slight 
subbasal suffusion, and a triangular mark on costa before middle connected by a 
line with one-third dorsum; a fine wavy blackish line from three-fourths costa to 
three-fourths dorsum, preceded by a small dorsal suffusion; apical area except 
terminal edge rather densely suffused; cilia white with several blackish dots on 
apices. Hindwings with termen sinuate; whitish; cilia whitish. 

Characterized by the general white colour of forewings with loss of discal 
spots and much reduced markings. 

Queensland: Bunya Mts. (3,000 ft.) in January; four specimens. 


SCOPARIA PLAGIOTIS. 
Scoparia plagiotis Meyr., Trans. Ent. Soc., 1887, p. 247.—Scoparia ochrophara 
Turn., Proc. Roy. Soc. Q., 1915, p. 52. 
New South Wales: Mt. Kosciusko (3,500 ft.); Victoria: Gisborne; Tasmania: 
Hobart, Campbell Town, Strahan. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE ACTINOMYCETALES. II. 


THE DEFINITION AND SUBDIVISION OF THE GENUS ACTINOMYCES, WITH A 
PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF AUSTRALIAN Sort ACTINOMYCETES. 


By H. L. JENSEN, 
Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. 


(Plates xix—xx.) 


[Read 30th September, 1931.] 


Introduction. 


Few groups of microorganisms have caused more confusion in systematic 
respect than the genus Actinomyces. This confusion exists firstly as to the nomen- 
clature, secondly as to relation to other genera and families, and thirdly in the 
problem whether Actinomyces should be included in the bacteria at all or relegated 
to the Fungi imperfecti. 

Since Cohn (1875) first described an Actinomyces (termed Streptothrix by 
him), more names have been given to this than to any other genus of bacteria. 
Breed and Conn (1919), who have revised the question of nomenclature very care- 
fully, conclude that Actinomyces Harz (1877) is the only valid generic name, but it 
is still quite common to meet the names Streptothrix and Nocardia in medical 
literature. Most of the earlier authors (Almquist, 1890; Bostroém, 1890; Kruse, 
1896) regarded these organisms as “pleomorphic bacteria’, and several points of 
similarity between them and the tubercle and diphtheria bacilli were discovered, 
such as the branching growth of the latter organisms, acid-fastness, and the ability 
of the tubercle bacillus and related forms to produce an actinomycosis-like growth 
in the animal organism. lLachner-Sandoval (1898) was the first to unite 
Actinomyces with the genera Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium (Lehmann and 
' Neumann, 1896) into a family Actinomycetes. This name has later been altered 
to Ac.inomycetaceae by Buchanan (1918), who also (1917) erected an order 
Actinomycetales. This uniting of Actinomyces, Mycobacterium and Corynebac- 
terium has been adopted in most treatises on systematic bacteriology (Lehmann 
and Neumann, 1896-1927; Orla-Jensen, 1909; Castellani and Chalmers, 1919; Bergey, 
1923-1930; Enderlein, 1925; Janke, 1929; and several others), although the nomen- 
clature is not uniform, and opinions are divided as to whether this group of 
organisms should be considered an Order (Buchanan, Bergey, Lehmann and 
Neumann) or only a family (Enderlein, Janke). 

In the most recent edition of Lehmann and Neumann’s Bakteriologische 
Diagnostik (1927) we find the following system of classification: 

Order. Family. Genus. 
Aenea ee 


{ Proactinomycetaceae 


Actinomycetales | Mycobacterium 


| Actinomycetaceae Actinomyces 


346 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


The family name Mycobacteriaceae (Chester, 1897, cit. after Buchanan, 1925) 
has here been replaced by Proactinomycetaceae L. and N. 

In the various editions of Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology 
(1923-1930) we meet an ever-increasing tendency to make the Order Actinomy- 
cetales what the Fungi imperfecti are among the Humycetes—a heterogeneous 
collection of forms which cannot conveniently be placed elSewhere in the system. 
In the last edition (1930) the main points in the definition of Actinomycetales 
are: “Cells usually elongated, frequently filamentous and with a decided tendency 
to the development of branches, in some genera giving rise to the formation of a 
definite branched mycelium.—Usually Gram-positive. Non-motile. a 

The Order is represented by two families—Actinomycetaceae and Mycobac- 
teriaceae. The former contains Actinomyces, Actinobacillus, Leptothricia, and 
Erysipelothriz, the latter Mycobacterium, Corynebacterium, Mycoplana, Fusiformis, 
Pfeifferella, Cytophaga, Cellvibrio, and Cellfalcicula. The genus Actinobacillus 
Ligniéres and Spitz (1904) is, as pointed out by Magnusson (1928), hardly more 
related to Actinomyces than is the coli bacillus; the evidence brought forth by 
Nepomnjaschy (1930) in favour of a cyclogenetical relationship between Actino- 
bacillus and Actinomyces is not entirely convincing. The genera Leptothricia and 
Frysipelothriz resemble Actinomyces only in the formation of filaments under 
certain conditions, which is true of many other bacteria, and the former genus 
lacks the property of branching which should characterize the Order Actino- 
mycetales. As to the genera of Mycobacteriaceae, Mycoplana Gray and Thornton 
(1928) has been very little studied; it may possibly be closely related to Myco- 
bacterium, as a motile parallel to this, but in that case the definition of Actino- 
mycetales should not include non-motility as a constant character. The position 
of Pfeifferella, the organism of glanders, is doubtful; it is generally considered 
closely related to the corynebacteria, although @rskov (1923) expresses grave doubt 
as to this. Fusiformis seems, as shown by Sanarelli (1927), to be related to the 
spirochetes rather than to the actinomycetales. Finally, as to the genera 
Cytophaga, Cellvibrio, and Cellfalcicula, it is hardly possible to see any valid 
reason for including them in the actinomycetales. Cellvibrio Winogradsky (1929) 
seems to differ from the familiar genus Vibrio only in its power of decomposing 
cellulose, and it may well be questioned whether this is a valid reason for making 
it a separate genus (cf. Kalning, 1930). In the same way Cellfalcicula Wino- 
gradsky (1929) seems quite indistinguishable from Cellulomonas McBeth and 
Scales, a genus which Bergey places under the Order Eubacteriales; of this genus, 
Skinner (1929) has aptly pointed out that the power of decomposing cellulose is 
no valid reason for establishing it as a genus apart from Bacterium. The genus 
Cytophaga Winogradsky (1929) also lacks every point of resemblance to the 
actinomycetales. Its “sporoids” are, as pointed out by Winogradsky, apparently 
homologues of the globular bodies in the fusiform bacteria, which seem to be 
close relations of the spirochetes (Sanarelli, 1927). Upon the whole Lehmann and 
Neumann’s classification seems by far the most logical and workable and has 
therefore been followed here. 

Several attempts have been made to split Actinomyces into two or more 
genera. Wright (1905) would reserve the name Actinomyces for the anaerobic or 
microaerophilic organisms known to produce actinomycosis in man and cattle (the 
type of Wolff and Israel, 1891); for the aerobic forms he suggested the use of the 
name Nocardia (Trevisan, cit. after Buchanan, 1925). Haass (1906) would use the 
names Actinomyces for the aerobic and Actinobacterium for the anaerobic type, 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 347 


and proposed to transfer those actinomycetes which produce a soft, bacterium-like 
growth, e.g. Act. farcinicus Nocard (1888), to the genera Mycobacterium and 
Corynebacterium. Pinoy (1918) followed Wright’s division into an aerobic type, 
Nocardia, and an anaerobic type for which he substituted the name Cohnistrepto- 
thrix for Actinomyces. Wollenweber (1921) distinguished two subgenera under 
Actinomyces: Aerothrix with, and Pionnothrix without, aerial mycelium. <A 
rational attempt to subdivide Actinomyces on the basis of definite morphological 
features was made by @rskov (1923), who distinguished the following three 
groups: 

I. Organisms which form a unicellular, non-septate vegetative mycelium, and 
an aerial mycelium composed of hyphae, thicker than those of the vegetative 
mycelium and dividing into spore-like bodies of regular and uniform size and 
shape. The name Cohnistreptothrix was suggested for this group. 

II. Organisms in which the vegetative as well as the aerial mycelium divide 
by septa into pieces of irregular size and shape, without any spore-like bodies as in 
Group I. The aerial mycelium is absent in one subgroup, in which there is also 
a tendency to adopt the “angular” growth characteristic of the mycobacteria and 
corynebacteria which, it is contended, should really be included in this group, for 
which it was proposed to reserve the name Actinomyces. 

III. Organisms which form a unicellular mycelium without aerial hyphae, 
but with spore-like bodies borne singly on the tips of short branches of the vegeta- 
tive hyphae. It was proposed to call this group Micromonospora. 

Orskoyv’s work marks a great step towards a better understanding of the 
natural relationships of the order we are dealing with, but his nomenclature 
(which, indeed, he himself only claims to be tentative) is less fortunate, since the 
name Cohnistreptothrix was first intended by Pinoy (1913) to be applied to 
anaerobic, pathogenic forms which, as @Mrskov himself shows, at least partly 
belong to Group II, for which @Mrskoy would reserve the name Actinomyces. 
Further, Castellani and Chalmers (1919), who adopt Pinoy’s nomenclature, give a 
list of not less than nine species of Cohnistreptothrix in the sense of Pinoy. An 
unreserved adoption of Mrskov’s nomenclature, as regards Groups I and II, could, 
therefore, easily lead to confusion. 

As mentioned above, the tendency among most of the earlier authors was to 
regard the actinomycetes as “pleomorphic bacteria”. Sauvageau and Radais 
(1892), on the other hand, considered them true fungi of the genus Oospora, and 
Lachner-Sandoval (1898) would transfer Actinomyces as well as Mycobacterium 
and Corynebacterium to the Fungi imperfecti because of their branching growth, 
which was thought to be incompatible with the nature of bacteria. Notwithstand- 
ing the fact that Actinomyces has been included in nearly all classifications of 
bacteria, there has been a good deal of controversy whether these organisms should 
be regarded as “true bacteria’”’ or fungi. In more recent time the tendency has 
mostly been to regard them as a special group of microorganisms, apart from both 
the fungi and the bacteria (Waksman, 1919; Lieske, 1921; @rskov, 1923), and in 
most papers on the subject we meet the following statement, somewhat varied in 
its verbal expression: “The actinomycetes occupy an intermediate position between 
the bacteria and the fungi’. Claypole (1913) regards them as an ancestral type 
of microorganism, giving rise, on one side to yeasts and higher filamentous fungi, 
and on the other to mycobacteria, corynebacteria, and ordinary bacteria. Lieske 
(1921) pointed out that there is a much wider gap between the actinomycetes 
and the simplest hyphomycetes (e.g. Oidium lactis) than between bacteria and 

H 


348 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


certain types of actinomycetes. Drechsler (1919) regarded the genus Actinomyces 
as entirely conforming with the hyphomycetes and devoid of any bacterial charac- 
teristics. It is obviously Drechsler’s limitation of his fine morphological work to 
organisms of Mrskov’s Group I, which has led him to this rather extreme view. 

The present work represents a study of the morphology and biology of about 
70 strains of Actinomyces isolated from various Australian soils, with the purpose 
of obtaining a more solid systematic basis for the study of this important group of 
soil microorganisms. Special attention was given to the work of M@rskov; the genus 
Micromonospora proposed by him has been made the subject of a preliminary 
account previously (Jensen, 1930a). The non-systematic term “actinomycetes” or 
“ray fungi’? covers Micromonospora as well as the organisms of @Mrskov’s Groups 
I and II—filamentous organisms of a definitely mycelial growth, of bacterial 
dimensions, and generally producing an aerial mycelium. As the Order Actino- 
mycetales we shall regard these organisms as well as the genera Mycobacterium 
and Corynebacterium, which, as most investigators agree, form a natural group 
of microorganisms. 


Experimental. 


The organisms included in this study were obtained partly from soil samples 
from lawns and flower beds in the grounds of Sydney University (here designated 
by the characters AI, AII, AIII, U, and G), partly from a number of samples in 
the collection of soils in the School of Agriculture, Sydney University; these latter 
are designated by the figures 6, 92, 125, 129, 130, 148, 163, and 176. 

Isolations were in most cases carried out by plating on a dextrose-casein-agar 
medium previously described (Jensen, 1930a, 19300). In a few cases soil was inocu- 
lated into a mineral nutrient solution with phenol or paraffin as source of energy, 
and platings were made therefrom, when a growth of microorganisms had taken 
place. The following media were used for studying the cultural characters of the 
organisms. 

1. Saccharose agar.—Saccharose 20:0 gm.; NaNO; 2:0 gm.; K,HPO, 1:0 gm.; 
MgSO, 0-5 gm.; agar 15:0 gm.; water 1,000 c.c. 

2. Dextrose agar.—Dextrose, 10:0 gm.; asparagin 1:0 gm.; K.HPO, 0°5 gm.; 
MgSO, 0-5 gm.; agar 15:0 gm.; water 1,000 c.c. 

3. Nutrient agar.—Meat extract 5:0 gm.; peptone 10-0 gm.; dextrose (in some 
cases glycerin) 10:0 gm.; agar 15-0 gm.; water, 1,000 c.c. 

4. Dextrose broth—Same, without agar. 

5. Potato.—6. Milk.—7. Gelatin (15% gelatin in tap water, pH 7:0). 

Diastatic activity was tested on agar containing 1% soluble starch, 0:2% NaNOs, 
01% K.HPO,, and 0:05% MgSO, A corresponding mineral solution was used, with 
strips of filter paper for testing the power of decomposing cellulose, and with flakes 
of paraffin wax for determination of ability to utilize paraffin. Invertase-production 
was tested in a solution corresponding to medium 1. Resistance to hydrogen-ion 
concentration was tested by measuring the reaction (colorimetrically) in a physio- 
logically acid nutrient solution (dextrose 2:°0%, NH.Cl 0:2%, K,HPO, 0:02%, MgSO, 
0:05%) after three weeks’ incubation. With some of the strains, a study of the 
ability to utilize various sources of carbon (péntoses, mono- and disaccharides, 
higher alcohols) was carried out. The above-mentioned solution with NaNO, and 
mineral nutrients was used in this case, where tests were also made for the reduc- 
tion of nitrate to nitrite. A complete set of experiments with all the strains was 
not carried out, since there is little hope of obtaining any distinct species differen- 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 349 


tiation by means of these tests (Waksman, 1919; Jensen, 19300). All cultures 
were incubated at 28-30° C., unless otherwise stated, at which temperature they 
made an excellent growth. For morphological studies the dextrose-casein-agar 
(in the following simply called casein agar) was mostly used; the thin, spreading 
growth produced by most organisms on this medium makes it well adapted for 
direct microscopical study of the growth on open agar blocks (@rskov, 1923) by 
means of high-power dry lenses. This was found the only quite satisfactory 
method for studying the aerial mycelium in its natural arrangement, although 
good results, particularly for photography, were also obtained with a simplifica- 
tion of the method of Drechsler (1919): a clean cover slip is pressed gently 
against the aerial mycelium, lifted without any lateral sliding, the adhering 
material is fixed with formalin vapour, dried in the air, and stained with dilute 
carbol fuchsin. 


General Morphology and Biology. 


As a result of these studies, it was found possible to divide the actinomycetes 
inte two main groups, essentially agreeing with Mrskov’s division; in one of them, 
two subgroups could be distinguished: 

ily Spores are formed in an aerial mycelium. 

A. Substratum mycelium remains undivided. 
B. Substratum mycelium divides into a kind of “fragmentation spores’’. 

Il. No spores are formed in the aerial mycelium. Substratum mycelium divides 

usually into more or less bacteria-like elements. 

Group IA is identical with @rskov’s Group I. The characteristic feature of 
these organisms is the following course of development: when transferred to a 
suitable medium, the aerial spores germinate with the production of a filament, 
usually about 0-4-0-6 mw thick, which rapidly forms monopodial branches and 
develops into an extensive mycelium, which forms a colony of a characteristic 
firm and cartilaginous consistence. The mycelium remains nonseptate and coherent 
even in very old cultures—months and even years—falling to pieces only as a 
result of local processes of degeneration in the hyphae (Foulerton and Jones, 1902; 
Orskov, 1923), which usually retain their uniform thickness. Only in a single one 
of the species of this group studied here is there a tendency to formation of peculiar 
swollen cells in some media (Pl. xix, fig. 2). A few words should here be said 
on the mode of formation of the mycelial branches. In all the actinomycetes, of 
this as well as of the two other groups, we see the first beginnings of the branches 
arise as quite small, slightly oblong or pear-shaped external buds, attached to the 
main stem by very thin stalks. The bud generally grows and stretches out into a 
long hyphal branch, which for a considerable time may be separated from the 
main stem by a basal constriction (PI. xix, figs. 1, 3, 8; Pl. xx, figs. 18, 22). This 
phenomenon, which has been commented upon by comparatively few authors (e.g. 
Goadby, 1903, and Fennel, 1918), may possibly have something to do with the 
alleged existence of filterable forms in actinomycetes (Leyton and Leyton, 1916; 
Lucksch, 1930). The initial buds are sometimes, for instance, in the organisms of 
Group IB in liquid media, so small as to come near to the limit of visibility, and 
it is not inconceivable that they may be small enough to pass through bacterial 
filters, if they are torn loose from the cells that produce them. 

After the formation of this “vegetative” or “substratum” mycelium, follows 
sooner or later a formation of aerial mycelium, where the growth is in contact 
With the air. The aerial hyphae, which are at first visible as small refractive 


350 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


granules outside the vegetative hyphae, are constantly thicker than these, of very 
variable length, and more or less branched. The end branches are often coiled 
into more or less regular spirals and sometimes situated in crown- or whirl-like 
arrangements. The abundance of the aerial mycelium varies greatly both with the 
organism and the medium. In rich media, e.g. nutrient agar, it is often altogether 
absent, and in some strains it is very scant in all media, though always present in 
some medium or other, especially such as allow only a limited growth (cf. 
Waksman, 1919, and @Mrskov, 1923). After some time, the end branches of the 
aerial hyphae divide basipetally into regular-sized elements, spherical to ellip- 
tical, or in some cases cylindrical. When seen under a high-power dry lens, the 
aerial hyphae exhibit a characteristic beaded appearance, due to small opposite 
incisions in the cell walls, connected by fine transversal lines. In stained prepara- 
tions these lines appear as unstained intervals separating the elements into which 
the contents of the hyphae have divided. These unstainable intervals may even be 
seen before any external changes in the hypha have taken place; it seems thus, 
that the protoplasm separates without any formation of primary transversal walls, 
as contended by Mrskov (1923) and most other authors on this subject. It has not 
been found possible to decide whether there is actually a formation of primary 
septa, which afterwards split in halves, in favour of which Drechsler (1919) has 
brought forth strong evidence. The elements, into which the aerial hyphae 
divide, represent spores of the organisms, as the term “spores” is defined by Orskov 
(1923): “Bodies that are identical to one another in form, which have a special 
mode of formation, and are distinguished by a greater power of resistance than the 
mycelial filaments, and which, under adequate conditions, grow out into a new 
mycelium”. It is important to realize that they are spores in the mycological 
sense of the word, viz., reproductive bodies, and that they have nothing to do 
with the endospores of certain bacteria (the genera Bacillus and Clostridium). 
Numerous authors have pointed out that the aerial spores of the actinomycetes 
possess a somewhat higher thermoresistance than the vegetative mycelium. This 
was also found to be the case here. While the vegetative mycelia were usually 
killed in 2-5 minutes at 60° C., the spores would generally survive for 10 minutes 
at 60° C. or 2-5 minutes at 70° C. 

‘This group comprises the great majority of soil actinomycetes. Hereto belong 
all the organisms described by Krainsky (1914), Waksman and Curtis (1916), 
Waksman (1919), Drechsler (1919), Millard and Burr (1926),* and further Act. 
pheochromogenus Conn (1919), Act. cloacae Brussoff (1920), and the organisms 
described by the present author in two earlier papers (Jensen, 1928, 19300). On 
the other hand, the group comprises apparently very few animal pathogens. The 
only unquestionably pathogenic species seems to be Act. madurae (Vincent, 1894; 
@rskov, 1923). The classical Act. hominis Bostroem (1890), as well as forms 
isolated by Henrici and Gardner (1921) and Grubauer (1925), do certainly belong 
to this group, but their pathogenicity seems somewhat doubtful. 


Group I B—This group resembles the previous one perfectly with regard to 
the formation of aerial mycelium and the mode of spore formation herein (PI. xix, 
figs. 6, 7), but differs from it in a characteristic process of division of the vegetative 
hyphae, giving rise to bodies of somewhat varying appearance, but often similar to 
the aerial spores. This phenomenon does not appear in the same fashion in all 


* With the possible exception of two species, Act. maculans and Act. salmonicolor, 
which might seem to belong to other groups. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 351 


strains or in all media. On nutrient agar the hyphae show, after a few days’ 
growth, a number of fine transversal lines, appearing as unstainable intervals in 
stained preparations, and separating the hyphae into rod-shaped bodies of some- 
what unequal size (Pl. xix, fig. 8). In some cases these bodies remain at a stage 
resembling diphtheroid rods (Pl. xix, figs. 11, 12), in others they are very nearly 
coccoid. Sometimes they resemble the somewhat mysterious objects which Lieske 
(1921) describes under the name of “four-hyphae-spores” (Vierhyphensporen). 
Similar forms arise in broth and dextrose-asparagin-solution and on potato, in 
which latter medium one strain (6 VI) produces fairly large (1:2-1:5 «), roughly 
globular bodies, apparently arising by lateral budding from the hyphae (Pl. xix, 
fig. 10); this represents probably a modification of the normal lateral branches as 
described above under Group IA. When these globular to rod-shaped bodies are 
transferred to a suitable medium (dextrose or casein agar, sometimes potato 
extract agar) they produce a largely undivided vegetative mycelium and an aerial 
mycelium with spores as in Group IA (PI. xix, figs. 6, 7). Besides this, one 
particular strain (6 VI) produces in acid dextrose-NH,Cl-solution an abundance of 
big, globular bodies, arising by division and subsequent swelling of the hyphae 
(PI. xix, fig. 9). When transferred to fresh media, these bodies have regularly 
failed to show any further development. Although they look like what have been 
described as “gonidangia” in numerous bacteria it might. in view of their apparent 
incapacity of growth, seem likely that they are really ‘involution forms” in the 
true sense of this much-misused term: aberrant cell types arising under subversive 
conditions of growth (in this case, where the growth has been checked through 
acidification of the medium) and devoid of any capacity of further development. 
These observations throw an interesting light on a phenomenon which has 
caused a good deal of controversy, namely, the so-called “fragmentation spores” 
or “oidiospores” of the actinomycetes. A phenomenon termed “fragmentation” was 
first described by Bostrom (1890) in his Act. hominis, but later explained by 
Sauvageau and Radais (1892) as an artefact due to uneven staining of the hyphae. 
Lachner-Sandoval (1898) distinguished between “segmentation”, i.e. spore forma- 
tion in the aerial hyphae, and “fragmentation”, i.e. division of the vegetative 
hyphae into pieces of more uneven length. Neukirch (1902) added a third kind 
of “spores”, called “oidiospores”’, said to be produced by formation of primary 
transversal walls in the vegetative hyphae. These phenomena have been little 
studied in recent time, and the interpretation of the earlier records is often 
difficult, as pointed out by @Mrskov, since there is no discrimination between the 
present Group I and the subsequent Group II, in which division of the vegetative 
hyphae is a prominent feature. Brussoff (1919) explained the fragmentation in 
the same manner as Sauvageau and Radais, namely, as due to the presence of 
deeply staining granules of volutin in the hyphae; the only organism studied 
was a typical representative of Group IA. Lieske (1921) describes and figures 
“oidiospores” in the sense of Neukirch, but the strain in question seems to be 
one of Group II. Foulerton and Jones (1902) describe a process of “fragmenta- 
tion” of the vegetative hyphae of actinomycetes which formed spores in the aerial 
mycelium; here, however, it seems to be a case of local degeneration in the hyphae, 
as described by @Mrskov (1923) in organisms of Group I. Still, even when we 
allow for these two sources of error—failure to distinguish between the Groups I 
and II, and the phenomena of degeneration—there remains a phenomenon which 
resembles the spore formation in the aerial mycelium, namely, the division of the 
vegetative hyphae into short rods and cocci of fairly regular size and shape, such 


352 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


as we meet it in the organisms which we have here classified as Group IB. One 
of the organisms studied by Mrskoy (1923) and included by him in his Group I, 
although with reservation, viz., Act. Ajffanassiew, behaved similarly; indeed, his 
figure of this organism resembles perfectly our Fig. 18, Pl. xix. 


Organisms of this group seem to be comparatively rare. In the present study, 
only three strains were found. There are not many records in the literature of 
organisms which can be recognized as belonging hereto, except Act. Affanassiew 
referred to above. The “Streptothrix” buccalis described by Goadby (1903) and an 
organism studied by Bachmann (1922) are certainly of this type, and the same 
seems to be true of a thermophilic actinomyces studied by Sames (1900) and one 
of the thermophilic actinomycetes studied by Schtitze (1908). 


Besides the outstanding morphological character of spore formation in the 
aerial mycelium, the organisms of Groups I A and IB have a number of biological 
features in common, which distinguish them from Group II. All of them liquefy 
gelatin, although with widely varying rapidity, as also pointed out by Waksman 
(1919) and @Mrskov (1923). Further, they are all capable of exerting diastatic 
action on starch, as previously noted by Waksman (1919); the only organism 
studied by him, which did not liquefy gelatin or hydrolyze starch (Act. asteroides) 
belongs to Group II.* Several organisms of this group produce a characteristic 
brown pigment in protein media and a black pigment on potato, and not a few of 
them are capable of decomposing cellulose. 


Group II corresponds to Mrskov’s Groups IIA and IIB. The course of 
development is as follows: initially a more or less extensive vegetative mycelium 
is formed, consisting of hyphae similar to those in Group I. Sooner or later the 
vegetative hyphae divide into segments of rather varying size and shape, some- 
times swollen and irregular, but usually resembling mycobacteria or corynebac- 
teria; the process of segmentation often goes so far as to produce quite coccus- 
like forms. After these bacteria-like elements have been formed by division of 
the initial mycelia, they continue to multiply in the manner characteristic of the 
mycobacteria and corynebacteria, which @Mrskoy (1923) describes as “angular 
growth”. This development is, however, subject to very great variations, depending 
both on the organisms and the medium. In some cases, e.g. the Proact. flavescens 
described below, the angular growth is hardly noticeable; the mycelia seem to 
remain at the stage of septation, as in Group I B, and even seem to remain un- 
divided in some media. In another organism, described in detail in an earlier 
paper (Jensen, 1931a), variants arise with a constantly undivided vegetative 
mycelium as in Group IA. Finally, in the Proact. paraffinae described below we 
do not find any angular growth, but a division of the hyphae into round to oval 
bodies, thicker than the undivided filaments and resembling the aerial spores of 
Group I. An aerial mycelium is generally formed at an early stage of the growth; 
its hyphae are generally simpler, shorter and less branched than those of Group I, 
and never forming spirals. As Mrskov points out, the aerial hyphae are of the 
same thickness as those of the vegetative mycelium, and a differentiation into 
spores, aS in Group I, does not take place here. In stained preparations, or when a 
coverslip is placed upon the growth, the aerial hyphae fall apart into generally 
rod-shaped fragments of variable length, and they do not show any higher 


* Non-diastatic organisms of Group I may occur, such as certain organisms described 
by Henrici and Gardner (1921) and Millard and Burr (1926), but they are decidedly 
exceptional. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 353 


thermoresistance than the vegetative hyphae. It is undoubtedly this distinctive 
character of presence or absence of spore formation in the aerial mycelium, which 
should be considered the most important criterion for the distinction between 
Groups I and II, rather than (as Mrskoy thinks) the division of the vegetative 
mycelium, which is subject to such wide variation, and which also occurs in 
Group IB. @rskov’s distinction between his groups II A and II B was based on 
the formation of aerial mycelium in Group II A and absence of this, in addition to 
a marked tendency to angular growth, in Group II B, but he is right in admitting 
that this difference is not very profound, since the property of forming aerial 
mycelium seems easily to be lost. Act. farcinicus and Act. polychromogenés, which 
@rskov found without aerial mycelium, did apparently form this at the time of 
their first isolations (Nocard, 1888; Vallée, 1903). All the present organisms of 
Group II, except one, produced more or less aerial mycelium, although sometimes 
visible only under the microscope. 

Besides these morphological characters, the organisms of Group II differ from 
Group I in other ways. In distinction from Group I, many of them are incapable 
of liquefying gelatin or hydrolyzing starch. On the other hand, most of them are 
capable of utilizing paraffin, which few of Group I can do. None of them is 
capable of decomposing cellulose, and they do not form any brown pigment in 
protein media or black pigment on potato. Finally, some of the forms studied 
here are acid-fast, like numerous pathogenic actinomycetes (Act. asteroides, 
farcinicus, caprae, and others) of this group. The statement of Mrskov (1923), 
that the organisms of Group II always produce an early surface growth in liquid 
media, could not be confirmed in all cases. 


As will be seen from the above, and, as Mrskov points out, this group is a 
good deal more heterogeneous than Group I. The Proact. flavescens described 
below comes rather close to Group I both in morphological and biological respect; 
Proact. agrestis, on the other hand, shows the closest possible approximation to 
the mycobacteria: its initial mycelia are very small (Pl. xx, fig. 17), it assumes 
rapidly an entirely bacterium-like appearance (PI. xx, fig. 19), it produces a kind 
of “smooth” and “rough” variant like many bacteria, and it produces an actual 
turbidity in liquid media, which the actinomycetes are supposed never to do. 
Indeed, this organism was first described as Mycobacterium agreste by Gray and 
Thornton (1928). As a matter of fact, a sharp line of distinction has never been 
drawn between Actinomyces on one side and Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium 
on the other. Acid-fastness occurs among actinomycetes as well as among myco- 
bacteria, and serological reactions have failed to give any distinct separation 
(Fritsche, 1908; Claypole, 1913). On the morphological side, the sometimes quite 
profuse branching in mycobacteria and corynebacteria and the slightly accen- 
tuated mycelial character of such forms as Act. farcinicus and the anaerobic 
pathogenic actinomycetes (the Wolff-Israel-type) tend to obscure the limit. @rskov 
(1923) is of the opinion that the corynebacteria and mycobacteria should really 
be included in Group II of the actinomycetes, because their manner of cell division 
(angular growth) is exactly the same. It would seem, however, that a certain 
distinction can be made. As Haag (1927) points out, the cell division begins in 
the mycobacteria and corynebacteria at so early a stage that a small mycelium is 
only occasionally formed (cf. the studies of Miehe (1909) on Myc. tuberculosis and 
of M@rskov (1923) on Myc. phlei). It is therefore suggested that the constant 
formation of an initial mycelium be regarded as a criterion for distinguishing the 
actinomycetes of Group II from the mycobacteria and corynebacteria. On the 


354 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


basis of this we must regard Proact. agrestis, which constantly forms a small 
initial mycelium, as belonging to the actinomycetes, whereas for instance Myc. 
coeliacum (Gray and Thornton, 1928), which forms a small mycelium only 
occasionally (Jensen, 19310) should remain in the genus Mycobacterium. 

This group includes only few soil organisms. The organism described by 
Beijerinck as Bac. oligocarbophilus has been shown by Lantsch (1922) and Kober 
(1929) to be an actinomycete, undoubtedly belonging to Group II. Several others 
have been described as mycobacteria; this is true of at least two of the phenol- 
decomposing organisms described by Gray and Thornton (Myc. agreste and Myc. 
actinomorphum, as shown below) and probably also, as pointed out by Haag 
(1927), of the organisms studied by Vierling (1921). Beijerinck (1914) described 
a soil organism to which he gave the name Actinococcus cyaneus; his description 
and figures leave no doubt that it is an organism closely related to Proact. agrestis 
(see below). The generic name Actinococcus, however, is invalid (Buchanan, 
1925). On the other hand, the group includes such typically pathogenic forms as 
Act. farcinicus and Act. asteroides (@rskov, 1923). Besides this, a survey of the 
medical literature shows a large number of cases where organisms which seem to 
belong to this type, have been isolated from actinomycotic affections in man and 
animals. It is, however, in most cases difficult to see whether the organisms 
really belong to Group II or to Group IB, because they have usually only been 
cultivated and studied in complex organic media (nutrient agar, potato, broth, 
gelatin, serum, etc.), and Group I B will usually only show its characteristic spore 
formation in synthetic media. The anaerobic or microaerophilic, short-hyphed 
actinomycetes most commonly encountered in cases of actinomycosis (Wolff and 
Israel, 1890; Wright, 1905; Harbitz and Grgndahl, 1911; Dresel, 1915; Lieske, 
1921; Magnusson, 1928, and others) demand a special interest. @rskoy (1923) 
studied an organism of this type and found it belonging to Group II. There is no 
proof, however, that this is true of all organisms of this type, since organisms of 
Group IB may also be concerned. Gasperini (1895) mentions that Act. bovis, an 
organism of Group I, may produce “fragmentation spores” by growth under 
reduced oxygen tension and Morelli (1930) claims to have changed long-hyphed, 
aerobic actinomycetes into organisms of. the Wolff-Israel type by gradual adapta- 
tion to anaerobic conditions. In agreement herewith it was found in the present 
case, that Act. albus and Act. californicus, when grown on nutrient agar under 
reduced oxygen tension (in tubes in air-tight connection with cultures of a rapidly 
growing, aerobic soil mycobacterium), produced a vegetative mycelium in the 
condensation water, which showed a tendency to break up into rather short, rod- 
shaped pieces similar to Group IB. It might thus seem that there is no sharp 
distinction between Groups IA and IB, and that the short-hyphed, anaerobic, 
pathogenic actinomycetes may belong to Group I as well as to Group II. Mertens 
(1903) and Lieske (1921) observed a gradual change of anaerobic, short-hyphed 
forms into aerobic, long-hyphed ones, wherein Lieske seeks an explanation for the 
apparent contradiction between the results of Bostrom (1890) and Wolff and 
Israel (1891). These may also be cases of changes between Groups IA and IB, 
and it has in no instance been proved that Group I may change into Group II, or 
vice versa. 


A Suggestion for Classification of the Order Actinomycetales. 
It would doubtless be right, as @rskov (1923) proposes, to regard Groups I 
and II as two distinct genera, since there is admittedly a very wide difference 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 355 


between the quite fungus-like organisms of Group I A and the most bacterium-like 
forms of Group II, but his nomenclature is, as previously pointed out, less fortunate. 
In the present writer’s opinion it would be better to reserve the name Actinomyces 
for Group I, since the first adequately described organism of this group was Act. 
hominis Bostrom (1890). For Group II one might suggest the name Proactinomyces, 
to be included in the family Proactinomycetaceae (Lehmann and Neumann, 1927). 
We can now construct the following modification of Lehmann and Neumann’s 
classification of the order Actinomycetales: 


AM INoOeSpones: arelftormed #4 sea. 4 ek see ane Family Proactinomycetaceae. 
I. No mycelium is formed. 


Ge ANGIOERISIS Ospina Sl gegaoscscocaucuce Genus Mycobacterium. 

6. Non-acid-fast organisms* ............ Genus Corynebacterium. 

ele Vey Celina S me rO TT CCl eee nus ert) een el eee Genus Proactinomyces. 

Se SPOLESwanre LOLMEA ~kponhsd elle wee eahecseeh canteen ota e Family Actinomycetaceae. 
IL, SOS ibn A\eAeUl insayeeliibian oo cocepoduouobucuHodoOGN Genus Actinomyces. 

Il. Spores terminally on branches of vegetative mycelium ................ 

DOES ialGe de aoe Oo Ediciciola-o'c Gam aici oo om mate Genus Micromonospora. 

The genus Mycoplana Gray and Thornton (1928) may possibly be placed as a 


genus parallel to Mycobacterium and Corynebacterium. 


As wé have repeatedly pointed out, the transitions between all these genera 
and families are quite gradual, so that we find a continuous sequence leading 
from the mycobacteria and corynebacteria to the most highly differentiated, 
entirely mould-like forms of Actinomyces, Group A (Act. viridochromogenus, Act. 
reticuli, etc.). While thus the evidence of connection with the “true” bacteria is 
very complete, there seems to be no connection with any genus of the Humycetes. 
We must, therefore, regard the genus Actinomyces as a highly developed and 
specialized form of bacteria (cf. Lantsch, 1922), and it is not justified to speak of 
the actinomycetes as “a connecting link between bacteria and fungi”, at least if 
we attach any suggestion of a phylogenetic relationship to this phrase. 


Description of various Groups of Soil Actinomycetes. 


Owing to the marked variability and the abundance of transition forms in 
the actinomycetes, the term “species” is in the following used in the sense of 
Waksman’s “species groups”, i.e. broad groups of strains agreeing in certain out- 
standing morphological and biological features. The opposite practice, adopted by 
Millard and Burr (1926), of establishing species differentiations on the basis of 
every observed constant difference, is certainly logical, but hardly practicable, since 
nearly every strain of actinomycetes isolated from a plating from an ordinary soil 
could then be raised to the rank of species. 


Genus ACTINOMYCES, Group A. 
ACTINOMYCES ALBUS (?) Krainsky (1914). 
Three strains. Hab.—Soils 130, 163, G—They seem to agree better with the 


description of Krainsky than with that of Waksman (1919). A fourth strain 
differed from them mainly in the formation of a pink pigment in most media. 


Morphology.—The vegetative mycelium is of the usual type. The aerial 
mycelium consists of long, tangled, not very much branched hyphae, 0:4-0:5 uw 


* This conventional way of distinguishing between Mycobacterium and Corynebac- 
terium will probably on closer study be found to require some revision (cf. Gray and 
Thornton, 1928, and Jensen, 19316). 


356 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


thick, appearing homogeneous and undivided when examined in undisturbed 
condition. Only in strain G do a few hyphae on dextrose agar show the charac- 
teristic beaded appearance which accompanies the spore formation in Actinomyces. 
When mounted in water or studied in impression preparations, the aerial hyphae 
fall apart into rod-shaped pieces of the same thickness as the aerial hyphae, and 
of somewhat variable length, 0:4-0:5 x 2-4 uw, with a tendency to bipolar staining 
(Pl. xix, fig. 5). In strain G, some of these rods are thicker (0-7-0-8 u) than the 
undivided filaments. The mode of spore formation is similar to that described 
by Drechsler (1919) for his strain XIII. It is also of interest to note that Orskov 
(1923) mentions that the typical spore formation is difficult to detect in actino- 
mycetes with cylindrical spores, e.g. ‘“Leptothrix”’ buccalis. Only in strain G did 
the spores show a higher thermoresistance than the vegetative hyphae. We must, 
therefore, since the spore formation is so little typical, regard this species-group 
as situated at that end of the whole group I A, which shows the closest approxima- 
tion to Group II (Proactinomyces). 


Cultural characters.——Saccharose agar: Fair growth, becoming abundant; 
vegetative mycelium flat, spreading, becoming raised, first cream-coloured, later 
light ochre-yellow. Aerial mycelium abundant, smooth, cottony, pure white. Pale- 
yellow soluble pigment. Dextrose agar: Excellent growth, much resembling the 
previous. Nutrient agar: Excellent growth. Vegetative mycelium raised and 
wrinkled, with cracking surface, cream-coloured to straw-yellow. Aerial mycelium 
rather scant, white. Potato: Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium raised and 
wrinkled, cracking, dirty cream-coloured. Traces of white aerial mycelium. 


ACTINOMYCES AUREUS (?) Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 


Two strains. Hab.—Soils 163 and 176. 

Morphology.—Aerial mycelium consists of long, tangled and branching 
hyphae; spirals not very numerous, short, sinistrorse. Spores nearly spherical, 
1-0-1:2 w. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Growth scant in one strain, good in 
one. Vegetative mycelium spreading, white. Aerial mycelium first scant, white, 
later abundant, crusty, greyish-brown with white edges. Dextrose agar: Fair to 
good growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, superficial, first cream-coloured, later 
deep-orange. Aerial mycelium well developed, dusty, first white, later greyish- 
brown. Nutrient agar: Excellent growth. Vegetative mycelium superficial, 
wrinkled, yellowish-grey. Aerial mycelium absent or traces of white. Deep-brown 
pigment. Potato: Vegetative mycelium raised, spreading, yellowish-grey, becoming 
nearly black. Traces of white aerial mycelium. Black pigment. 


ACTINOMYCES BOBILI Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 
One strain. Hab.—Soil 92. 
This strain corresponds in most points to Waksman’s description, although its 
aerial mycelium on saccharose and dextrose agar seems less scanty, and a heavy, 
brownish-black growth is produced on potato. 


ACTINOMYCES CALIFORNICUS Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 
One strain. Hab.—Soil 92. Another, less typical strain, probably belonging 
to the same group, was isolated from soil 163. Strain 92 agrees very well with 
Waksman’s description. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 357 


ACTINOMYCES EXFOLIATUS Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 

Two strains. Hab.—Soil 176. Both strains correspond fairly well to 
Waksman’s description. The colours are generally darker, and the initially white 
aerial mycelium on saccharose agar assumes in older cultures a rose-brown colour. 
Waksman states that the tendency of the growth on saccharose agar to crack and 
peel off, from which the specific name is derived, is easily lost; with the present 
strains it was not noticeable at all. 


ACTINOMYCES FLAVUS (?) Krainsky emend. Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 

Four strains. Hab.—Soils 163 and 176. 

Morphology.—Aerial hyphae long, tangled, with none or a few short spirals. 
Spores long oval, 0-8-1:0 x 1:0-1:5 wu. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Fair to good growth, one strain very 
scant. Vegetative mycelium heavy, superficially spreading, first white to cream- 
coloured, later ochre-yellow. Aerial mycelium thin, white to yellowish-grey, absent 
in one strain. Dextrose agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium heavy, super- 
ficially spreading, ochre-yellow. Aerial mycelium thin, in patches yellowish-white 
to ash-grey. Nutrient agar: Excellent growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, 
wrinkled, yellowish-brown. Aerial mycelium absent or trace of white. Brown 
pigment. Potato: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, lichnoid, yellowish- 
brown to greenish-olive. Black pigment. 


ACTINOMYCES FULVISSIMUS Jensen (19300). 

Two strains. Hab.—Soil AII, and acid sand soil from Cooper Park. The 
strains generally agree with the author’s previous description, but the golden 
pigment is less typical in saccharose agar, and the aerial mycelium more abundant 
and pure grey on dextrose agar. 

This species is probably identical with Act. flavus Millard and Burr (1926); 
this name, however, is obviously invalid, since this organism is well distinguished 
from the one to which Krainsky previously (1914) had given the name Act. flavus 
(see above). 


ACTINOMYCES GRISEUS Krainsky emend. Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 

One strain. Hab.—Soil U. It agrees well with Waksman’s description, from 
which it differs only in producing a lemon-yellow soluble pigment in nearly all 
media. Act. griseus is one of the most easily recognized species of actinomyces, 
as well as one of the most well-defined, as can be seen from the closely tallying 
descriptions by Waksman (1919), Fellers (1922), and the present author (Jensen, 
19306). 


ACTINOMYCES 218, Waksman (1919). 

One strain. Hab.—Soil 6. This strain corresponds almost perfectly to 
Waksman’s description of his strain 218, which seems to be a “chromogenic” 
parallel to Act. griseus, from which it differs only in producing a brown pigment in 
protein media and in being less strongly proteolytic. 


ACTINOMYCES HYGROSCOPICUS, nN. sp. 
Seven strains. Hab.—Soils 92, 163, and 176. 
Morphology.—Vegetative mycelium of the usual type; the hyphae are rather 
stout, 0-6-0°8 uw thick. Aerial hyphae long, tangled, richly branched, 0-8-1:0 u 


358 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, il, 


thick; spirals are numerous, sinistrorse, narrow, sometimes long, but mostly quite 
short, only 1-2 turns, closed, typically situated as dense clusters on the main 
stems of the aerial hyphae. Spores oval, 0:8-1-:0 x 1:0-1:-2 u. 

Cultural characters.—It is a striking feature in this species-group, that the 
aerial mycelium, which in other actinomycetes is strikingly hydrophobic, does here 
in cultures on certain media—dextrose or glycerin asparagin agar—become 
moistened and exhibits dark, glistening patches which, when touched with the 
needle, prove to be a moist, smeary mass of spores. This characteristic feature is 
not equally distinct in all strains. 

Saccharose agar: Good to abundant growth. Vegetative mycelium heavy, 
superficially spreading, folded, glossy surface, first white to cream-coloured, later 
sulphur-yellow to yellowish-grey, with golden to light-orange reverse. Soluble 
pigment of the same colour. Aerial mycelium scant, thin, white, or altogether 
absent. Dextrose agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium superficially spreading, 
surface granulated, first cream-coloured to straw-yellow, later dull chrome-yellow 
to brownish-orange. Aerial mycelium thin, smooth, dusty, white to pale yellowish- 
grey, after 1-2 weeks more or less abundantly interspersed with small, moist, dark 
violet-grey to brownish patches which gradually spread over the whole surface. 
Light-yellow soluble pigment. Nutrient agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium 
raised, wrinkled, glossy, first cream-coloured, later yellowish-grey with yellowish- 
brown reverse. Aerial mycelium mostly absent, sometimes scant white. Potato: 
Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, wrinkled, first cream-coloured, later 
yellowish-grey to dull-brownish. Aerial mycelium absent or trace of white. 

Biochemical featwres.——Saccharose is inverted. Nitrate is not reduced with 
saccharose as source of energy. Starch is hydrolyzed. Cellulose is decomposed 
readily by some strains. Gelatin is slowly liquefied without any pigment forma- 
tion. Milk is completely digested in 3-4 weeks at 30° C., without any previous 
coagulation; the reaction becomes faintly acid (pH about or below 6:0). 


ACTINOMYCES MICROFLAVUS (?) Krainsky (1914). 

One strain. Hab.—Soil 176. 

Morphology.—Aerial mycelium consists of tufts of short, straight hyphae, not 
much branched, no spirals. Spores oval, 1:0-1:2 x 1:2-1-5 uy. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Very scant growth. Vegetative myce- 
lium spreading widely into the medium, thin, colourless. Aerial mycelium thin, 
pale reddish-brown. Dextrose agar: Scant growth. Vegetative mycelium forms 
isolated colonies, first colourless, becoming deep ochre-yellow. Aerial mycelium 
thin, yellowish-grey with rose spots. Nutrient agar: Fair growth. Vegetative 
mycelium flat, growing down, cream-coloured, central part raised, folded, ochre- 
yellow. Aerial mycelium thin, white, limited to the flat part of the growth. 
Potato: Slow, but eventually good growth of a very characteristic appearance. 
Vegetative mycelium first flat, spreading into medium, yellowish with white 
edges. After 10-15 days the central part appears raised, folded, mulberry-like, 
pure ochre-yellow. Trace of white aerial mycelium. 


ACTINOMYCES PARVUS (?) Krainsky (1914). 


Three strains. Hab.—Soils 125, 176, and U. Otherwise of very common 
occurrence in Australian soils. 

Morphology.—Vegetative mycelium of strain U shows in culture on nutrient 
agar a tendency to formation of remarkable, big, globular to pear-shaped bodies 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 359 


(Pl. xix, fig. 2). Aerial hyphae fairly short, straight, with little branching. 
Spores oval, 0-8-1:0 x 1:0-1-2 yu. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Scant growth. Vegetative mycelium 
flat, growing down, first colourless, later straw-yellow. Aerial mycelium absent 
or thin white veil. Dextrose agar: Scant growth. Vegetative mycelium slightly 
raised, wrinkled, sulphur-yellow to honey-yellow. Aerial mycelium absent or trace 
of white. Nutrient agar: Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, lichnoid, first 
honey-yellow, later rust-brown, of a somewhat soft consistence. No aerial mycelium. 
Potato: Scant growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, much wrinkled, first cream- 
coloured, later dirty honey-yellow to olive-yellow. No aerial mycelium. 

Krainsky states that his Act. parvus was strongly proteolytic. The present 
strains showed this property only to a slight extent. 


ACTINOMYCES RETICULI Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 

Two strains. Hab.—Soil 176. Waksman states that strains of this species may 
vary widely in their cultural characters. The present strains agreed with 
Waksman’s description in the peculiar structure of the aerial mycelium, although 
they differed in several other respects. 

Morphology.—Aerial mycelium consists of long, richly branching hyphae, 
0-8-1:0 » thick. The branches are arranged in definite whirls, but terminate in 
short, sinistrorse spirals, unlike the organism described by Waksman. Spores are 
oval, 0-8-1:0 x 1:2-1°6 up. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Scant growth. Vegetative mycelium 
thin, spreading, colourless. Aerial mycelium thin, smooth, slate-grey. Dextrose 
agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium flat, growing down, white. Aerial 
mycelium abundant, smooth, lead-grey. Nutrient agar: Good growth. Vegetative 
mycelium raised, wrinkled, yellowish-brown. Trace of white aerial mycelium. 
Deep-brown pigment. Potato: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, 
wrinkled, greyish-black. Trace of white aerial mycelium. Black pigment. 


ACTINOMYCES ROSEOCHROMOGENUS (Krainsky). 

Synonym.—Ac?t. roseus (Krainsky) emend. Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 
1919). 

The use of the name roseus by Krainsky (1914) can hardly be regarded as 
valid, since it was used previously by Namyslowski (1912) for an organism 
which was apparently different from the one studied by Krainsky. It is, there- 
fore, suggested to replace the specific name by roseochromogenus. 

Morphology.—Aerial hyphae long, not very much branching, 1-:0—1:2 m thick. 
The branches terminate in fairly long, regular, sinistrorse spirals. Sometimes 
3 to 5 branches are seen issuing together from the end-point of a main stem, thus 
giving a suggestion of whirl formation as in Act. reticuli. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Scant growth in one strain, abundant 
in one. Vegetative mycelium flat, spreading, colourless to white with pale-yellow 
reverse. Aerial mycelium abundant, smooth, pale greyish-rose. Dextrose agar: 
Good growth. Vegetative mycelium smooth, spreading, pale-yellow. Aerial 
mycelium abundant, smooth, cottony, first white, after a few days becoming rose- 
cinnamon, with many small white tufts. Nutrient agar: Excellent growth. 
Vegetative mycelium spreading, wrinkled, first yellowish-grey, later red-brown. 
Aerial mycelium develops late, first white, then pale rose-grey. Deep-brown 


pigment. Potato: Excellent growth. Vegetative mycelium spreading, EG: 


3 


360 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


granulated, yellowish-grey to greyish-black. Aerial mycelium absent or trace of 
white. Black pigment. 

Dissociation —By plating from the tufts of white aerial mycelium arising on 
dextrose agar or casein agar, a variant with pure white aerial mycelium is 
obtained. 


ACTINOMYCES RUTGERSENSIS (?) Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 


Two strains. Hab.—Soils 6 and AII. 

Morphologically these strains differ from the organism described by Waksman 
in not producing real spirals; the aerial hyphae are only curled and waved to a 
considerable extent. The cultural characters agree very well with those listed by 
Waksman. 


ACTINOMYCES VERNE (?) Waksman and Curtis (Waksman, 1919). 

Two strains. Hab.—Soils 125 and 163. 

Morphology.—Aerial mycelium on dextrose agar consists of much curled and 
tangled hyphae, with irregular, sinistrorse spirals, 0-8-1-0 » thick. Spores short 
cylindrical, 1:0 x 1:2-1:6 uw, not formed until after about three weeks; also many 
curved fragments, 6-10 mu long, are formed. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium 
superficially spreading, slightly raised, first pale olive-yellow, later dark olive-grey 
to brownish-grey. No aerial mycelium. Yellowish to olive-brown soluble pigment. 
Dextrose agar: Good growth, similar to previous, with small tufts of whitish to 
greenish-grey aerial mycelium. Nutrient agar: Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium 
raised, wrinkled, cream-coloured to yellowish-grey. No aerial mycelium. Brown 
pigment in one strain. Potato: Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium wrinkled, 
greenish-grey to brownish-black. Trace of white aerial mycelium. Brownish 
pigment. 


ACTINOMYCES VIRIDOCHROMOGENUS (Krainsky) emend. Waksman and Curtis. 


Three strains. Hab—Soils 163, 176, U. Otherwise very common in Aus- 
tralian soils. The present strains differ a good deal from the description by 
Waksman in their manner of growth on saccharose agar, but they all produce the 
typical blue-green aerial mycelium on some medium, especially dextrose agar. Very 
characteristic is also the arrangement of long, fine, regular spirals as side branches 
of very long, only slightly branching aerial hyphae. 


Genus ACTINOMYCES, Group B. 

The three strains of this group, whose general morphology has been described 
above, differ from each other in so many cultural characters that they cannot 
unreservedly be united into a single species, but on the other hand it would not 
seem advisable to erect three distinct species out of them on the basis of the study 
of so few strains. 

Strain 6VI. Hab.—Soil 6. Morphology.—Vegetative hyphae on casein agar 
long, branching, of variable thickness, from 0-8-1:0 up to 2:5-3-0 uw. On nutrient 
agar and potato, transitions from long filaments to short rods (Pl. xix, fig. 12) 
and coccoid forms (Pl. xix, fig. 10), 1:0-1:2 x 1:2-1:5 uw. In dextrose-NH,Cl-solution 
big globular forms, 2:5-3:0 mu (Pl. xix, fig. 9). Aerial hyphae on casein agar or 
potato extract agar, long, straight, branching, no spirals, about 1 » thick. Spores 
short oval to nearly spherical, 1:0-1:2 u (Pl. xix, fig. 6). Cultural characters.— 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 361 


Saccharose agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium superficially spreading, 
raised, much wrinkled (lichnoid), cream-coloured, first of a loose consistence, 
later more firm and cartilaginous. Aerial mycelium develops slowly, as the 
growth becomes hard, of a dull-white colour. Dextrose agar: Good growth, rather 
similar to previous; aerial mycelium more abundant, cottony, pale yellowish-grey. 
Nutrient agar: Good growth. Soft, cream-coloured smear without aerial mycelium, 
first smooth, later slightly wrinkled, of entirely bacterium-like appearance. 
Potato: Fair growth. Flat, smooth, dirty cream-coloured, glistening smear, of a 
viscous and gum-like consistence. No aerial growth. Dextrose broth: Soft cream- 
coloured growth along edges of surface. Broth turbid when shaken. 


Strain 6S. Hab.—Soil 6. Morphology.—Vegetative mycelium on casein agar 
similar to 6VI. On nutrient agar the hyphae mostly remain undivided, but in the 
condensation water of this medium, as well as in dextrose broth, potato, and 
dextrose asparagin solution, they divide into short rods (Pl. xix, fig. 8). Aerial 
hyphae on dextrose agar and casein agar long, tangled, without spirals, 0-8-1-:0 u 
thick. Spores long oval to barrel-shaped, 0-8-1-:0 x 1:2-1:6 uw. Cultural characters.— 
Saeccharose agar: Scant growth. Vegetative mycelium thin, deeply spreading, 
colourless. Aerial mycelium thin, tufted, zonate, first white, later pale pink. 
Dextrose agar: Vegetative mycelium raised, smooth, glistening, first cream- 
coloured, later ochre-yellow, surface first somewhat soft, later, when aerial 
mycelium develops, becoming hard. Aerial mycelium abundant, cottony, dull rose. 
Nutrient agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium raised, smooth, hard, yellowish- 
grey. No aerial mycelium. Pale yellowish-brown pigment. Potato: Abundant 
growth. Vegetative mycelium spreading, very much wrinkled, first cream-coloured, 
later dirty red-brown, of a soft consistence. No aerial mycelium. Yellowish- 
brown pigment. 

Strain A TIII. Hab.—Soil A. Morphology—Generally much like previous. On 
nutrient agar the hyphae divide after a few days into rather regular, oval to nearly 
spherical elements, 1:0-1-2 x 1-2-1-4 uw (PI. xix, fig. 13), almost exactly reproducing 
Orskoyv’s (1923) figure of Act. Affanassiew. Cultural characters——Saccharose agar: 
Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium superficial, wrinkled, glossy, first colourless, 
later faint brownish, firm, with a somewhat loose surface. Aerial mycelium well 
developed, smooth, pale ash-grey. Dextrose agar: Fair growth. Vegetative 
mycelium flat, pale yellowish-grey, with tufts of pale-grey aerial mycelium. 
Nutrient agar: Good:growth. Vegetative mycelium superficial, raised, much 
wrinkled, cream-coloured, of a very soft consistence, entirely bacterium-like. Potato: 
Fair growth. Vegetative mycelium spreading, wrinkled, cream-coloured, first very 
soft, later becoming hard, when aerial mycelium develops. Aerial mycelium starts 
on tip of growth, spreads gradually downwards, pale-grey. Dextrose broth: Flaky 
cream-coloured sediment; broth faintly turbid. 


Genus PROACTINOMYCES. 
PROACTINOMYCES FLAVESCENS, N. SD. 


Three strains. Hab.—Soils 129, 168, 176. This is one of the species of 
Proact nomyces, which show the closest resemblance to Actinomyces. Apparently 
it is a representative of that group of comparatively rare strains, which Lieske 
(1921) describes as “mittellang”’. 

Morphology.—The vegetative mycelium varies much according to the medium. 
On media where a firm growth is produced it appears as long, branched, non- 
septate hyphae, 0:-4-0-6 u thick. In other media, e.g. nutrient agar and potato, 


362 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, il, 


septation occurs, and the mycelium appears in preparations as fragments of very 
variable size, partly resembling highly branched mycobacteria. In several cases— 
for instance, on nutrient agar at 28-30° C., in 5-6 weeks old cultures in dextrose 
broth, and in dextrose-NH.Cl-solution—the short elements assume swollen, fusiform 
to lemon-shaped forms (cf. @rskov’s (1923) description of Act. corneae). The 
aerial mycelium consists of fairly long hyphae of the same thickness as the 
vegetative hyphae, not very much branched, without spirals, often clinging 
together in wisps. A differentiation into spores is never visible by direct micro- 
scopical examination. Neither is this the case in stained preparations; here the 
aerial hyphae break up into fragments of quite variable length, from 1:2-1-:5 up to 
10-12 uw, showing an irregular, granulated staining. From this picture there is not 
a very wide step to that of Act. albus, as described above. 


Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Good growth. Vegetative mycelium 
superficially spreading, much raised and wrinkled, cracking, white to cream- 
coloured, of a dry, but loose and crumbly consistence. Aerial mycelium scant, 
thin, white. Faint yellow soluble pigment after 2-3 weeks. Dextrose agar: Good 
growth. Vegetative mycelium superficial, wrinkled, honey-yellow to deep olive- 
yellow, of a hard and cartilaginous consistence. Aerial mycelium thin, smooth, 
white. Yellow soluble pigment. Nutrient agar: Good growth. Vegetative 
mycelium raised and much wrinkled, first dirty cream-coloured, later dark 
yellowish-grey, of a soft, moist, curd-like consistence. No aerial mycelium. No 
pigment. Potato: Good to excellent growth. Vegetative mycelium much raised 
and wrinkled, first cream-coloured, later yellowish-brown, soft and smeary. No 
aerial mycelium. No pigment. Dextrose broth: Rather scant growth. Granu- 
lated, yellowish sediment; no surface growth. Broth clear. No pigment. No 
acidity. 

Biochemical features—Saccharose is inverted. Starch is hydrolyzed. Cellu- 
lose is not decomposed. Gelatin is liquefied slowly. Nitrate is reduced slightly or 
not at all with various sources of energy. Milk is coagulated and slowly re- 
dissolved with acid reaction. Final reaction in dextrose-NH,Cl-solution, pH 
3-6-3:9. No growth under anaerobic conditions. 


PROACTINOMYCES PARAFFINAE, 0. SD. 


Five strains. Hab.—Soils 163 and A. It appears somewhat problematic, in 
which genus this species-group should really be placed. Its mode of “spore” 
formation in the vegetative mycelium is quite like that in the aerial mycelium 
of Actinomyces, Group A. However, since it lacks the spore formation in the 
aerial mycelium and conforms with Proactinomyces in several other respects 
(acid-fastness, no diastatic action, no liquefaction of gelatin) it would seem more 
reasonable to include it in this latter genus. 

Morphology.—in agar media (e.g., dextrose agar) the organism forms initially 
an extensive mycelium of long, richly branching hyphae, 0-4-0-5 w thick. After 5-6 
days at room temperature, numerous end branches swell to about double thickness, 
become more refractive, exhibit fine incisions along their external contours, and 
divide into oval, spore-like elements, 0:8-1-0 x 1:2-1:5 uw. This process of division 
starts at the tips of the swollen branches and proceeds basipetally (PI. xx, fig. 15), 
until most of the hyphae appear divided. Primary septa are not seen in the hyphae 
even with the best optical equipment. A similar process of division takes place 
in liquid media, where also the filaments often fall into fragments of variable 
length. The spore-like elements, but not the undivided filaments, are markedly 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 363 


acid-fast (Pl. xx, fig. 14). The aerial mycelium consists of rather short, straight, 
not very much branched hyphae, 0-4-0-6 » thick, which never show any differentia- 
tion into spores. . 

Cultural characters——Saccharose agar: Very scant growth. Thin colourless 
veil, sometimes with a trace of white aerial mycelium. Dextrose agar: Fair 
growth. Vegetative mycelium flat, growing into medium, pale ochre-yellow to 
orange, with raised outgrowths on the surface, of a crumbly consistence. Scant 
white aerial mycelium. Nutrient agar: Slow, but good growth. Vegetative 
mycelium superficial, somewhat raised, ochre-yellow, hard, but with a loose, smeary 
surface. Aerial mycelium scant, small white tufts. No pigment. Potato: Fair 
growth. Vegetative mycelium granulated, first pale-yellow, later deep ochre-yellow 
to orange. Scant white aerial mycelium. No pigment. Liquid media (milk, 
broth, synthetic solutions): Small round granules of various yellow to orange 
colours, firm, but can be crushed into a homogeneous smear. In quite old broth 
cultures a thick, hard, orange to brownish surface pellicle is formed. 


Biochemical features.—Saccharose is not inverted. Starch is not hydrolyzed. 
Cellulose is not decomposed. Nitrate is not reduced. Gelatin is not liquefied. 
Milk is not coagulated or digested. Final reaction in dextrose-NH,Cl-solution, 
pH 4-4-4-6. All strains show a marked power of utilizing paraffin wax as source 
of energy. 


PROACTINOMYCES POLYCHROMOGENES (Vallée). 
Syn. Streptothrix polychromogenes Vallée (1903). 


This organism, which has previously been described in detail (Jensen, 1931qa) 
under the name Act. polychromogenes, belongs quite evidently to the genus 
Proactinomyces (cf. @rskov, 1923). 


PROACTINOMYCES ACTINOMORPHUS (Gray and Thornton). 


Syn. Mycobacterium actinomorphum Gray and Thornton (1928); Actinomyces 
actinomorphus (Gray and Thornton), Bergey (1930). 


Four strains. Hab.—Soils AI, ATI, 6, 163. 


Morphology.—The organism varies considerably with the medium. In media 
permitting a good growth (nutrient or dextrose-asparagin-agar) there is, after 
20-24 hours at 25-30° C., a formation of extensive mycelia of long, curled and 
richly branching hyphae, penetrating into the medium to a marked extent. 
Ordinary stained smear or impression preparates show only bacteria-like elements 
—curved and branched rods, 0:-4-0-6 mu thick, of variable length (PI. xx, fig. 20), 
gram-positive and non-acid-fast. Already, after two days, the mycelia divide into 
segments, often in angular arrangement, generally 3-6 u long; coccoid forms are 
not seen. On media which allow only a poor growth (saccharose or glycerin 
nitrate agar or solution, water agar, etc.) the mycelial stage persists for a much 
longer time, and the organism appears microscopically as a typical actinomyces 
(Pl. xx, fig. 21-22); also here rod-shaped elements are formed in old cultures on 
the surface of agar media. In these meagre media, occasionally also on dextrose- 
agar, there is an abundant production of aerial hyphae; these are fairly straight 
and little branched, of the same thickness as the substratum hyphae (0-4-0-6 yz), 
and appear in stained preparations as rod-shaped fragments of varying length, not 
showing any differentiation into spores. The aerial mycelium tends to disappear 
after prolonged cultivation, especially in transfers from old cultures. 

i 


364 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Fair growth. Substratum mycelium 
flat, thin, colourless, spreading deeply into the agar. Aerial mycelium abundant, 
smooth, snow-white, resembling chalk-powder. The surface growth becomes 
gradually wrinkled and soft. In Strain 163 the growth is very abundant, forming 
a thick, smooth, moist, cream-coloured smear of a soft, pasty consistence. No 
soluble pigment. Dextrose agar: Fair to good growth. Substratum mycelium 
first raised and wrinkled, white, later smooth, cream-coloured, of a very soft 
consistence. Smooth, snow-white aerial mycelium is formed early, but tends to 
disappear after 10-12 days. Nutrient agar: Good to excellent growth. Substratum 
mycelium forms a raised, smooth or wrinkled, soft, cream-coloured smear. No 
aerial mycelium. No pigment. Potato: Fair to excellent growth, forming a 
smooth, soft, spreading, yellowish-grey smear. No aerial mycelium or pigment. 
Dextrose broth: Good growth. Thick, white, soft sediment, later thin, white, 
fragile surface pellicle. Broth becomes turbid. No acidity. Gelatin: Filiform, 
cream-coloured growth along the stab. Slow, saccate liquefaction; liquefied gelatin 
clear, viscid, without pigment. 

One of the strains of Myc. actinomorphum isolated by Gray and ‘Thornton 
was found to agree with the present group in every respect except for failure to 
produce aerial mycelium on saccharose-nitrate-agar. This is perhaps not surprising 
in view of the much longer time it had been subjected to artificial cultivation. On 
dextrose-asparagine-agar some aerial mycelium was formed. 


PROACTINOMYCES AGRESTIS (Gray and Thornton). 


Syn. Mycobacterium agreste Gray and Thornton (1928); Actinomyces agreste 
(Gray and Thornton), Bergey (1930). 

Five Strains. Hab.—Soils U, G, AI, 129, A III. 

Morphology.—Cells sown on surfaces of agar grow out after 18-24 hours into 
small, but definite mycelia of an extent of up to 40-50 uw (PI. xx, fig. 17). Some 
branches show a tendency to grow down into the agar. Septa are visible already 
at this stage, in the living state as well as in impression preparations (Pl. xx, 
fig. 16). Smear-preparations show only long branched rods, often in V- or Y- 
arrangement, 4-12 x 0-8-1:2 uw. The cells are gram-positive, non-acid-fast. The 
initial mycelia break up into long branching rods (Pl. xx, fig. 18), the ends of 
which sometimes show a tendency to bend and grow past each other (“slipping” 
growth). After 2-3 days at room temperature most of the cells in the interior of 
the colonies have divided into short rods and cocci, 1:2—3:0 x 0-8-1:2 uw. Round the 
edge of the colony one sees a number of rhizoid projections of long branched cells 
which remain undivided for a longer period and give a very characteristic appear- 
ance to the colonies (cf. Gray and Thornton, 1928). After 4-5 days these cells, 
too, have mostly divided into short rods and cocci, except the cells at the extreme 
tips of the projections, which still remain rod-shaped (Pl. xx, fig. 19). At higher 
temperatures (30-32° C.) the cells are often longer, 3-5 x 0:-8-1:2 uw. In old cultures 
almost only the coccoid forms are seen. 

Cultural characters.—Saccharose agar: Fair growth, smooth, convex, shining 
surface, butyrous consistence, edge entire, first cream-coloured, later pinkish to 
pale-greyish orange. Dextrose agar: Good growth, narrow, raised, smooth surface, 
finely myceloid edges, soft consistence, first white, later cream-coloured, finally 
pale-pink. Nutrient agar: Good growth, similar to previous, greyish-orange colour. 
Potato: Excellent growth, raised, restricted, finely rugose surface, dull yellowish- 
grey, soft. Dextrose broth: Good growth, first (two days) uniform turbidity, 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 365 


later abundant cream-coloured sediment and thick fragile surface scum; no acidity. 
Gelatin: Filiform, white growth, with fine thread-like projections along line of 
stab; no liquefaction.—Distinct soluble pigments are not formed. 

Dissociation.—The above description refers to the appearance of cultures as 
isolated from the soil. All strains showed, in platings from 2-5 months old broth 
cultures, a dissociation into two types of colonies: a “‘soft” type corresponding to 
the original, and a “hard” type, which produces a dry, wrinkled, firmly adherent 
growth in solid media, and in broth a tough surface pellicle, without any turbidity. 
Morphologically the two types are indistinguishable, except for the fact that the 
“hard” shows a rudimentary formation of aerial hyphae after 1-2 days on 
dextrose agar—short, straight, simple filaments, which soon disappear again. In 
the case of two strains (U and 129) these findings were confirmed with single-cell 
cultures obtained by the method of Orskoy (1922). The “hard” types have not so 
far reverted to the original. The whole phenomenon is apparently an analogy 
to the production of ‘plane’ and “perrugose” varieties in the saprophytic myco- 
bacteria (Haag, 1927). 

The strains of this species studied by Gray and Thornton (1928) were all 
capable of attacking phenol and/or cresol, as a consequence of the selective 
method by which the cultures had been obtained. Of the present strains only two 
(G and U) were capable of attacking phenol; apparently this character is as 
variable as several other biochemical properties of this group, as shown by Gray 
and Thornton. 


PROACTINOMYCES MINIMUS, N. SD. 
One strain. Hab.—Soil from a flower pot. 


Morphology.—Smear preparations from 3-4 days old agar cultures show 
0:4-0-6 uw thick rods, bent and irregular, some branching or in V-position, of very 
variable length, from almost coccoid up to 8-10 uw long. Already after 10-12 days 
there are only few short rods (0:5-0-7 x 1-5-3-0 «) left, and in older cultures (1-2 
months) one sees only small cocci, 0:-5-0-:7 u, mostly adhering into short chains or 
small clumps. The cells are gram-positive, but stain rather badly with ordinary 
dyes. The organism is acid-fast to a certain extent; in four-days-old cultures most 
cells are decolourized by the acid, although some retain the stain well; the small 
coccoid forms show good acid-fastness after six weeks. Direct observation cn agar 
blocks shows a mode of development very similar to that of Proact. agrestis, from 
which the present organism differs mainly in the much smaller size of its elements, 
its acid-fastness, and its slower growth. There is here the same formation, after 
2-3 days, of small mycelia, dividing into rods and finally cocci, and the same 
formation of burr-like colonies with rhizoid projections, in the tips of which the 
cells remain undivided for a longer time than those in the interior of the colony. 
Aerial growth is never observed. 

Cultural characters.—The growth is most characteristic at room temperature. 
On potato and the agar media listed below, it is in general very slow, but ends 
with becoming quite abundant after 6-8 weeks; the consistence is that of a firm, 
crumbly paste. It is first colourless, later assuming a beautiful pink colour, most 
nearly corresponding to Flesh Pink (dextrose and nutrient agar) or Coral Pink 
(saccharose agar and potato), Rdg.* XIII. 5’ 00-R. f-d. Saccharose-nitrate-agar: 
Growth first thin and flat, later raised, restricted, with rugose surface and finely 


* Ridgeway, Colour Standards and Nomenclature. 


366 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


myceloid edges. Dextrose-asparagin-agar: Growth restricted, much raised and 
folded (walnut-kernel-like), with finely myceloid edges. Nutrient agar: Growth 
very much similar to the previous. Potato: Growth spreading, much raised, finely 
wrinkled (lichnoid). Dextrose-broth: Thin, broken, cream-coloured surface scum 
and sediment; broth clear. No acidity. Gelatin: Filiform, slightly granulated, 
cream-coloured growth along stab. No liquefaction. 

Starch is not hydrolyzed. Cellulose is not attacked. Paraffin is utilized. No 
soluble pigments are formed. 


Relative Abundance of Actinomyces and Proactinomyces in the Soil. 
As previously mentioned, Actinomyces have been far more frequently found 
in the soil than Proactinomyces. This was also the case in the present work. 


Table 1. 
Comparative Physiology of Actinomyces and Proactinomyces. 
Utilization Final pH | Brown 
Diastatic of Lique- Growth in Pigment 
Genus. Organism iMeion faction on Dextrose- in 
2 of Paraffin | NH,Cl- | Protein 
Xylan. |Cellulose.| Gelatin. Solution. | Media. 
Act. albus .. + (+) (+) ae + 3:4-3:6 — 
5, aureus “SF oF = ap = 3:4-3-6 oF 
>, Oobili.. + + _ + = 3°5-3-6 + 
», californicus .. ata = = ar = 4-5-4-7 — 
< », eafoliatus + (+) = + = 4°5-4°7 — 
a », flavus. . + + 3E sr = 4-5-4:7 + 
5 » fulvissimus + + — + — | 4-5-4-7{ = 
S » griseus + (+) - + = 4-9-5-0 — 
= 5» 218 W. + + - + + 4:8-4-9 + 
S$ », hygroscopicus =f ab ak + = 3:7-3°8 a 
§ »» microflavus te = = + — | 5-1-5-2 = 
5 »> parvus + — Bia + = 5-1-5:2 _ 
x , reticuli + ~ + + + 4-1-4-2 + 
»» Toseochromogenus + + ra ar = 4-4-4-5 + 
», Trutgersensis .. se = - Te = 5:0-5-1 _ 
» verne.. 0 + = = ap = 5:0-5-1 — 
5, viridochromogenus + or (=F) <P _ 5:0-5-1 + 
s 
SA | Act. 6 VI + (+) — + = 4:-5-4-6 - 
5 2) » OS + + + ao + 4-5-4-6 = 
sk » AALDOL So + - — + — 4-1-4-2 — 
SS 
| 
% Proact. flavescens. . oe sF za or ar ar 3°6-3°9 = 
SS »  paraffinae — (+) = _ + 4-4-4-6 — 
5S polychromogenes . . =_ — = = + 4-4-4-6 - 
Ss Sy actinomorphus + = = ar + 4-9-5-1 _ 
8 agrestis .. 3.6 = _ = = ae 4:°4-4°6 = 
a » minimus .. Re — = — - + 4-8-4-9 - 


+ indicates that the character is positive in some strains, negative in others. 
(+) indicates that the character is present to a slight degree only. 


BY H. L. JENSEN. 367 


While Actinomyces-colonies often account for 30-50% or more of the total number 
of colonies on plates of casein agar, it was rather exceptional to find a colony of 
Proactinomyces; it was necessary to make a special search for them in order 
to obtain the number of forms described above. Certain differences in the com- 
parative physiology of the two genera might seem to offer an explanation for the 
relative preponderance of Actinomyces. As seen from Table 1, and as mentioned 
previously, all Actinomyces exert proteolytic activities (liquefy gelatin) and hydro- 
lyze starch, many of them are capable of utilizing pentosan (Na-xylanate in 
mineral nutrient solution) and several of decomposing cellulose; Proaciinomyces 
are generally non-proteolytic and non-diastatic, do not as a rule attack xylan, are 
always incapable of decomposing cellulose, but typically capable of utilizing 
paraffin.* It would, therefore, seem likely that the Actinomyces are better able 
to live on plant residues in the soil than the Proactinomyces. The table further 
shows that the resistance to acidity, which is quite characteristic for the strains 
- within each single species-group (Jensen, 19300), does not allow any distinction 
between Actinomyces and Proactinomyces. 

A soil from a flower bed (heavy loam, rich in organic matter) gave, by 
plating in a dilution of 1:200,000 on 5 parallel plates of casein agar, 73 colonies of 
actinomycetes; 2 of these proved to be Proactinomyces; 1% of paraffin wax was 
added, and the moist soil was incubated for 1 month at room temperature, after 
which time a plating in a dilution of 1:500,000 on 5 parallel plates gave 303 colonies 
of actinomycetes, 30 of which proved to be Proactinomyces (polychromogenes, 
agrestis, and parafinae). There is thus here a considerable increase, both abso- 
lutely and relatively, in the abundance of Proactinomyces, a result which indicates 
that these organisms may under special circumstances become important agents 
in the decomposition processes in the soil. 


Summary. 


A study was carried out on the morphology and biology of a number of 
strains of actinomycetes from Australian soils. They proved to fall into two 
main groups (apart from the genus Micromonospora), broadly corresponding to a 
division previously suggested by Mrskov. 


I. Organisms producing an aerial mycelium which differentiates into spore- 
like bodies. Two subgroups could be distinguished: one in which the vegetative 
mycelium remains undivided, and one in which it divides into a kind of “frag- 
mentation spores”. The latter subgroup is of rare occurrence, and it is not 
certain that the two subgroups are sharply distinguished. All organisms of this 
group liquefy gelatin and hydrolyze starch, and several of them are capable of 
decomposing xylan and cellulose. Those actinomycetes which produce a charac- 
teristic brown pigment in protein media belong to this group, which includes the 
large majority of soil actinomycetes. It is suggested to reserve the generic name 
Actinomyces for this group. Seventeen species, among which one is new (Act. 
hygroscopicus), are described. 


II. Organisms producing an aerial mycelium (sometimes nearly or wholly 
absent) without any differentiation into spores. The vegetative mycelium divides 


*In a previous paper (Jensen, 193la) it was erroneously stated that Proact. 
polychromogenes does not attack paraffin; this is, however, the case when it is grown in 
mineral nutrient solution with flakes of paraffin and not, as was previously done, on agar 
with addition of paraffin. 


368 CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF ACTINOMYCETALES, ii, 


generally into bacteria-like segments which multiply in the same manner as the 
mycobacteria and corynebacteria, to which the transition from this group is very 
gradual. It is suggested that the formation of an initial mycelium be used as a 
criterion for the distinction of this group from the genera Mycobacterium and 
Corynebacterium. Organisms of this group often do not liquefy gelatin or 
hydrolyze starch and are always incapable of decomposing cellulose, but generally 
are capable of utilizing paraffin; several of them are acid-fast. These organisms 
are of rare occurrence in the soil; their abundance here can be increased by 
addition of paraffin to the soil. Many pathogenic actinomycetes belong to this 
group. It is suggested to classify this group as a separate genus, Proactinomyces, 
n. gen., to be included in the family Proactinomycetaceae Lehmann and Neumann. 
Six species are described; among these three are new (Proact. flavescens, parafinae, 
and minimus). The order Actinomycetales can then be divided into the families 
Proactinomycetaceae (Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium and Proactinomyces) and 
Actinomycetaceae (Actinomyces and Micromonospora). 

The sequence from Actinomyces to Corynebacterium and hence to “true” 
bacteria is very complete, and there is no reason to place the actinomycetes among 
the Fungi imperfecti. 


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EXNNDERLEIN, G., 1925.—Bakterien-Cyclogenie. Berlin. 

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FENNEL, EH. A., 1918.—Streptothrix interproximalis, n. sp. An obligate Microaerophile 
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EXPLANATION OF PLATES XIX-XX. 
Plate xix. 


Fig. 1.—Act. viridochromogenus. Vegetative mycelium. Dextrose asparagin solution, 
2d. 28° C.—Fig. 2. Act. parvus. Vegetative mycelium. Nutrient agar, 16 d. 30° C.— 
Fig. 3. Act. 6S. Vegetative mycelium. Condensation water of dextrose casein agar, 1 d. 
30° C.—Fig. 4. Act. 218 Waksman. Aerial mycelium. Saccharose agar, 5 d. room tpt.— 
Fig. 5. Aci. albus. Aerial mycelium. Dextrose agar, 8 d. room tpt.—Fig. 6. Act. 6 VI. 
Aerial mycelium. Potato extract agar, 4 d. room tpt.—Fig. 7. Act. 6S. Aerial mycelium. 
Dextrose agar, 2 d. 30° C.—Fig. 8. Same. Vegetative mycelium. Condensation water of 
nutrient agar, 2 d. 30° C.—Fig. 9. Act. 6 VI. Vegetative mycelium. Dextrose-NH,Cl 
solution, 20 d. 30° C.—Fig. 10. Same. Vegetative mycelium. Potato, 3 d. 30° C.— 
Fig. 11. Act. AIII. Vegetative mycelium. Dextrose broth, 4 d. 28° C.—Fig. 12. Act. 6 VI. 
Vegetative mycelium. Nutrient agar, 5 d.. room tpt.—Fig. 13. Act. AJIII. Vegetative 
mycelium. Edge of colony on nutrient agar, 5 d. 28° C. Living specimen. 


Plate xx. 


Fig. 14. Proact. paraffinae. Vegetative mycelium. Dextrose agar, 10 d. room tpt. 
Acid-fast-s.aining.—Fig. 15. Same. Dextrose agar, 8 d. room tpt. Living specimen.— 
Fig. 16. Proact. agrestis. Dextrose agar, 1 d. 30° C.—Fig. 17. Same. Dextrose agar, 
20 h. room tpt. lLiving.—Fig. 18. Same. Dextrose agar, 2 d. room tpt. Jiving.— 
Fig. 19. Same. Dextrose agar, 5 d. room tpt. Living specimen.—Fig. 20. Proact. 
actinomorphus. strain All. Nutrient agar, 1 d. 30° C.—Fig. 21. Same. Saccharose- 
nitrate solution, 7 d. 30° C.—Fig. 22. Proact. acltinomorphus, strain Rothamsted. Con- 
densation water of saccharose agar, 4 d. room tpt. 

All specimens are stained with dilute carbol fuchsin, unless otherwise stated. In 
Figs. 13, 17, 18 and 19 the magnification is x 350, in all other cases x 750. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XIX. 


Actinomyces spp. 


PLATE XX. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


Proactinomyces spp. 


THE WING-VENATION OF THE ORDER ISOPTERA. I. 
INTRODUCTION AND THE FAMILY MASTOTERMITIDAE. 


By R. J. Tittyarp, M.A., Sc.D. (Cantab.), D.Sc. (Sydney), F.R.S., etc., 
Chief of the Division of Economic Entomology, Council for Scientific 
and Industrial Research, Commonwealth of Australia. 


(Plate xxi; eight Text-figures. ) 


[Read 30th September, 1931.] 


Introduction. 


The Division of Economic Entomology of the Council for Scientific and 
Industrial Research of the Australian Commonwealth is divided up into Sections 
which correspond with the principal economic problems whose solutions are being 
attempted. One of the most important of these is the problem of Termites or 
so-called “White Ants’. Throughout the whole Continent of Australia, these 
insects cause immense damage annually to timber and structures built of timber. 
The prevention of this damage is a matter of the utmost importance to the Common- 
wealth. The total annual loss due to Termites, in the destruction of growing trees, 
railway sleepers, telegraph posts and cross-arms, fences and weatherboard houses, 
not to mention damage done to fruit trees, stored products of various kinds and 
even, in some parts, to grass-lands, is estimated at fully one million pounds sterling. 


The Section of Forest Insects Research, under the charge of Mr. G. F. Hill as 
Senior Entomologist, has placed this problem in the forefront of its programme, 
and is acting in close co-operation with the Division of Forest Products and also 
with the Commonwealth Forestry Bureau in an endeavour to minimize the losses 
arising from Termites. 

An important part of this work consists of a systematic survey of the species 
found in Australia and neighbouring countries. In the course of this survey, a 
very large amount of valuable material has been collected together, including 
what is probably the largest amount of living material ever assembled, for use in 
the field testing plots and laboratory colonies. 


The total number of described species of Termites in the whole world is now 
about 1,600. Of these, already about 150 have been described from Australia, while 
some seventy more are known but not yet named and described. Many species 
and several genera have been inadequately defined, often being based on a type 
series that is incomplete in the sense that it does not include all the castes. Genera 
have been defined on characters which fuller experience proves to be unreliable. 
The position at the present time is such that it appears almost impossible to deter- 
mine what some of the economic forms really are. Without accurate determina- 
tions of genera and species, the literature on the economic side must inevitably 
become more and more full of errors, and it is already abundantly clear that a 
thorough revision of the classification of the Order is needed. 

ai 


372 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


To show how even the comparatively simple problem of the correct identity of 
two species may affect the economic problem, we need only mention the confusion 
which has arisen in the past between the two closely related species Coptotermes 
lacteus Frogg. and C. flavus Hill. It has been widely believed that C. lacteus, well- 
known as the cause of much damage to weatherboard buildings and also as the 
builder of large dome-shaped mounds in the bush, also attacks standing forest 
trees. Consequently, one method suggested for the protection of valuable forest 
reserves was the destruction of the mounds of this species. But it is now known 
that the species which attacks living trees is the closely allied C. flavus, which, 
on present evidence, does not form mounds at all! Hence the destruction of these 
mounds, though it would benefit anybody who wished to erect a weatherboard 
dwelling in the bush, would in no wise protect the standing timber. 


A further difficulty arises owing to the unreliability of some of the characters 
at present used in classification. We have even noted an extreme case in which 
right and left wings from the same individual were classified into two distinct 
genera based on venational differences! It seems obvious that, even if no charac- 
ters of value can be discovered in the worker castes, reliable genera in this Order 
should now be strongly based on a correlation of characters taken from the alate 
forms and the soldiers, and not merely from one or the other. 

The accumulation of an immense mass of excellently preserved material offers 
an unrivalled opportunity for such a study, and the possession of large numbers 
of living forms allows more particularly of the carrying out of a piece of work 
which must surely yield particularly good results in the systematic field, viz., a 
study of the wing-tracheation of the developing nymphs. Mr. Hill and I have 
therefore agreed that we will undertake a joint piece of research, in which Mr. 
Hill’s part will be to study the whole field of Australian Isoptera in order to find 
reliable characters for classification other than in the wing-venation, while I 
shall confine myself to a study of the developing wing-tracheation of the nymphs 
and the resulting wing-venation of the imagines. While following up these two 
lines of study we intend to write a series of papers correlating the results of our 
work. 

I propose to divide my own share of the work into four parts, based on the 
four recognized families within the Order, viz., Mastotermitidae, Calotermitidae, 
Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae. The present Part deals with the family Masto- 
termitidae. 


THE VENATION OF THE FAMILY MASTOTERMITIDAE. 

The moment that one begins to consider the venational problem presented by 
the Order Isoptera, there comes into view the archaic Australian genus Masto- 
termes Frogg., at the present time only represented by a single species, the Giant 
Termite of Northern Australia, Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. This species 
causes immense losses over a wide belt of Northern Australia. In many respects 
it may be said to hold the record amongst all insects for its powers of attack. Not 
only does it destroy all kinds of prepared timber except a few immune v2rieties 
but it does immense damage to living trees in the forest, to fruit trees and orna- 
mental trees, and to various kinds of stored products. It has even been recorded 
as eating through lead-piping, and a remarkable instance is well authenticated in 
which it ate out the insides of some bonzoline billiard balls in a Darwin hotel! 
The winged forms swarm round the lights ot periods ranging from late in 
November to early in February. Though winged forms and workers are very 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 373 


abundant, nymphs are not so often met with, and many colonies appear to consist 
only of workers, soldiers and neoteinics. No true queen has yet been found, but 
it is believed that such does exist. 

The most important piece of work requisite for a sound understanding of the 
wing-venation of Isoptera is undoubtedly a study of the nymphal tracheation in 
the genus Mastotermes. The opportunity to carry this out came to me in 1929 
during a short visit to Townsville. Mr. Hill had informed me that all the fences 
and many of the trees in the hospital grounds of that city had been badly infested 
with Mastotermes when he was stationed there, and he asked me to send him 
supplies of living insects for his laboratory colonies in Canberra. When I reached 
Townsville in July, 1929, I found that the last of the wooden fencing had just 
been removed and was being replaced by concrete in order to save the heavy costs 
of almost continual renewals; so I turned my attention to the trees in the grounds. 
The hospital authorities very kindly gave me permission to cut down a large 
Poinciana tree which appeared to be badly infested. The tree was cut down and 
sawn into sections, and the roots were completely excavated. It was found that 
no connection existed between the Mastotermes-colony and the outside world, but 
that practically every part of the tree was tunnelled, and the roots were bored 
out right to their very ends. The resulting census of this colony showed that the 
tree contained about 100,000 workers in various stages of development, some 3,000 
soldiers, and a few small and isolated colonies of a species of Cryptotermes in 
some of the branches. Nymphs of Mastotermes were especially sought for, but 
only two could be found, both in the penultimate instar and both living in galleries 
situated in rather small branches. It seems clear, therefore, either that nymphs 
are not produced every season in large numbers, or else that this colony, large as 
it was, was only an offshoot of some larger underground nest in which most of 
the nymphs were living. 

The two nymphs were dissected in one of the laboratories at the School of 
Tropical Medicine in Townsville, where facilities for the work were kindly placed 
at my disposal by Dr. Richards. I wish here to thank him for his kindness and 
assistance. The results obtained will be described in detail in this Part. 

As no nymphs of the last instar could be found, and as Comstock had already 
(1918) figured tracheae as still existing in the vein-channels of the wings of the 
imago, a search was later on made amongst Mr. Hill’s material for last instar 
nymphs preserved in alcohol. One specimen from Groote Eylandt, Gulf ef Carpen- 
taria, appeared to me to be in excellent condition for dissection. In the dissected 
wing-sheaths of this specimen, tracheae were found almost as perfect as in the 
living nymph. The resulting drawings are made use of in this Part. 

For a study of the imaginal venation, I have had the use of a number of slides 
of wings lent by Mr. Hill, and have also examined complete specimens of both 
sexes in alcohol. My best thanks are due to Mr. Hill for this valuable assistance. 

A number of attempts have already been made by various authors to determine 
the homologies of the wing-veins in the genus Mastotermes without reference to 
the tracheation of the nymphal wings.* There are, however, some obvious 
anomalies in the venational scheme which make a satisfactory solution difficult, 
as the following comparative table of results will show: 


* The paper by Claude Fuller entitled ‘“‘The Wing Venation and Respiratory System 
of Certain South African Termites,’ Ann. Natal Musewm, 1919, iv, pp. 19-102, does not, 
of course, include any reference to Mastotermitidae, but gives many figures of wing- 
tracheation in the other three families. 


374 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


Table Showing Comparative Results for Wing-venation of the Genus Mastotermes. 


Desneux, Silvestri, Holmgren, Comstock, Tillyard, Tillyard, 
1904. 1909. 1911. 1918. 1926. 1931. 
Forewing only .. .. Se — @ Se, Se Se 
a Phe eae regs — — © Se, Se Se 
Both Wings Ae ae Se G Se Sc, Se Se 
3 % . 5 R Se R, R, R, R, 
” ” R Se R, 2 Ry,3 Rois 
7 f R R Rs R, R, R, 
i R R Rs R, R,; R, 
s < R R Rs IR 1Re 1 
= os M M M M M M 
x 6 ear oy Cu Cu Cu Cu Cuyq Cu, 
Vena dividens (fore- Anal 
wing only) A A Furrow Cua Cu, 
Homologous Vein (in 
hindwing only) zAT A 1st A Cu,q Cu, 
Vein anterior to anal 
fold (hindwing 
only ) og. 90 OD = A, Postanal 2nd A Cu, 1A 
Vein along anal fold Anal 
(hindwing only) .. — —_— —_— Furrow Cu, 2A, 
Veins posterior to 
anal fold 56. | 010 = A Postanal 3rd A 1A 2A, 
(hindwing only) .. — A Postanal 3rd A att 3A 
3A 


Note.—The last column contains the results arrived at in the present paper. The most anterior vein 
of the wing is normally simple (except for small twigs) in the hindwing, but it is branched in 
the forewing; as there are usually two anterior branches of this vein separating off within the 
wing-stump of the forewing before the main branch, these are allowed for separately in the 
first two rows of the table. 


Reviewing the above table, we note that there is absolute agreement amongst 
all the authors quoted in the case of one vein only, viz., the media. Opinions differ 
on all other important points, e.g., as to the presence or absence of a true costal 
vein apart from the subcosta, as to the limits of Sc, R, and Rs, as to the inter- 
pretation of the vena dividens of the forewing, and as to the limits of the anal 
venation and the composition of the veins of the anal lobe in the hindwing. 

Apart from the present paper, Comstock is the only author who has made 
an attempt to utilize the wing-tracheation. Having no nymphs to work with, he 
nevertheless attempted to trace the tracheae in the veins of the imago. As a 
result, his conclusions come fairly close to those reached in the present paper 
through the study of the nymphal wing-tracheation. 

I now propose to deal with (1) the wing-tracheation of the penultimate 
nymphal instar, (2) the wing-tracheation of the last nymphal instar, (3) the 
interpretation of the wing-venation of the imago in terms of the results so 
obtained, and (4) the problem of de-alation. 


(1) The Wing-Tracheation of the penultimate Nymphal Instar. Text-figs. 1, 2. 
The dissections of the wing-sheaths of the penultimate nymphal instar were 
made from freshly chloroformed material taken at Townsville, N.Q., by myself on 
26th June, 1930. Only two nymphs were available. Text-figure 1 shows the 
tracheation of the forewing of one of these. 
We note first of all the great breadth of the sheath, which, measured across 
the base where it was cut off, is almost exactly one-half of the total length. 


BY BR. J. TILLYARD. 375 


Further, both anterior and posterior margins are very strongly arched, the former 
near the base, the latter about midway. This results in giving the impression that 
the wing-sheath began to grow in one direction and then turned more posteriorly. 
This impression is, I think, correct, as the position of the sheath with respect to 
the thorax strongly suggests that the basal part preserves to a considerable degree 
the original direction of a primitive paranotal expansion, and that, as this 
elongated, it tended to develop in a more posterior direction, as indicated by the 
distal portion... It would be very interesting to obtain the earlier instars of these 
nymphs in order to study the shape of the sheath in the successive instars from 
the first appearance of the wing-buds. 

It is, unfortunately, almost impossible to dissect out the basal tracheal trunk 
complete, without badly disarranging the wing-tracheae, as it is rather deeply 
sunk in fat-tissue and not easy to see. I succeeded in preserving the posterior 
portion of it in the forewing, fortunately including therewith the actual origins 


Text-fig. 1. 


Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Nymph, penultimate instar. 
Forewing, to show tracheation. Comstock-Needham Notation. 


of the cubitus and anal veins; but the dissection cut acress the origins of Sc, R 
and M. It was evident, however, that the tracheal trunk was stouter in diameter 
posteriorly than it is between the origins of Cu and the anal veins. This condition 
agrees closely with that found in a number of Cockroach nymphs, in which the 
original costo-radial and cubito-anal tracheal trunks are linked together into a 
complete loop by a middle connecting trunk of smaller diameter. In Text-fig. 1, I 
have restored the missing anterior portion of the trunk as on the supposition that 
it agreed with the Blattoid condition. Whatever may be the actual diameter of 
this trunk anteriorly, it is very clear that it formed a very deep loop, for this was 
the chief reason why I was unable to preserve it entirely in making the cut. As 
the cut left the main tracheae practically undisturbed in position, there is little 
difficulty in restoring the missing basal portions of Sc, R and M. 

Text-figure 2 shows the tracheation of the hindwing of the same nymph as in 
Text-fig. 1. Here the breadth at base is enormous, even more than one-half the 
total length. The curvature of the wing-sheath, though marked, is not quite as 


376 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


striking as in the forewing. My attempt to include part of the basal trunk trachea 
in the cut failed, although I made special efforts to reach the extreme base of Sc. 
However, the cut was made very near the actual origins of all the main tracheae, 
and I have given in Text-fig. 2 an approximate restoration of the position of the 
basal trunk. 

Before proceeding to a description of the wing-tracheae, it is worth noting 
that the nymph dissected was evidently only in an early period of its instar, 
and was therefore in excellent condition for dissection. There was no rucking 


Text-fig. 2.—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Nymph, penultimate instar. 
Hindwing, to show tracheation. Comstock-Needham Notation. 


or crumpling of the tissues, and the courses of the tracheae were consequently 
very easy to follow. The outline of the developing wing-sheath for the last instar 
was only just beginning to show itself distally within the existing sheath, hence 
my attempt to discover any indication of the limits of either the wing-stump of 
the forewing or the anal lobe of the hindwing did not meet with any success. An 
interesting occurrence in the hindwing was, however, noted in the beginnings of 
a sort of polygonal meshwork posterior to 1A. It will be seen, later on, that this 
area becomes secondarily invaded with branch tracheae from 1A, which is 
originally developed as an unbranched trachea. 

A comparison of Text-figs. 1 and 2 shows that, in both wings, only four main 
tracheae exist in addition to the anal group. In the forewing (Text-fig. 1), only 
two short, rather weakly formed anal tracheae exist; in the hind (Text-fig. 2) 
there are three, much more strongly developed. 

This analysis of the system of main tracheae shows us at once that there 
is no distinct costal trachea present in either wing. Comstock himself recog- 
nized this, so that we can safely reject the interpretations of Silvestri and 
Holmgren, who consider that a separate costal vein was present in the imaginal 
wing. 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 377 


The Subcostal Trachea.—Apart from small anterior twigs, this trachea is 
usually unbranched in the hindwing (Text-fig. 2), hence there can be no difficulty 
in recognizing it. In the forewing, however (Text-fig. 1), its course is very arched 
basally, not far from its origin, and thus separated thereabouts quite considerably 
from the radial trachea posterior to it. Just distad from the arched portion, 
it gives off a basal anterior branch which is itself bifurcate. If this branch were 
constant, we should be justified in following Comstock’s usual notation and 
designating it Sc,. Unfortunately, however, it is not so. The examination of a 
series of imaginal forewings, as well as the study of the tracheation in the only 
available specimen of the last nymphal instar, indicates that the branching of 
Sc is highly variable, so that I consider it wiser to keep merely to the notation Sc 
for the complete trachea. 

It may be noted, however, that this basal branch evidently occurs in a large 
number of forewings, and that it sometimes bifurcates even within the area 
destined to form the imaginal wing-stump; this was evidently the case in the 
nymphal wing here being studied, and also in the forewing figured by Holmgren 
(1911); he labels the corresponding portion of the venation “C’’. 

The subcostal trachea ends distally less than half-way along the wing in the 
forewing, at about half-way in the hind. 


The Radial Trachea.—As is to be expected, the radial trachea is the stoutest 
trachea in the whole wing. Moderately arched near the base in the forewing 
(Text-fig. 1), it runs for a space very close to both Sc and M, and then straightens 
out and runs the whole length of the wing to a point just above the apex. 
For the whole of its length, not a single posterior branch is given off; the whole 
system of branches of this trachea is anterior to the main trunk. 

The first anterior branch is given off just as the trachea is straightening 
out after its basal arching. This branch is slender and runs just below and 
subparallel to the main stem of Sc, ending up only a little beyond it. Just distad 
from this branch, in the specimen under description, there arises another slender 
branch which bifurcates almost immediately, its two slightly diverging branches 
running to the costal border a little beyond half-way. Beyond this there are 
three more simple branches, subparallel to one another, then a shorter branch 
which bifurcates, followed by one more simple branch and a short terminal 
fork. 

In the hindwing, the radial trachea arises closer to the subcostal, and has 
a general formation fairly closely similar to that of the forewing. The branches 
are, as in the forewing, all anterior, but they are only five in number and are 
all simple. It is interesting to note that, in both wings, the first two branches 
arise close together from the main stem. 

The formation of the radial trachea, with its anterior system of branches, 
is a markedly Blattoid character. The normal type of radial trachea and vein, 
in other insects, is an anterior convex main stem, R,, with a posterior concave 
sector, Rs, considered by Comstock to have been originally dichotomically divided 
into four branches, R, to R;. While it is very doubtful whether Rs was originally 
either four-branched or dichotomically branched in the first winged insects, there 
can be little doubt that the division of R into an anterior convex R, and a posterior 
concave Rs is a primitive character, for it can be seen in nearly all known Carboni- 
ferous insects, including the Protoblattoidea, and is also well marked in some of the 
Carboniferous Blattoidea. The evolution of this latter group has, however, been 
along the lines of gradual recession of the area occupied by the subcosta and 


378 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


invasion of that area by the radius. Thus the original R,, instead of being a 
long trachea or vein running very nearly to the apex (as in Mayflies, for instance), 
has followed the subcosta basad, and become shortened in the process to a mere 
anterior branch of Rs. It has been followed in the same manner by R,, R;, R, and 
even by the more anterior branches of R,; in the venation, each one of these, 
as it invaded the territory originally occupied by Sc, has tended to become more 
or less convex in conformity with the general convex tegminization of the wing. 

If, therefore, we agree that the normal terminology of the Comstock-Needham 
system is applicable at all to the Blattoid type of radius, it is clear that only 
the most basal anterior branch can be considered as R,, while all the rest of the 
Tadius must be considered as radial sector. In so far as it is worth while to 
distinguish the parts further, the second anterior branch must be named Rs, 
and we may see in its bifurcate condition in the forewing (Text-fig. 1) evidence 
of its primitive dichotomy into R. and Rz, which has apparently disappeared in the 
hindwing (Text-fig. 2). All the rest of the strong main stem is properly R,,,, but 
only the most anterior branch of this can be assigned to R,, while the remainder 
must be considered as R;. It follows that it will be most convenient to consider 
the main radial trachea and vein in Isoptera as simply the radial sector, dis- 
tinguishing its most basal anterior branch only as R, if occasion arises. 

The Median Trachea.—In the forewing this trachea arises just below the radius, 
but in the hind it arises far away from that vein and is associated purely with 
the cubito-anal group. In both wings it is basally arched and then runs for some 
distance without branching. The branches develop only from about half-way 
onwards, and are of the usual posterior type, but apparently with considerable 
variation in detail in individual wings, as may be seen by comparing Text-figs. 1-4. 
This variation renders any attempt to distinguish the four main branches 
postulated by Comstock and Needham more or less valueless, and it seems sufficient 
to recognize the median trachea as a whole, and simply to label it “M”. 

The Cubital Trachea.—This is the most characteristic trachea in the wing. In 
both fore- and hindwings, it is divided into a strongly developed anterior branch, 
Cu,, with a number of descending branches forming a pectinate series, and a 
much slenderer and simpler posterior branch, Cu,, originating not far from the 
base and before the basal arching is complete. This branch is either simple, as 
in the forewing in Text-fig. 1, or it may be terminally twigged as in the hindwing 
in Text-fig. 2. A reference to the imaginal venation (Text-figs. 5, 6) will show 
at once that it is this trachea which follows the course of the vena dividens in 
the forewing and thus serves to divide the anal area from the main part of the 
wing; but equally, by reference to the hindwing venation, it will be seen that it 
lies far anterior to the anal lobe in that wing, and takes no part in delineating 
the anal fold there. 


Comstock quite correctly interpreted the corresponding trachea in his figures 
of Blattoid nymphal wings (1918, pp. 124, 125, figs. 116, 117), but failed to 
homologize it correctly with the corresponding vein in the imaginal wing (l.c., figs. 
118, 119). Some of his followers have insisted on perpetuating this error and 
applying it generally to all types of wings, with the result that they destroy the 
whole basis of the Comstock-Needham system. For it is the basic essence of that 
system that the veins of the imaginal wing should take their names from the 
tracheal trunks from which they are derived. Now the vein which I here call Cu, 
has its trachea always arising from trachea Cu; hence, if it is to be called 1A, 
the whole basis of the system falls to pieces. I have no objection whatever to 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 379 


its being called CuP (posterior cubitus), as Lameere and Martynov propose, in 
which case the anterior cubitus should be termed CuA instead of Cu,; but to term 
it 1A is absurd, when it is in no sense of the term an anal vein and is not derived 
from an anal trachea. 

The question of objection to the use of terms such as Cuyq and Cu, does not 
arise in considering the Isoptera, since Cu, is not dichotomically branched and 
there is little point in naming the individual branches of a variable pectinate 
series. 

The Anal Tracheae.—In the forewing (Text-fig. 1) we distinguish clearly two 
anal tracheae, viz, 1A and 2A. Trachea 1A is delicately formed by comparison 
with the more anterior tracheae. It follows a very arched course, roughly 
concentric with the arched portion of Cu followed by Cu, above it, but diverging 
slightly from it distad. A short anterior branch runs in the curve of the arch 
between its main part and Cu. Trachea 2A is much shorter, arising just below 
1A, equally delicately formed, and fills part of the space below the arch of 1A, 
branching irregularly into three. 

Very different is the formation in the hindwing (Text-fig. 2). Here there 
appear to be three distinct anal tracheae, 1A, 2A and 3A, all arising close together 
and much better developed than in the forewing. 1A is an unbranched trachea 
running fairly close below and sub-parallel to Cu,. Between it and the narrowly 
branched 2A there is a rather wide space, already noticed as carrying an initial 
development of irregular polygonal cells. A similar but less marked development 
of cells is indicated below 1A, between the two branches of 2A, and also distally 
just below 2A. Trachea 3A runs just below 2A, but branches somewhat earlier 
into three, the anterior branch being the shortest. 


(2) The Wing-Tracheation of the Last Nymphal Instar. Text-figs. 3, 4. 

No living material of this instar has been available for dissection, but one 
nymph preserved in alcohol in Mr. G. F. Hill’s collection was found to be in 
very good condition, having evidently been captured very soon after it had attained 
its final instar. A dissection of this showed the tracheae still in situ, so that I was 
able to make the drawings given in Text-figs. 3, 4, for comparison with those of 
the previous instar. 

The chief difference to be noted in the shape of the wing-sheaths is their 
much greater elongation. The basal arching or bending is preserved, especially 
in the forewing. Fortunately the whole outline of the actual wings of the imago, 
in process of formation within the sheath, could be made out, and is shown by a 
fine dotted line in the figures. By following along the posterior margin, the 
distinct though slight inbending can be noted which marks the end of the vena 
dividens in the forewing and the anal fold in the hind. We then see quite clearly 
that these two formations are not homologous in fore- and hindwings; for the 
vena dividens, bounding the true anal area of the forewing, is obviously Cu, by 
comparison with Text-fig. 1, whereas the anal furrow in the hindwing runs along 
the course of the anterior branch of 2A! 

There is no need to follow the courses of the tracheae in detail in this instar, 
but only to note the points in which they differ from those of the previous instar. 
In this particular forewing, the branchings of Se are very irregular, consisting 
of four anterior veinlets, each of which is twigged. R,.,, is unbranched, as in the 
hindwing in Text-fig. 2, but still arises close to R;. The total number of anterior 
branches of R is rather markedly diminished; three branches, Ri, Rez and 


380 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


R,,;, cross the suture of the wing-stump (Text-fig. 3). The first posterior branch 
of M arises a little before half-way. The general course of Cu is little altered, 
but Cu, is more arched near the middle of the wing, and most of the branches of 
its pectinate descending series tend to collect close together near the point where 


Text-fig. 3—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Nymph, last instar. Forewing, 
to show tracheation. Comstock-Needham Notation. The transverse dotted line 
indicates the position of the wing-suture. 


this arching begins; they are also reduced in number, but are individually 
more branched than before. There is evidently very great irregularity in the 
form of these branches in individual wings. 

Very notable is the reduction in size in Cu, and the anal tracheae. In the 
previous instar (Text-fig. 1) Cu, reached very nearly half-way along the wing; it 
now ends at little more than one-fourth. Also its course is now a still more definite 
arch than before. Within this arch can be seen the shortened and now quite 
irregularly branched trachea 1A together with a mere remnant of 2A in the form 
of two very short tracheae. At this early stage in the instar the outline of the 


Text-fig. 4.—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Nymph, last instar. Hindwing, 

to show tracheation. Comstock-Needham Notation. The re-entrant angle of the 

posterior margin, indicating the limits of the anal lobe, is shown on the dotted 
line at the end of the trachea labelled 2A. 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 381 


suture destined to separate the wing-stump from the rest of the wing cannot be 
clearly seen, but its future position can easily be inferred by reference to the 
imaginal venation, and is indicated in Text-fig. 3 by a dotted line traversing the 
basal quarter of the wing. 


In the hindwing (Text-fig. 4) the changes are not great. Sc is now entirely 
without veinlets. Rs diverges slightly downwards after departing from R,, thus 
tending to come very close to M. There is no important change in M and little 
in Cu, beyond a reduction in the number of descending branches. Cu, remains 
very long, reaching to a point about two-thirds along the posterior margin. 1A 
also remains long, and now sends a series of descending twiglets into the wide 
space in which we had noted, in the previous instar, a partial formation of a 
polygonal meshwork. Each of the two main branches of 2A has developed 
secondary branches; the main anterior branch of 2A runs along the course of 
the future anal fold, with the two well-formed branches of the posterior portion 
lying in the anal area below it. 3A is now four-branched, and supplies the lobed 
portion of the same area. The inbending of the posterior margin which indicates 
the termination of the anal fold lies at a point about two-fifths of the wing-length 
along that margin. 


(3) The Venation of the Imaginal Wings. Text-figs. 5, 6. 

The study of the wing-tracheation of the last two nymphal instars has now 
prepared us completely for a full interpretation of the imaginal wing-venation. 
This is shown in Text-figs. 5, 6. The following points may be specially noted: 

(1). In neither wing is there any evidence of the development of a true 
costal vein distinct from the subcosta. In the forewing, the short branches some- 


Text-fig. 5—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Imago. Base of forewing, to show 
the wing-stump, the suture (sw) along which the wing separates off at de-alation, 
the vena dividens (Cu,) and the Blattoid form of the anal area or clavus (cl). 


382 WING-VENATION OF THE, ISOPTERA. i, 


times found anteriorly within the wing-stump are properly to be considered as 
anterior branches of Sc, not as vein C. 

(2). The main anterior longitudinal vein of the wing, with a number of 
anterior branches, is correctly termed the radial sector. Its most basal anterior 
branch is the original R,; there would appear to be little value, within the Order 
Isoptera, in naming the separate branches of Rs, as they are obviously very 
variable. 


Text-fig. 6.—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Imago. Basal portion of hind- 

wing, including the whole of the anal lobe. The line along which the wing 

breaks away at de-alation is shown by the double transverse lines close to the 

base (see also Text-fig. 7). ‘The three axillaries are labelled 1Au, 2A4u, 3Aaxz 

respectively, the last-named being separated from the other two by a thin 

membranous area. 2A,, anterior convex branch of 2A which forms the anal fold. 
2A,, posterior branch of 2A with secondary anterior branches. 


(3). No doubt exists as to the identity of vein M in the forewing. The 
approximation of Rs near its origin from R, towards M in the hindwing of the 
last larval instar prepares us for its basal fusion with M in the imaginal hindwing. 
This character is universal in the Orders Isoptera and Perlaria. 

(4). No doubt exists as to the identity of vein Cu, in either wing. The more 
basal descending branches of this vein tend to flatten out in the forewing, and 
within the wing-stump they are partially atrophied. In the hindwing, they also 
tend to stop short in the membrane as they approach Cuz. 

(5). The vena dividens in the forewing is a weakly chitinized concave vein 
and forms the anal furrow. It is undoubtedly Cu,. In the hindwing, the homologous 
vein is also very lightly chitinized, but lies far anterior to the anal fold. 

(6). The anal area or clavus of the forewing is of the strongly arched Blattoid 
type. The anal venation has degraded, and is replaced by an irregular polygonal 
meshwork, usually very faintly indicated. 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 383 


(7). The anal lobe of the hindwing is not coterminous with its anal area, but 
is remarkable in being bounded anteriorly by the most anterior branch of 2A, 
which in the imago is barely chitinized and forms the anal fold. Vein 1A, 
lying anterior to the lobe, tends to duplicate Cu, in form, but somewhat on a 
reduced scale, through the formation of hypertrophied descending branches which 
stop short before reaching 2A. The branchings of the posterior main branch of 
2A and also of vein 3A within the anal lobe are highly irregular, and an indefinite 
polygonal meshwork is developed between them. At the base of the wing, the 
third axillary (Text-fig. 6, 34x”) is seen to be well separated from the first and 
second axillaries (14%, 2Ax%) by an area of thin membrane; the veins 2A and 3A 
spring directly from the third axillary. 

It should be noted that the anal fold of the hindwing is a convex fold, the 
anal lobe folding along it beneath the rest of the wing. The vena dividens of the 
forewing, on the contrary, is a concave furrow (anal furrow of Comstock). It 
is therefore unfortunate that Comstock applies the same terminology, “anal 
furrow’, to both these structures. 


As regards the exact composition of the vein M, according to Lameere’s 
terminology, I have so far said nothing. The position would appear to be similar 
to that in the Blattoidea, where, so far as I am aware, there is no evidence of a 
division into distinct anterior median (convex) and posterior median (concave) 
at all. Tegminization of the forewing in the Blattoidea has made all the veins 
except Cu, appear more or less convex; but a reference to the hindwing, as well 
as to both wings in the Mantoidea, makes it fairly certain that the media is 
really only the posterior median, MP, of Lameere. Whether an original anterior 
median, MA, has taken any part in the formation of the vein which we now 
call the radial sector is a question which must for the present be left open. To 
determine this, we need clear evidence as to what group of Blattoidea or Proto- 
blattoidea are the actual ancestors of the Order Isoptera. Such evidence, at present, 
appears to be entirely lacking. 


That the Isoptera are closely related to the Blattoidea is now quite certain, 
and this conclusion is still further strengthened by the present study. We have 
now to decide whether the family Mastotermitidae lies along the direct ancestral 
line or not. The main difficulty lies in the interpretation of the anal lobe. 


In all Blattoidea and Mantoidea the folded portion includes the whole of the 
anal venation, whereas, in Mastotermes, 1A lies wholly outside the folded portion, 
and the folding itself takes place along the anterior branch of 2A. This fact 
may be interpreted in one of two ways: either Mastotermes is descended from 
ancestors which, like all other Isoptera, entirely lacked the folded anal area, 
and, later on, a secondarily enlarged folded area has been developed with a 
different boundary, or else Mastotermes exhibits a reduction-stage in the transition 
from the normal Blattoid or Mantoid type of hindwing to the normal lobeless 
type of the rest of the Isoptera, the reduction having been effected by the trans- 
ference of vein 1A from the original folded area on to the unfolded portion of 
the hindwing. 

All the evidence appears to me to favour the second supposition. In the 
original Blattoid and Mantoid type of hindwing, Cu, is a long and weakly chitinized 
concave vein, forming the vena dividens which separates off the anal area from 
the rest of the wing. Running closely below it is the convex vein 1A, along which 
the actual underfolding of the anal lobe takes place. Usually there is a break in 


384 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


the form of a re-entrant angle in the posterior margin at the end of Cu,; but 
there are many Mantoid types in which the contour of the posterior margin is 
continuous, and some Blattoids in which the break is only very slight. The 
development of the condition found in Mastotermes from the normal Blattoid 
condition requires (a) the elimination of the re-entrant angle at end of Cu,, so that 
the posterior margin should form a continuous curve, (0) the possession, in the 
ancestral form, of a branched 2A, and (c) reduction of the folded area by trans- 
ference of vein 1A on to the unfolded portion, the secondary folding taking 
place instead along the line of the anterior branch of 2A. We have already seen 
that condition (a) offers no obstacle to the theory that Mastotermes lies in the 
direct ancestral line. As regards condition (b), it is sufficient to note that 2A 
is normally branched both in Blattoids and in Mantoids, and there are many types 
in which the development of a long anterior branch, itself simple and suitable 
to function as a secondary anal fold, is obviously quite possible. Condition (c) 
would then be fulfilled, most probably, if, during the course of evolution, there 
were to take place a disproportionate change in the length of the veins, as, for 
instance, in the event of an inordinate lengthening of the wings. Such a lengthen- 
ing would carry the original vena dividens far out beyond the end of the abdomen 
of the insect, as has actually happened in the case of Mastotermes, with the result 
that the folded area would no longer be entirely protected beneath the body. If 
the manner of folding were to remain the same, i.e., about a convex fold, it is 
clear that the next position suitable for folding must develop along the first 
branch of 2A, as has happened in Mastotermes. 


Now the length of the forewing in Mastotermes is about 30 mm., that of the 
hindwing about 28 mm. The abdomen, however, is only 10 mm. or somewhat less, 
and the distance from the base of the hindwing on the metanotum to the end 
of the abdomen is about 12 mm., which is the same as the length of the anal 
fold. Thus the folded portion, when in the position of rest, fits neatly over the 
abdomen, and does not project beyond it so as to risk tearing. I think it will be 
admitted that the length of the wings in Mastotermes, and, indeed, in all Isoptera, 
is out of all proportion to the length of the abdomen, and that very definite 
elongation of the wings must have taken place at some stage in the evolution 
of the Order. Therefore it appears that a clear case has been made out for the 
view that Mastotermes lies in the direct ancestral line of the evolution of the 
Order, and retains an intermediate condition in the reduction of the folded anal 
area by transference of the actual fold from the convex vein 1A to the convex 
anterior branch of 2A. 


(4) The Problem of De-alation. 


De-alation is the process of shedding the wings. In the high development 
of this process, the Order Isoptera is the most specialized of all Orders of Insects. 


In the Isoptera, alate individuals of both sexes normally shed their wings at 
some period aiter their emergence. But there is a great deal of difference between 
the lengths of time usually taken before de-alation occurs in different groups, 
and aiso in the ease with which the wings are shed. Normally, however, both 
pairs of wings are shed with equal ease. 

The small basal portion of the wing which is left attached to the thorax, after 
de-alation has taken piace, has been called the wing-stump, wing-stub or wing-scale 
by various authors. ‘The last of these expressions is the one most: commonly in 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 385 


use; but it is open to the serious objection that it is already in use for an 
entirely different structure, viz., the wing-scales of butterflies, moths, mosquitoes 
and other insects. I therefore propose to use the term wing-stump in this and 
subsequent papers, since that term exactly describes the piece of the wing which 
is left behind, and is not in use for any other structure. 


Normally, the fully developed wings of Isoptera have a transverse line of 
weakness, the basal suture (Text-fig. 5, su), clearly marked between the wing-stump 
and the remainder of the wing. The insect gets rid of its wings merely by pushing 
or rubbing against any convenient rough surface, or by some action which causes 
bending of the wings at the sutures, such as raising the abdomen, or raising 
the thorax high on the legs so that the tips of the wings press against the ground 
or object on which the insect is standing. In the majority of cases, even very 
moderate pressure or displacement is sufficient to rupture the wing along the 
suture, and de-alation results at once. But, as will be seen later when we come 
to study other groups of Isoptera, there are some cases in which the wings are not 
so easily shed. 


As de-alation is a highly specialized phenomenon, and is better developed in 
the Isoptera than anywhere else, it appears reasonable to suppose that characters 
of considerable value in a scheme of classification for the Order ought to be found 
in connection with it. I propose, therefore, to consider the nature of the wing- 
stump and basal suture in the various families of Isoptera, together with the 
differences which may exist in them in the fore- and hindwings. 


The Mastotermitidae differ from most other Isoptera in the fact that, while 
the forewing possesses a well-developed basal suture and large wing-stump (the 
latter measuring in length about one-ninth of the total length of the wing), the 
hindwing does not appear to show any sign of a true suture at all. Further, 
living specimens have frequently been found in which the forewings have been 
shed whilst the hindwings have been retained. It is true that, in the end, both 
pairs of wings are shed; but it is also true that the hindwings are often retained 
much longer than the fore. 


If a winged specimen of Mastotermes be taken out of alcohol and held in 
the fingers or by the forceps, it can easily be verified that a slight pushing or bend- 
ing of the forewing will cause the wing to split along its basal suture, which is 
always very clearly marked. The crack appears first inwards from the costa 
across Sc and R, and then opens up rapidly as far as Cu,. From this vein to the 
posterior margin is only a small distance; yet this part does not yield as readily 
as the rest, and the final tear may either take place obliquely along the course of 
Cu,, or it may continue the transverse course already begun, leaving the tip of 
Cu, itself on the de-alated portion of the wing. An examination of specimens 
de-alated naturally while alive shows that the latter method is by far the most 
usual. Occasionally, however, one sees the oblique tear along the course of Cum. 
Occasionally, also, it happens that the suture runs to the posterior margin either 
exactly at the end of Cu., or even slightly distad from it. In the latter case, 
the whole of vein Cu, is left on the wing-stump, as is the case with the forewings 
of other families of Isoptera known to me. In the majority of specimens examined, 
the distal part of Cu, lies just beyond the wing-stump, as in Text-fig. 5. 


Now if we try to remove the hindwing of a specimen of Mastotermes taken 
from alcohol, we shall find that it is by no means as simple a task as in the case 


386 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


of the forewing. One can press the wing forward towards its base with quite 
considerable force, and still obtain no result. However, if sufficient buckling of the 
wing can be obtained, a split will occur close to the base, from costa to Sc only, 
and nearly at right angles to the former. If, now, further bending or pushing 
is continued, this split can be made to open up transversely across the other 
veins, as far as the end of the chitinized block which lies at the base of 1A. 
Owing to the separation: of the third axillary (Text-fig. 6, 34x”) from the other 
basal chitinized structures of the hindwing, the attachments of this wing to the 
thorax consist of two blocks of fairly hard chitin separated by a thin membrane 
in the region of the anal fold. In following out the progress of the split, it will 
thus be seen that it has now reached a point impinging upon the anal fold itself. 
Along this same fold the hindwing, in the position of rest, is folded in such a 
way that the anal lobe lies beneath the rest of the wing. If the pushing or 
bending of the wing is continued still further, the next result will either be that 
a tear will take place along the anal fold, or irregularly across the anal lobe, or 
it may happen that the original split will be continued across the anal fold and 
follow an irregular course across the other anal veins. If the transverse splitting 
is continued in this last manner, as shown in Text-fig. 6, then the branches of 
2A and 3A will be found to be severed practically at their origins with the third 
axillary, where they are weakly chitinized. This appears to be what usually 
happens in nature. But it would be worth while to examine a large number of 
naturally de-alated individuals, in order to determine what percentage of them do 
actually succeed in ridding themselves completely of the anal lobe of the hindwings. 


Two important characters emerge from this study of the process of de-alation. 
The first is that the forewing possesses a definite basal suture, while the hindwing 
does not. The second is that the wing-stump of the forewing is much larger than 
that of the hind. The first character is one in which the Mastotermitidae differ 
from all other Isoptera studied by me. It is obvious that the sutureless condition 
of the hindwing is an archaic character, and that it is at any rate partly cor- 
related with the preservation of an anal lobe. The second character does not 
serve to distinguish the Mastotermitidae from the more archaic groups in the 
rest of the Order, e.g., the Calotermitidae, in which also we may note a marked 
difference in the size of the wing-stumps of fore- and hindwings. 


It does not seem likely that we can definitely prove the method whereby 
the living individuals of Mastotermes rid themselves of their hindwings, except 
by actual observations on living specimens before de-alation. But a study of the 
two wing-stumps in sitw is very suggestive. If we take a specimen from alcohol 
and remove its forewings, which can be done with ease, and also without injury 
to the hindwings, then we note, first of all, that the wing-stump of the forewing 
is slightly convex, and that it presses down firmly upon the base of the hindwing. 
The suture between metathorax and abdomen lies slightly distad from the free 
edge of the fore wing-stump. There appear, then, to be two fulcral lines along 
which the hindwing might be bent and split in nature; the first would be along 
the hard edge of the fore wing-stump, while the second would be slightly distad 
from this, just over the suture between thorax and abdomen. Experimentally, I 
have succeeded in inducing splitting along both these lines, but it is much easier 
to do it along the hard edge of the fore wing-stump than along the other position. 
If the hindwing be simply seized with the forceps and bent upwards against 
the fore wing-stump, it will split along the line of bending, at any rate as far 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 387 


as the anal fold. But to achieve the second result, it is necessary for the abdomen 
to be raised upwards until the hindwing is actually caught between the concavity 
of the suture between thorax and abdomen below it, and the sharp edge of the 
fore wing-stump above it; when that happens, a similar split takes place, but 
slightly distad from the line of the fore wing-stump. This operation cannot 
be done easily with a specimen taken from alcohol, owing to loss of elasticity in 
the abdomen. But it is conceivably quite an easy operation for the living insect. 

Examinations of specimens taken alive in the de-alated condition, from Mr. 
Hill’s collection, indicate that, in all cases, the split in the hindwing is placed 
slightly distad from that of the fore. This can be well seen in Text-fig. 7. This 
fact may be interpreted either as proving that the second method of de-alation, 
mentioned above, is the actual process employed in nature, or it might still be 
argued that it is the first method that is employed, and that subsequent swelling 
of the tissues during immersion in alcohol has caused the displacement now 
noticeable. Mr. Hill, however, informs me that, in preserving his specimens, he 
changed the alcohol frequently, after death of the specimens, for the express 
purpose of avoiding distension of the body tissues. My impression, after studying 
a considerable number of his specimens, is that no appreciable change in the 
position of the thoracic structures has taken place. Therefore I strongly incline 
to the second explanation, as stated above. But, as I said before, the actual 
proof of this point must await observations in the field. 

Let us now return to our study of the naturally de-alated specimen, as shown 
in Text-fig. 7. Under the microscope, the difference in the natures of the distal 


8 


Text-fig. 7.—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. Diagram of part of imago, to 
show the pronotum (pn) with the wing-stumps in position after de-alation. 
fw, hw, bases of attachment of forewing to mesonotum and of hindwing to 
metanotum; vd, vena dividens. Note the close alignment of the severed ends of 
the two pairs of wings, and also the alignment of the vena dividens with the 
severed ends. The parts which are covered by other structures are shown by 
dotted lines; the left forewing overlies the right, and both forewings overlie the 
hindwings. The posterior part of the lobe of the pronotum overlies the bases 
of the forewings. 
Text-fig. 8.—Diagram of forewing-stump, viewed from beneath, to show position 
of alula (al). 3A, third axillary; Cu,, vena dividens. 


388 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i, 


margins of the two wing-stumps can be easily made out. In the forewing, there 
is no sign of tearing; the main veins are all clearly weakened at the points where 
they impinge upon the suture, and the intervening membrane is also neatly 
separated along the sutural line, not torn off roughly. But in the hindwing, the 
main veins are evidently broken off, while the intervening membrane is torn off 
irregularly between them. Thus the distal margin of the fore wing-stump is 
fairly regular, while that of the hind is more or less jagged. 


Measurements of the two wing-stumps show that, whereas that of the fore- 
wing is about one-ninth of the total length of the wing, that of the hindwing is 
not quite one-sixteenth of the total length. In actual area, the wing-stump of the 
forewing is much greater than that of the hind, since it is wider as well as much 
longer. A careful calculation gives the ratio of the areas as about 8:3. Striking 
as these differences are, they are nevertheless exceeded in some genera belonging 
to the Calotermitidae. 

For purposes of comparison with other groups, we have also to bear in mind 
the markedly Blattoid form of the clavus or anal area of the forewing in Masto- 
termes. This is undoubtedly a very primitive character; so far as I know, it is 
unique within the Order Isoptera. The Blattoid form of clavus is due chiefly to 
the marked curvature of vein Cu, concavely to the posterior margin. Even in those 
Calotermitidae in which the form of the fore wing-stump most closely approaches 
that of Mastotermes, it will be seen that this concave curvature of vein Cu, has 
been lost. 

Another character which appears to promise well for comparison with other 
groups is the actual course of the split in both wings. In the forewing of 
Mastotermes, it runs obliquely downwards and outwards from the costa as far as 
R,,;, then turning to run transversely as far as Cu., whence it turns slightly out- 
wards to reach the posterior margin. Such a course may be described as convex 
to the base, with its principal bend or angle on or near Ry,;. The course of the 
split in the hindwing (which, we have already shown, is not a true suture in 
Mastotermes) is also convex to the base, with a slight bend or angle at Sc, and 
thereafter somewhat irregular. Deviations from this primitive type will be care- 
fully noted in our studies of the higher families. 

The Alula of the Forewing (Text-fig. 8)—During the examination which I 
made of the process of de-alation, I lifted up with the flat blade of a scalpel a 
complete forewing of a specimen of Mastotermes taken from alcohol. In this 
case, the wing did not break as easily as usual at the suture, and I succeeded in 
raising it to an angle of about sixty degrees from the body. I was then extremely 
surprised to see standing out at a slight angle beneath the extreme base of the 
wing a small lobe, which at once reminded me of the alula of the Coleopterous 
family Hydrophilidae. Carefully slipping the scalpel along beneath this, I sliced 
the wing off below it. The wing was then turned over and examined in alcohol 
and a drawing of the alula made (Text-fig. 8). It consists of a more or less 
rounded flap, joined to the basal part of the clavus by a wide chord or base of 
attachment, the anterior end of which is very close to the third axillary. The free 
rounded part of the alula is more or less deeply pigmented in brown, but a rather 
triangular area in contact with the base of attachment is so completely hyaline as 
almost to escape detection at first sight. The alula folds closely under the clavus, 
its outer margin not reaching as far as the vena dividens. It thus bears much the 
same relationship to the clavus of the forewing as the anal lobe of the hind bears 
to the rest of the anal area of that wing. 


BY R. J. TILLYARD. 389 


It seems strange that this structure should have previously escaped detection, 
but such appears to be the case. In order to make sure that I was not mistaken, 
I asked Mr. Tonnoir to dissect another forewing from a specimen of Mastotermes 
in the same manner, and he discovered in this specimen a similarly placed lobe, 
an undoubted alula, which only differed from the one found by me in being slightly 
smaller and more oval in form, and had the same hyaline appearance at the base. 


We may therefore take it as proved that there is a true alula of the type 
found in certain Coleoptera in the forewings of Mastotermes. The structure should 
be searched for also in other primitive genera of Isoptera, and will very probably 
be discovered, perhaps in an obsolescent form, in some of them. 


Whether this curious structure has any phylogenetic significance or not, I 
am not prepared to say at the present moment. The Hydrophilidae are admittedly 
a very archaic family of Coleoptera, but it does not yet appear to be established 
that the alula was present in the ancestral type of elytron for that Order. If that 
were so, then the presence of a similar organ in Mastotermes might be held to 
indicate a community of origin for the Orders Isoptera and Coleoptera. This 
problem, however, lies beyond the scope of the present paper. 


SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERS OF THE WINGS IN THE FAMILY MASTOTERMITIDAE. 


We are now in a position to define the family Mastotermitidae on the charac- 
ters of its wings, as follows: 


Forewing.—Wing-stump large, its length measured from the base along vein M 
being about one-ninth of the total length of the wing. Wing-suture convex to base, 
with a bend or obtuse angle about vein R,;. Anal area or clavus of Blattoid form, 
with the vena dividens (Cu.) curved concavely to the posterior margin; normally, 
this vein is not quite fully included within the wing-stump, a small distal portion 
of it remaining outside. A true alula present in the form of a small rounded flap 
attached along a broad base at the base of the clavus, and folded completely under 
it. Venation almost complete, with branched Sc, many-branched R, M and Cu,; R, 
and R.; simple, Rs; with many anterior branches; anal veins obsolete and replaced 
by a very variable, indistinct and irregular meshwork, frequently obsolescent also. 


Hindwing—Wing-stump small, its length being less than one-sixteenth of the 
total length of the hindwing. No true wing-suture present, but the wing splits or 
tears off at a level slightly distad from the position of the free edge of the fore 
wing-stump in the position of rest (Text-fig. 7). A large anal lobe present, 
formed with the convex anterior branch of vein 2A as the anal fold; length of this 
lobe, measured along 2A, quite two-fifths of the total length of the wing. The 
anal lobe folds under the rest of the wing along the anal fold and may be strictly 
homologous with the alula of the forewing. Venation complete, with Sc simple or 
forked, R, and R.z simple and R,.; with many anterior branches, as in forewing; 
but at its extreme base Rs is fused for a short distance with M; M and Cu, many- 
branched, Cu, simple or only forked distally. Anal veins well developed; 1A stout, 
with a series of irregular descending branchlets; 2A forked completely from base, 
the anterior branch lightly chitinized and forming the anal fold, the posterior 
branch with anterior branchlets; 3A with several branches arising from the third 
axillary. 


Membrane of both wings thin and covered with a weak, irregular meshwork of 
veinlets, or archedictyon. 


390 WING-VENATION OF THE ISOPTERA. i. 


References. 
Comstock, J. H., 1918.—The Wings of Insects, chap. viii, pp. 133-137. Ithaca, N.Y. 
DESNEUX, J., 1904.—Genera Insectorum, fase. 25. Isoptera, fam. Termitidae. P. Wytsman, 
Brussels. 
Frocecatt, W. W., 1896.—Australian Termitidae, Part 1. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., xxi, 
pt. 3, pp. 510-522. (Genus Mastotermes defined on p. 517; see also figs. 3, 3a). 
HoLMGREN, N., 1911.—Termitenstudien. K. Svensk. Vetensk. Handl., Bd. 46, No. 2, 
Systematik der Termiten. (See pp. 18 et seq., and fig. 2). 

SILVESTRI, F., 1909.—Fauna Sudwest-Australiens, Michaelsen u. Hartmeyer, Bd. II, Lief. 
17, Isoptera. 

TILLYARD, R. J., 1926.—Insects of Australia and New Zealand, chap. xi, p. 105, fig. H3. 
Angus and Robertson, Ltd., Sydney, N.S.W. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI. 
Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt.—Enlarged photographs of fore and hind wings, 
from specimens dissected off with wing-stumps attached, and cleared and mounted in 


euparal. 
Photographs by W. C. Davies, Cawthron Institute, Nelson, N.Z. 


IPL AND) SGT, 


Scc. N.S.W., 1931. 


Proc. LINN. 


“SUIMPULFT “*Z : SUIMOIOW ‘T 


“SS01q siswarwa 


renee 


THE REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER 
CONTENT OF THE SOIL. 


By LILIAN FRASER, B.Sc., Science Research Scholar in Botany, 
University of Sydney. 


(Plate xxii; eighteen Text-figures.) 
[Read 28th October, 1931.] 


Introduction. 


The observations given below are put on record in the hope that they may 
be of use in the interpretation of some of the anatomical peculiarities of marsh 
and water plants. A description is given of the reactions of the shrub, Viminaria 
denudata Sm., to a great increase in the water content of the soil in which it is 
growing; and also a brief consideration of the theoretical conclusions to be 
deduced from its behaviour. 

Viminaria denudata Sm. belongs to the subfamily Papilionaceae of the 
Leguminosae. It is a switch plant attaining a height of about 12 feet. True leaves 
are present only in the juvenile stage, their function being early assumed by 
phyllodes which are terete, up to 15 inches long, and fairly firm but not rigid. 
It is interesting on account of the unusual degree of plasticity shown in its 
reaction to a change of environmental conditions. On the whole Viminaria 
requires a relatively moist soil for its best development. 

In the Sydney (N.S.W.) district the geological formation is Mesozoic; three 
series of rocks, Narrabeen Beds (sandstone and shale), Hawkesbury Sandstone, 
and Wianamatta Shale, are present. In country where the soil is derived from 
sandstone rocks, Viminaria is limited, in most cases, to the banks of streams. 
But where the soil comes from weathered shale, and consequently has a higher 
water retaining capacity, Viminaria is often found in moderately sheltered 
positions remote from running water, even on slopes and hilltops. It is also 
quite commonly present along the margins of both freshwater and brackish 
swamps. 

Some Viminaria shrubs which came under observation grew on the banks of 
a stream in sandstone country; the soil there was porous and usually damp, but 
not saturated. From 17th June to 5th July, 1930, steady rain fell, a total of 870 
points being recorded. This caused the stream near which the Viminaria grew to 
overflow its banks, and the ground nearby became thoroughly saturated, and in 
places was under as much as six inches of slowly flowing water. The Viminaria 
plants remained in a flourishing state throughout the flooding. Their most 
conspicuous reaction to the change was the production by their roots, of short 
white breathing roots or pneumatophores. The photograph reproduced in Plate 
xxii, fig. 1, shows a small part of the flooded ground, and a number of the pneu- 
matophores can be seen rising above the surface of the water amongst seedling 
plants and clumps of reed. Since then pneumatophores have frequently been 
observed on plants growing in temporarily saturated soils. The reaction to the 
flooding is very rapid, and recognizable pneumatophores may be produced in three 
or four days. 

A 


392 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


Viminaria may also show another feature characteristic of some marsh plants 
when its root system remains submerged for a week or more. This is the produc- 
tion of secondary aerenchyma. In the case of plants which grow near swampy 
ground, secondary aerenchyma is regularly developed. But it is important to 
notice that pneumatophores are not produced by these plants unless the soil is 
quite saturated. 


GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 
a. Pneumatophores. 


Ie Elabite 

The root system of Viminaria is mainly shallow, whether the plant grows in 
moist or in wet soils. There are, as a rule, three or more main roots which grow 
practically horizontally at a depth of one to four inches below the surface of the 
soil. These roots give rise to branches of various sizes. The smaller ones ramify 
in all directions and are probably the main absorbing organs of the plant. The 
larger ones keep a more or less horizontal course, giving rise in their turn to 
smaller roots. Large Viminaria plants, especially those growing in well aerated, 
sandy soils, usually also have some deeply penetrating roots. 

As previously stated, pneumatophores are produced by a root system of 
Viminaria when the soil in which it is growing becomes saturated. These pneu- 
matophores are roots of spongy appearance and brittle nature, which develop 
from the beginning under almost aquatic conditions. In consequence they have, 
when mature, a structure quite different from that of roots which grow in well 
aerated soils. In habit they resemble to a remarkable degree the pneumatophores 
produced by some mangroves, though they lack the pneumatothodes present in 
those types. 

Classified on their habit, the pneumatophores of Viminaria are of two kinds, 
(1) upright, and (2) ‘“knee-bend”; and according to their mode of origin, the 
upright pneumatophores can be further divided into two classes, (a) primary, 
and (0) secondary. 

For the production of a primary upright pneumatophore the growing point 
of a horizontal root turns and grows upwards above the surface of the soil or 
water. When there is a length of 0-5 to 6 cm. of root projecting into the atmos- 
phere, growth ceases, the root-cap curls up and drops off, and various changes 
which will be discussed below, take place in the internal anatomy. The central 
pneumatophore (P) in Plate xxii, fig. 4, is a primary one, which has been broken 
off above the bend. Primary pneumatophores do not seem to be very common, the 
great majority of upright roots being secondary ones. 

Submerged horizontal roots give rise to laterals corresponding to the absorbing 
roots of plants growing in damp soil. If these laterals arise from the under side 
of the root, they grow out and downwards, and act as absorbing roots (Plate xxii, 
figs. 2 and 3, A). But those which originate from the upper side grow vertically 
upwards into the air, forming secondary upright pneumatophores which are indis- 
tinguishable superficially from primary ones. Plate xxii, figs. 2, 3 and 5, show 
upright secondary pneumatophores arising from horizontal roots. 

Mature pneumatophores occasionally produce lateral roots which also grow 
upwards into the atmosphere. This seems to be especially characteristic of the 
primary type. Plate xxii, fig. 4, shows the upper part of a primary pneumatophore 
with eight laterals growing up around it. In Plate xxii, fig. 5, the secondary 
upright root at the extreme right has produced one young lateral. Absorbing roots 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 393 


are also occasionally produced at the bases of primary and secondary pneu- 
matophores. 

The upright pneumatophore functions for a week or longer after reaching its 
full size; it then begins to wither away from the tip (see upright pneumatophores 
in Plate xxii, fig. 2), but the part under water still remains alive for a variable 
time. Should the water level recede after flooding, the upright roots collapse and 
die, since their delicate and unprotected tissues are unable to withstand desicca- 
tion. If, on the other hand, the water level should rise still further after an initial 
flooding, a mature pneumatophore cannot grow and keep pace with it, having lost 
the power of apical development. Under such circumstances it may give rise to 
secondary pneumatophores which grow up above the new water level. 

The second kind of pneumatophore, the ‘knee-bend” type, resembles in habit 
the breathing roots of the mangrove Aegiceras. It occurs exclusively as a modifica- 
tion of a horizontal root. Though by no means as common as the upright roots, 
this form is quite frequently met with, and seems to be commoner in saturated 
soils than water. For its formation, a horizontal root commences to grow 
upwards as if to form an upright root. But when it reaches the atmosphere, 
instead of continuing its upward course, the growing point turns and grows down 
again into the soil and there continues its original direction of growth (Plate xxii, 
figs. 2 and 3, K). 


Text-fig. 1.—Transverse section of a young root which has developed in a 
saturated soil. P.L., piliferous layer; C, cortex; HE, endodermis; P, pericycle; 
xX, xylem; Ph., phloem. x 150. 


Several ‘‘knee-bends” are occasionally found close together on the same root, 
and it is a frequent thing for a horizontal root to give rise to both upright and 
“knee-bend” pneumatophores. Several cases were observed (Plate xxii, figs. 2 
and 3) in which an upright pneumatophore grew out from the top of a “knee- 
bend”. It is likely in this case that, after the formation of the “knee-bend’’, a 
second flooding submerged it and stimulated the development of the upright root. 


ii. Internal anatomy. 
Text-figure 1 shows part of the transverse section of a young upright pneu- 
matophore at about the stage of the three at the left of Plate xxii, fig. 5. The 
structure is that of a typical dicotyledonous root. There is the usual central stele 


394 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


with 4- to 9-arch xylem, an unthickened endodermis and a fairly wide primary 
cortex of large rounded cells. A noticeable feature of the cortex is the presence 
of an unusually well developed system of intercellular spaces, especially in the 
middle cortex. The piliferous layer and one or two layers of cells below it are 
composed of smaller cells, and this band forms a fairly compact region on the 
outside of the young root. A young absorbing root, and the first 2 to 6 centi- 
metres of a horizontal root show, in transverse section, features essentially similar 
to those described for the young upright pneumatophore. Pneumatophores and 
horizontal roots subsequently become much modified, but an absorbing root retains 
this structure throughout its period of primary growth; only in one case was an 
absorbing root found which had developed a little aerenchyma at its base, and 
since this was similar to the tissue regularly developed by pneumatophores, it 
will not be described separately. 

In sections of slightly older pneumatophores, it is seen that the cells of the 
cortex have increased to as much as three times their original diameter in a 
radial direction. The intercellular spaces between them increase in both radial 


Text-fig. 2.—Transverse section of a young pneumatophore at a slightly more 
advanced stage than shown in Text-fig. 1. P.L., piliferous layer; R.H., root 
hair; F, fissure in tissue of cortex (C); E, endodermis. x 50. 


and tangential directions (see Text-figs. 2, 3). This increase is most marked in the 
middle cortex, where the cells pull apart and often assume X and Y shapes, with 
only the ends of the arms in contact. The cells of the compact outer layer do not 
increase much in size, and have evidently lost the power of division. This layer 
therefore becomes ruptured in numerous places by the pressure exerted by the 
extending cells below. These breaks often extend as fissures deep into the cortex. 
This process of aerenchyma formation proceeds gradually upwards from the base 
of a root towards the tip, and in mature pneumatophores air-spaces are present 
right to the apex, and the root-cap has broken away. 

Text-figure 2 shows an early stage in the development of aerenchyma in the 
young pneumatophore, the cortical cells have begun to extend, and the inter- 
cellular spaces are already quite large. A number of narrow fissures (F) are 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 395 


shown, and root hairs of a rudimentary appearance are present. A section 3-5-6 
em. from the apex of a horizontal root would show a structure similar to this. 

Text-figure 3 is part of a transverse section of a mature pneumatophore; it 
shows the final stage in the development of primary aerenchyma in the cortex. 

A mature upright pneumatophore is 0-5-1 cm. in diameter at its widest part, 
tapering towards the apex and often slightly towards the base also. Plate xxii, 
fig. 4, shows this feature well. In Plate xxii, fig. 5, the young pneumatophores on 
the left are still in the first stage of development, whilst the four at the right are 


Text-fig. 3.—Transverse section of a mature pneumatophore. P.L., piliferous 
layer; F, fissure in tissue of cortex (C); H, endodermis. x 40. 


mature and taper towards both base and apex. The horizontal roots remain of 
constant diameter (about 0-5 cm.), except towards the growing point, until the 
commencement of secondary growth (Plate xxii, fig. 5). The fissures seen in 
transverse section in the mature pneumatophore are visible externally as narrow 
slits of varying length (Plate xxii, figs. 3, 5). 


b. Secondary Aerenchyma. 


The upright pneumatophores and the larger “knee-bends” undergo no further 
development and finally die away, but secondary growth takes place in horizontal 
roots, and in those producing ‘“knee-bends” so short that they only reach the 
surface of the ground and do not come above it. 


Soon after cambial activity commences in the stele, a phellogen arises in the 
cells of the pericycle. Text-fig. 4 shows the first divisions taking place in the 
pericycle. When the soil in which the root is growing is moderately dry, cork 
cells are cut off externally in the usual way. But when the ground is flooded, cells 


396 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


are cut off externally whose walls remain unsuberised. These cells increase in 
length in a radial direction forming a secondary aerenchyma (Text-fig. 5, A). As 
a rule very little phelloderm is present, even in old roots. 

As the central stele enlarges with the addition of secondary xylem and 
phloem, pressure is exerted on the phellogen. This pressure causes the cells of 
the phellogen to stretch in a tangential direction (cf. tangential diameter of the 
cells of the phellogen in Text-fig. 4 which is very young, with those in Text-fig. 5 
which are much older) till finally the secondary aerenchyma cells cut off by them 
are not a great deal narrower than the cells of the primary aerenchyma. Once 
the cells of the phellogen have reached a maximum width, further increase in the 
size of the stele must be accommodated by tangential divisions in the phellogen. 


Text-fig. 4.—Portion of a transverse section of a horizontal root including the 
pericycle, endodermis (EF), and the innermost layers of the primary cortex (C). 
The phellogen (Ph.) is shown arising in the pericycle. x 150. 
Text-fig. 5.—Portion of a transverse section of an old horizontal root showing 
the secondary aerenchyma (A), arising from the phellogen (Ph.). x 150. 
Text-fig. 6.—Portion of a transverse section of an old horizontal root showing 
the development of secondary aerenchyma (A) below a layer of cork (C). 
Ph., phellogen. x 150. 

Text-fig. 7.—Portion of a transverse section of an old horizontal root showing 
the development of a thick layer of cork (C) below secondary aerenchyma (A). 
Ph., phellogen. x 150. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 397 


The cells in Text-fig. 5 are of full size and there is evidence of a tangential 
division having taken place at T. The cells cut off externally by the phellogen 
evidently elongate at once in a radial direction with great rapidity. Evidence of 
this is found in the small number of cells intermediate in size between those of 
the phellogen and the aerenchyma. 

The primary cortex and the outer secondary aerenchyma are pushed out, die 
and become brown, and fissures arise which are longer, deeper and more irregular 
than those of the primary pneumatophore. Usually they appear as winding 
furrows 3-5 cm. long; more rarely they are short and straight. 


Un , 
Tt 

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Tt 
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Se) 


ge. 
Sas 
LZ 
LEE 
CZ EE 
LAS 


NAN 
\) NAN 

LI XZEAIM 
A3. Xe, INGA. AN 


Md ph 
Ci Ph. 


Text-fig. 8.—Portion of a transverse section of the periderm of an old root 

showing the development of successive rings of cork of varying widths, and a 

large fissure. C1, C2, C3, successive rings of cork; Al, A2, A3, A4, successive 
bands of aerenchyma; Ph., phellogen. x 40. 


The cells of the secondary aerenchyma on the whole are slightly smaller 
than those of the primary cortex and, though they are arranged in regular rows 
end to end, there are fewer radial points of contact, so that the tissue as a whole 
is much less compact. 

It is evident that the formation of aerenchyma is dependent on the saturated 
condition of the soil, since flooding induces the formation of aerenchyma in old 
roots which had already developed a layer of cork when growing under conditions 
of better soil aeration. Text-fig. 6 shows a band of cork being thrust outwards by 
the development of thin-walled cells below it. Then again, when the soil becomes 
relatively dry after flooding, a band of cork is formed in roots which previously 


398 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


may have developed only secondary aerenchyma. In Text-fig. 7 the secondary 
aerenchyma is shown in the process of being cut off by a cork layer; it is in 
consequence brown and dead. 

One feature of the aerenchyma of some of the large horizontal roots is of 
particular interest as evidence of the extreme rapidity with which the plant 
reacts to a change in its environment; a puzzling condition was met with in 


Text-fig. 9.—Portion of a transverse section of the periderm of an old horizontal 
root. A cork layer (C) has just been cut off from the phellogen (Ph.). 
A, secondary aerenchyma. x 150. 

Text-fig. 10.—Portion of a transverse section of the periderm of an old horizontal 
root, showing the formation of aerenchyma (A2) below a cork layer (C). 
Ph., phellogen; Al, old secondary aerenchyma. x 150. 

Text-fig. 11.—Portion of a transverse section of the periderm of an old horizontal 
root showing the abrupt ending off of a cork layer at D. S, under side of root; 
A, secondary aerenchyma; C, cork layer; Ph., phellogen. x 150. 


sections of roots which had a large amount of secondary aerenchyma. At varying 
intervals the aerenchyma tissue was interrupted by layers of cork cells 1-8 or 
more cells in width (Text-fig. 8); their walls were evidently suberised, since they 
stained deeply in chlor-zine iodine, strong caustic potash, and Sudan III. It isa 
very conspicuous feature that there is little or no gradation either in the size of 
the cells comprising the two types of tissue, or in the amount of suberisation of 
their walls. The transition from one type of tissue to the other is extremely 
abrupt. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 399 


Text-figure 9 shows a cork band which has just been cut off from the phellogen, 
and is already suberised. Text-figure 10 shows the resumption of aerenchyma 
formation after a band of cork has been formed; at this stage the previously 
formed aerenchyma is already dead. Text-figure 8 is part of a transverse section 
of a wide periderm, and it shows a number of interesting features. There are 
three cork layers in the part shown; C2 and C3 are narrow, but Cl is nearly as 
wide as the cork formed on roots which have developed from the beginning in well 
aerated soil. Moreover these three layers are placed at very uneven distances 
apart. The aerenchyma zone A4 is so wide that it is already beginning to die 
from the outside, while A3 is much narrower, and A2 is narrower still. 

The distance between two cork rings is usually constant all the way round 
the root in any particular section (Text-fig. 12a), but occasionally one finds that 
the amount of aerenchyma between two cork layers is greater on the under side 
than on the upper, and where this is so, the part of the cork layer around the 
upper side of the root is slightly thicker than that around the lower side (Text- 
fig. 120). The transition from the narrow to the wide part may be gradual or 
sudden. Text-figure 13 is part of a transverse section of some periderm tissue 
showing a sudden transition; cork is still being formed on the upper side of the 
root, while aerenchyma is still being cut off on the lower side (S). In Text- 
figure 10, S indicates the under side of the root; the cork layer C which is con- 
tinuous over the upper half dies out at about D, and there is uninterrupted 
aerenchyma on the under side of the root (see also Text-fig. 12c). 

The significance of these cork layers and their irregularities will be discussed 
later. 


Text-fig. 12.—Diagrammatic representations of the transverse sections of old 
horizontal roots illustrating the development of cork rings. 12a@ shows concentric 
rings of cork Cl and C2 around the central stele (S) ; A, secondary aerenchyma.— 
126 shows a ring of cork which is much thicker on the upper side (U.C.) than 
on the lower side (L.C.). The aerenchyma (A) is thicker on the under side 
of the root, both inside and outside the cork ring. 12c shows a discontinuous ring 
of cork, over the top of the root only. These figures are, of necessity, much 
simplified. 


ce. Bunches of Secondary Roots. 


Another feature probably to be associated with saturation of the soil is the 
development on young growing roots of bunches of secondary roots (see Plate 
xxii, fig. 4, S). They are usually found just below the level of the ground, some- 
times pushing through to the surface, and a thorough search revealed their 
presence only in water-logged and submerged soil. They consist of many hundreds 
of small secondary roots which arise on a length of young growing root of 


400 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


usually not more than 5 centimetres. They are thin and unbranched, with small 
growing points, and have numerous root hairs. The growth period of these 
roots is very limited; having attained their maximum length of about 2 centi- 
metres they evidently function for a week to ten days and then die and rot away, 
leaving little trace on the exterior of the root which bore them. 


\ if 


Text-fig. 13.—Portion of a transverse section of the periderm of an old horizontal 
root showing the resumption of aerenchyma formation under a narrow band of 
cork (C) on the lower side (S) of a root, whilst cork is still being formed by 
the phellogen towards the upper side. Ph., phellogen; C, cork layer; Al, old 
aerenchyma; A2, newly formed aerenchyma. x 200. 


Their function remains obscure; it may be that they are organs of aeration 
similar in function to the pneumatophores, as their occurrence near to the surface 
of wet soil suggests. No trace of bacteria or fungi could be found in their 
tissues, and it is believed that their production is not due to stimulation by an 
endophyte. 

d. Bacterial Nodules. 

In Viminaria bacterial nodules arise in one of two ways. 

(1). Frequently young lateral roots arise from old roots which have already 
developed a fairly thick periderm; in the neighbourhood of the young root the 


Ph. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 401 


phelloderm is very much wider than elsewhere. The periderm is pushed up 
round the young root as it emerges from the old root, and forms a collar 2-3 mm. 
high around its base. Text-figure 14 represents diagrammatically a transverse 
section through part of an old root showing the emergence of a young root and 


Text-fig. 14.—Transverse section of an old root (R) showing the departure of 

a young lateral root (L). X, secondary xylem of main root; P, phloem; 

Ph., phellogen; A, secondary aerenchyma; V, vascular strand of lateral root; 
G, root cap of lateral root; S, phelloderm. 


Q. Cc. 


Text-fig. 15.—Shows the formation of bacterial nodules (N) at the base of a 
lateral root (L.). R, main root. a,c, x 1; b, x 2:5. 


the upward extension of the periderm around it. A very usual place for bacterial 
infection is in the phelloderm of this upward extending region (S in Text-fig. 14); 
the actual point of infection is probably the cortex of the young root above the 
phellogen, and the infection thread of bacteria probably travels down from there 
into the phelloderm, since it is unlikely that infection could take place across a 
thick layer of aerenchyma which frequently includes bands of cork. A nodule 
then develops, covered from the beginning by an active phellogen which, under 
conditions of soil saturation, gives rise to an extensive secondary aerenchyma. 


402 REACTION OF VIMINARTIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


The nodule, very soon after its initiation, develops vascular strands which become 
linked up with the vascular tissue of the young root. Text-figures 15a and 15b 
show nodules at the base of young lateral roots, and Text-figure 16 shows diagram- 
matically a transverse section through the base of a young root which has two 


Text-fig. 16.—Transverse section of the base of a young lateral root showing 

the development of two nodules within a common phellogen. V, vascular strands 

to nodules; EH, endodermis; A, secondary aerenchyma; Ph., pheJlogen; F, isolated 

fragments of aerenchyma pushed out by the growth of the nodules; G, growing 
point of nodule; B, bacterial region. 


Text-fig. 17.—Transverse section of a young root, showing the second method of 

nodule formation. EH, endodermis; A, secondary aerenchyma; Ph., phellogen of 

nodule; V, vascular strands to nodule; F, isolated fragments of primary 

aerenchyma; G, growing point of nodule; B, bacterial region; C, cortex of root; 
X, portion shown enlarged in Text-fig. 18. 


nodules within a common periderm. In the region of the growing point of the 
young nodule the phellogen loses its characteristic appearance and grades into the 
meristem region which consists of smaller, more isodiametric cells. 

Frequently, as shown in Text-figure 16, two or more nodules may commence 
to grow within a common periderm, and a large lobed nodule is finally formed at 
the base of the lateral root. This root never, apparently, reaches any great size, 
but soon dies back leaving a group of nodules whose mode of attachment to the 
root system is at first quite obscure (Text-fig. 15c). 

(2). In the second case the bacterial nodule commences in the usual manner 
after infection of the cortex of a young root. Cortical cells in the neighbourhood 
of the endodermis divide rapidly, pushing back the outer cortex. Very early in 
the formation of a nodule, usually before it has burst through the cortex, the 
cells around its edges begin to divide at right angles to its direction of growth. 
These peripheral cells are already much elongated by pressure exerted by the 
dividing cells within, and the new walls are laid down along their greatest 
diameter. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 403 


In this way a peripheral cambium zone is formed which, as soon as the 
nodule is free from the cortical tissues of the parent root, cuts off a secondary 
aerenchyma outside it. This dividing tissue is best regarded as a phellogen. It 
extends gradually down to the endodermis of the parent root, and finally joins 
up with a pericyclic phellogen developing later in the root. Text-figure 17 shows 
how this is accomplished. A phellogen arising in the pericycle of the root cuts off 
a considerable tissue of thin-walled cells, pushing out the endodermis in a position 
just below the phellogen of the nodule; a few cells of the endodermis lying between 
the two then divide tangentially, joining up the internal and external phellogens. 
Subsequently formed aerenchyma then clothes root and nodule without a break. 


Text-fig. 18.—Enlargement of square marked X in Text-fig. 17, to show the 

linking up of the phellogens of the root and the nodule by the division of endo- 

dermal cells at D, between the two. EH, endodermis; Ph., phellogen of nodule; 

B, base of nodule; P, pericycle of root dividing to form a _ phellogen; 
Ph.F., phloem fibres. x 250. 


There still exists in literature much doubt as to whether leguminous nodules 
are formed partly by the division of deep-seated cortical cells, or whether they are 
entirely intrastelic in origin. Thornton (1930) in a recent paper on the nodules 
of lucerne, expresses the opinion that both types are likely to occur. 

It is undoubtedly the case in Viminaria that at least that part of the nodule 
external to the vascular strands is cortical in origin, because in young nodules 
whose phellogen has not yet joined up with that of the root, the endodermis can 
still clearly be seen, intact, below the cells composing the outer cortical region of 
the nodule (Text-fig. 18). 


404 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL, 


A feature of a great majority of the nodules of Viminaria is that the vascular 
strands arise from two or even three separate protoxylem poles of the parent root. 
This characteristic does not seem to have been reported for any other type of 
leguminous plant. 


DISCUSSION. 
a. Negatively Geotropic Roots. 


Clements (1921, p. 38), in a comprehensive summary of literature dealing 
with root growth, has come to the conclusion that the development of negatively 
geotropic roots is a type of aerotropic response by plants grown under conditions 
of poor soil aeration due to the high water content. 

Cases of such root development are by no means rare: numbers of plants 
habitually develop pneumatophores; others which normally grow in well aerated 
soil, do so when the soil is saturated. The mangrove vegetation, which grows in 
saline, airless mud, includes the classic and most consistently pneumatophore- 
producing types. Sonneratia and Avicennia (Goebel, p. 278) produce such upright 
breathing roots; others, Aegiceras for example, have ‘“knee-bend”’’ pneumatophores. 
The phenomenon is not limited to Angiosperms: the Gymnosperm Taxodium 
distichum, when growing in saturated soils, develops short club-like upgrowths 
and “knee-bends” which are supposed to serve as breathing organs. In the fore- 
going examples the roots are fairly stout structures with an extensive develop- 
ment of secondary wood. 

Jost (1887, p. 601) describes the much less massive negatively geotropic roots 
produced by Cyperus, Richardia, Musa, and Papyrus, when grown in glasshouses, 
and believes that such breathing organs are widely distributed in the plant 
world. Several species of Jussiaea are also known to produce aerotropic rootlets. 

Other plants which do not produce definite pneumatophores, e.g., Alnus and 
Fraxinus develop instead an abundance of fine much branched roots near to the 
surface of the soil (Jost, 1887). Lately Weaver and Himmel (1930) have found 
that in water-logged soils, such marsh plants as Scirpus nodosus and Typha 
latifolia develop a large number of similar roots which grow upwards to the 
surface of the water, and there spread out widely and often branch profusely. 

Nothing is definitely known concerning the mechanism of aerotropic response; 
as yet one can only postulate that the absence of oxygen in some way overcomes 
the action of those stimuli which produce the characteristic geotropic and nega- 
tively heliotropic responses of most roots. 


b. Aerenchyma. 

A feature of the anatomy of breathing roots is the production of aerenchyma 
in their cortical regions. In fact, practically all plants growing under aquatic or 
semi-aquatic conditions show an extensive development of air spaces; and it is 
important to note that where there is a species or variety sufficiently adaptable to 
grow both on unsaturated land and under semi-aquatic conditions, in the latter 
case there is a much greater development of aerenchyma (Arber, p. 201). 

There are two main types of aerenchyma, and between them all possible inter- 
gradations are found (Arber, ch. xiv; Haberlandt, p. 441). In the first type the 
component cells are stellate with air spaces between the arms, in the second type 
the air spaces are developed between plates of rounded or rectangular cells. 

In Viminaria the aerenchyma is of an intermediate variety; the cells often 
show short arm-like prolongations, but the lamellar condition is also approached. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 405 


Again we are uncertain why there should be this reaction to conditions of 
more than adequate soil moisture and less than adequate soil oxygen. In this 
connection, it is of interest to note that Andrews and Beals (1919) in water 
culture experiments with Zea mais found that the roots of plants growing in 
unaerated media showed a greater development of intercellular spaces than those 
which grew in aerated media. This seems to point to diminished oxygen supply 
as being the important factor in the formation of air space systems. 


c. Secondary Aerenchyma. 


Secondary aerenchyma has been described in species of Jussiaea and in 
several leguminous plants, Neptunia oleracea and Sesbania. Scott (1888) has 
described the secondary aerenchyma developed by the aquatic roots of Sesbania 
aculeata as arising from a phellogen which originates by the division of cells 
immediately outside the endodermis, the first or second row of cortical cells. In 
Viminaria the phellogen originates in the normal fashion in the pericycle, and 
the endodermis is thrown off, together with the primary cortex, on the develop- 
ment of secondary tissue. 


Normally the walls of cork cells become impregnated with suberin soon after 
they are cut off from the phellogen. 


Priestley and Woffenden (1922) have come to the conclusion that the pre- 
liminary suberisation of cork cell walls is dependent on the presence of air; their 
experiments show that at least one of the constituents of suberin, phellonic acid, 
can be taken into solution readily enough, thus preventing suberisation of cell 
walls in contact with water. 


When phellogen activity takes place in a root of Viminaria it would appear 
likely that some of the constituents of suberin go into solution in the surrounding 
water, and the cell walls of the secondary tissue remain of unimpregnated cellu- 
lose and are therefore extensible. If, for a short while, the water level fell and 
the environment were temporarily drier, the fatty acids released from the proto- 
plasm of the young cork cells would undergo condensation in the absence of an 
excess of water, and cork layers of varying width would be formed according to 
whether the period of dryness were long or short. 


This explanation gains support from the irregularity with which the layers 
of cork sometimes arise. When, for instance, a ring of cork is thicker, and at the 
same time nearer to the phellogen on the upper side of a horizontal root than on 
the under side, and at the same time the aerenchyma of the ring outside the cork 
band is wider on the under side, that would indicate a slow fall in water level 
affecting first the uppermost phellogen derivatives and gradually extending its 
effect round to the lower ones. If the ring of aerenchyma within the cork band 
were thicker on the under side, that would indicate a slow rise in water level 
causing the formation of aerenchyma first on the lower side and then on the 
upper side of the root. Text-figure 13 indicates that an abrupt rise took place in 
water level to L, with consequent formation of aerenchyma in the lower part while 
in the upper part cork formation is still going on. The fluctuations in water level 
which would be necessary to produce these changes would be quite small. 


These results as thus interpreted lend support to Arber’s statement (p. 194) 
that the structure of secondary air containing tissues “is directly induced by 
environmental conditions, and their serving any purpose is to be regarded as quite 
fortuitous’’. 


406 REACTION OF VIMINARIA DENUDATA TO INCREASED WATER CONTENT OF SOIL. 


SUMMARY. 

1. Viminaria denudata Sm., a leguminous shrub growing normally in fairly 
well aerated soils, can survive a condition of soil saturation for extended periods; 
it reacts to these conditions in definite ways: a.—By the production of both upright 
and “knee-bend” pneumatophores or breathing roots, in whose parenchymatous 
tissue an extensive aerating system is present. 6.—By the production of a 
secondary aerenchyma in submerged roots which is cut off from a phellogen arising 
in the pericycle, replacing the cork layers of the normal root. 

2. Bacterial nodules may also have a covering of secondary aerenchyma 
except at their growing points. A nodule may arise in one of two ways: a—By 
the infection of secondary cortical tissue which is pushed up in a collar round the 
base of a young lateral root where it arises from its parent root. In this case the 
nodule is covered from the beginning by a secondary aerenchyma developed from 
the phellogen of the old root. b.—Normally by infection of the cortex of a young 
root. In this case a phellogen arising round the periphery of the growing nodule 
becomes continuous with that of the parent root by division of endodermal cells 
in a position just below the phellogen of the young nodule. 

3. Occasional rings of cork of varying width may occur between the zones 
of secondary aerenchyma in the secondary tissue developed from the phellogen; 
these are believed to be formed during periods of relatively less soil saturation. 


In conclusion, I wish to thank Professor Osborn, of the Department of Botany, 
University of Sydney, for the interest he has shown during the progress of the 
work, and for his helpful criticism. 


Literature Cited. 


ANDREWS, F. M., and Beraus, C. C., 1949.—The Effect of Soaking in Water and of 
Aeration on the Growth of Zea mais. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 46, pp. 91-100. 

ARBER, Agnes.—Water Plants. 

CLEMENTS, F. E., 1921.—Aeration and Air-Content. The Role of Oxygen in Root Activity. 
Carnegie Inst. Washington, Publication No. 315. 

GOEBEL, K.—Organography of Plants. Part ii, p. 278. 

HABERLANDT, G.—Physiological Plant Anatomy. 

Jost, L., 1887.—Hin Beitrage zur Kentniss der Athmungsorgane der Pflanzen. Bot. 
Zeitung, 1887, p. 601. 
PRIESTLEY, J. H., and WoOFFENDEN, Lettice M., 1922.—Physiological Studies in Plant 
Anatomy. V. Causal Factors in Cork Formation. New Phyt., xxi (5), p. 252. 
Scott, D. H., 1888.—On the Floating Roots of Sesbania aculeata Pers. Ann. Botany, i, 
p. 307. 

THORNTON, H. G., 1930.—The Early Development of the Root Nodule of Lucerne 
(Medicago sativa L.). Ann. Botany, xxiv (clxxiv), pp. 385-393. 

WerAvER, J. E., and Himmen, W. J., 1930.—Relation of Increased Water Content and 
Decreased Aeration to Root Development in Hydrophytes. Plant Physiology, V, 
pp. 69-92. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII. 


Fig. 1.—Upright pneumatophores of Viminaria denudata growing under natural 
conditions. 

Figs. 2, 8.—Horizontal roots with ‘“knee-bend’ pneumatophores (K), upright 
secondary pneumatophores (P), and absorbing roots (A). 

Fig. 4.—Upper part of a primary upright pneumatophore (P), with lateral pneu- 
matophores (P.L.), and young bunches of secondary roots (S). 

Fig. 5.—Horizontal root with upright secondary pneumatophores (P), of which the 
three on the left are the younger, the pneumatephore on the extreme right has given rise 
to a young lateral (P.L.). 

Fig. 1 x 4 approx.; figs. 2-5 x 2. 


Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XXII. 


Viminaria denwdata.—Pneumatophores and horizontal roots. 


NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MARINE ALGAE. VI. 
DESCRIPTIONS OF SIX NEW SPECIES. 
By A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. 
(Plates xxiii-xxvii.) 


[Read 28th October, 1931. ] 


GELIDIUM RECTANGULARE, n. sp. Plate xxiii, fig. 1. 


Gelidium, caule compresso distiche pinnate decomposito, ramis bipinnatis 
elongatis; pinnulis rectangulariter emergentibus a margine pinnae, oppositis 
pectinatis linearibus rigidis, a marginibus foliola tetrasporangifera minuta seriata 
ferentibus. Caulis filis interioribus dense farctus. Color. obscure purpurascens. 

Base scutiform, disk with a plexus of lobes spreading ever the rock surface. 

Stem compressed, about 2 mm. wide, naked in lower third or with scattered 
irregular branchlets, above with long spreading distichously spreading branches. 
Height of plant to 30 cm. or more. Rami flat distichously bipinnate. Ultimate 
pinnules numerous, opposite, pectinate, arising from the margins of the pinna at 
right angles, rigid, about 5 mm. long, linear, more or less obtuse. 

Tetrasporangia scattered over median area of tiny folioles springing in series 
from the margins of the ultimate pinnules. Folioles distinctly pedunculate 
irregularly ovate-oblong, not longer than the diameter of the pinnule. 

Stem composed of two layers, the inner three-fifths of fine colourless fibres, 
longitudinal and oblique, densely packed, including in the meshes occasional 
coloured cells and granulated branches, the outer of densely packed rounded 
coloured cells in more or less regularly vertical series, the outermost minute. 

Colour dark purpurascent. 

Structure rigid cartilaginous. Does not adhere to the paper. 

Habitat—Flinders Bay near Cape Leeuwin (Lucas) and Point Le Hunt, and 
Clare Bay at the head of the Great Australian Bight (Dr. G. A. Chambers). 

In the absence of plants bearing cystocarps one has to rely on the habit in 
assigning this species to Gelidiuwm rather than to Pterocladia. Both genera occur 
in Australian waters. 

At first I thought that I had in hand plants of G. asperum (Mert.) J. Ag. I 
sent specimens to Prof. H. Kylin, who courteously compared them with those so 
labelled in the Agardhian Herbarium at Lund. He has informed me that “‘it is 
not at all G. asperum J. Ag., which has quite another habitus. I think it to be a 
new species.” 

The habitat of the genuine G. asperum (Mert.) J. Ag. seems to be somewhat 
mysterious. De Toni gives “In oceano Australi ad Novam Hollandiam (Labil- 
lardiere); ad ‘Port St. Philippe’ (Malm); ad Novam Zelandiam (Baume).” There 
are no examples of it in the Melbourne Herbarium, which contains Sonder’s 
Herbarium and Bracebridge Wilson’s collections, nor have I ever seen it on my 
own collecting expeditions. R. M. Laing does not admit it into his Reference List 
of New Zealand Algae, and writes me that he knows nothing of it in New Zealand. 
Can it be, as De Toni suggests, a form of G. glandulaefolium? He says: “Planta 

B 


408 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MARINE ALGAE. Vi, 


fertilis in parte sterili nullos denticulos offert sed partes inermes etiam in sterili 
planta adsunt. Fertilis ad Gelidium glandulaefolium summopere adproximatur 
nisi cum eo eandem speciem sistit.” 


PTEROCLADIA PECTINATA, h. sp. Plate xxiii, fig. 2. 

I forwarded sterile examples of this plant to Mrs. E. S. Gepp of the British 
Museum, and it was described in the Journal of Botany, 1906, by A. and HE. S. 
Gepp. In my notes accompanying the specimens I wrote “Only obtained from 
deeper water when cast up by storms. I am inclined to put it down as a deeper 
growing, vegetative form of P. lucida. As far as I can make out, the structure of 
the frond is similar.’ This view was accepted by the Gepps, and the plant 
described by them as Pterocladia lucida (R. Br.) J. Ag. 


“Forma pectinata, f. nov. Fronde compressa anguste elongata distiche a basi 
pectinato-pinnata (alioqui parce ramosa ramis pectinatis) ramulos copiosos 
patentes lineares acuminatos inter sese spatiis latitudini eorum aequalibus 
separatos gerente.”’ 

Having some years later gathered plants in the same locality bearing cysto- 
carps, I would add to the above 

frondibus cystocarpiferis sterilibus similibus, pinnulis cystocarpia terminalia 

ferentibus 
and the whole will constitute the description of a new species, Pterocladia 
pectinata. 

These cystocarps are quite unlike those of P. lucida, which are formed in the 
middle of the pinnules, while those in this form are terminal. 


The cystocarps, too, of P. pectinata contain large spores, while those of 
P. lucida enclose much branched slender gonimoblastic threads bearing at the 
extremities of the branches minute spores. Hence it seems necessary to give to 
this “form” the status of a distinct species. 


My idea that the elongated slenderer plants were vegetative was disproved 
by the occurrence of plants distinguishable from the sterile plants only by the 
presence of numerous, all terminal, cystocarps. 


Habitat—Maroubra Bay on an ocean beach between Port Jackson and Botany 
Bay. Found by me cast up in the month of July, 1901 and 1910. 


Professor Kylin, to whom I recently sent an example, writes me: ‘Your 
Pterocladia lucida, I think, is better to describe as a new species. In J. G. 
Agardh’s Herbarium there is a specimen which quite agrees with yours, but this 
is labelled as a variety of Pt. lucida and does not look like the type forms.” 


NITOPHYLLUM (MyYRIOGRAMME?) PERRINAE, n. sp. Plate xxiv. 


Stipites gregarii, e disco parvulo surgentes, robusti, subcylindracei sensim 
compressi, mox in 2-6 ramos primarios abeuntes. Inferior pars rami, ut in 
stipite, nuda, robusta, sensim compressa, in folium transiens, vel in duo pluresve 
similes ramos secundarios ipsos in folia transientes divisa. Folia ad 12 cm. alta, 
4 ad 10 cm. lata, late ovata, querciformia, undulata, profunde lobata, tenuiter 
membranacea. Apices loborum rotundata, obtusa; margines integri vel irregu- 
lariter minute dentati; costa prominens nervos validos pluries subdivisos in 
membranam mergentes emittens; membrana plerumque monostromatica. Cellulae 
membranae subaequales pentagonales, nervorum elongatae rectangulares. Neque 
eystocarpia nec tetrasporangia adhuc visa. Frons ad 15 em. altus. Color roseus. 


BY A. H. 8S. LUCAS. 409 


Attachment.—Plants growing in clumps, each stipe with an unexpanded 
simple disk at the base. 

. Stipes.—Stout, subcylindrical, gradually compressed, 8-11 mm. long, to 3 cm. 
broad, soon dividing into 2-6 divergent primary rami. 

Rami.—Primary stout, similar to stipes, becoming gradually compressed, the 
lower 3 cm. naked, then forming a foliar expansion or again dividing into two or 
more flattened secondary branches. Each ultimate branch passes sensibly into 
an ovate folium. 

Frond.—Folia to 12 cm. long, 4 to 10 cm. wide, broadly ovate, querciform, 
deeply lobed with undulate borders, thin membranaceous, of a rose-carmine 
colour. Apices of lobes rounded, obtuse. Margins nearly entire or with small 
irregular teeth. Midrib tough, broad below, narrowing upwards, flesh-coloured, 
giving off numerous nerves or branches which continue to subdivide by alternate 
not dichotomous branching, the ultimate divisions merging in the membrane. 
Cells roughly pentagonal, those of the nerves elongate rectangular. 

No cystocarps or tetrasporangia seen. Height of plant to 15 cm. 

Habitat.—Growing on rocky bottom at 4-8 fathoms in the River Tamar, near 
Georgetown. Gathered in January by Mrs. F. Perrin and A. H. S. Lucas. 

Dedicated to my co-worker, Mrs. F. Perrin, of Launceston, Tasmania. 


CHAMPIA INSIGNIS, n. sp. Plate xxv, fig. 1. 


Frondes singulae vel plures ad lapillos et conchas disco lobato affixae, in 
circuitu late ovatae, compressae, bi-tri-pinnatae. 

Rachis primaria. basi valde attenuata, in medio expansa, sensim in apicem 
obtusiusculam attenuata, per totam frondem conspicue persistens, ad 18 cm. longa, 
ad 5 mm. lata. 

Rami primarii basi tenuiter pedunculati, compressi, distiche alternantes, 5-6 
mm, .distantes, in apicem minus obtusam attenuati. Dissepimenta conspicua; 
articuli diametro breviores, ramulosum subaequales, ad genicula, nisi plantae 
fructiferae, haud conspicue constricti. 

Cystocarpia supra paginas sparsa. Tetrasporangia triangule divisa, numerosa, 
sparsa, circ. 80 u diametro. Antheridia invisa. Color laete purpureus. Substantia 
gelatinoso-succosa: planta ad chartam arcte adhaeret. 

Hab. in aestuario fluminis Derwent Tasmaniae, in mense Octobri. 

Fronds growing singly or in clusters attached to pebbles or shells by a lobed 
disk; of a broadly ovate outline, compressed, bi-tri-pinnate, the main rachis 
conspicuously persistent. 

Rachis attenuated at base, expanding and then contracting again less markedly 
to the rather obtuse apex. Length to 18 ecm., breadth to 5 mm. 

Primary branches alternate, distichous, 5-6 mm. distant, with a thin linear 
peduncle, expanded in the middle and slowly tapering to a more pointed apex. 

Length to 10 cm., breadth 3-5 mm. Length of secondary branches to 2 cm. 

Dissepiments conspicuous. Joints of rachis and primary branches shorter 
than broad, of secondary about as long as broad, not conspicuously constricted at 
the genicula, more obviously so in fruiting plants. 

Cystocarps scattered on the faces of the secondary branches, not numerous 
in plants seen. Tetrasporangia triangularly divided, scattered abundantly over 
the secondary and tertiary branches. 

Colour a bright purple. Substance gelatinous succose; plant adheres closely 
to paper. j 


410 NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN MARINE ALGAE. Vi, 


Habitat.—Hstuary of the River Derwent, Tasmania. Gathered in the month 
of October. 

The species is distinguished from C. tasmanica by the much larger scale of 
the parts, its more open spacing and the bright purple colour. 


LESSONIA CORRUGATA, Nl. Sp. 

Stipes inferne subteres, mox complanatus, superne planus, plerumque sexieno 
dichotome ramosus, infra dichotomias cuneatim dilatatus, ramulis ultimis laminas 
geminatas ferentibus. Vesiculae nullae. Laminae planae angustae praelongae 
lineari-ensiformes, inferne superneque attenuatae, conspicuis costis rugulosae, 
margine aculeis alternis robustis munito. Color olivaceus. 

A robust bushy plant with strong scutiform attachment growing in associa- 
tion with Mucrocystis on a rocky bottom. The stipes, not stouter than the little 
finger, subterete below but soon becoming compressed and then broadening and 
flat, subdividing by some half-dozen dichotomies, the last branches splitting into 
twin laminae. There is a cuneate widening of the stem below each dichotomy. 
There are no vesicles. The laminae are attenuated at each end, 3 feet or more 
long, and less than an inch wide, linear-ensiform, the surface conspicuously 
rugose with parallel longitudinal ribs, five or more in number, running the length 
of the frond, and the margin furnished with alternate stout flattened hooked 
aculei, 5 mm. long, with broad bases. The colour olive, often with a greenish 
tinge. 

No Leéssonia has been hitherto recorded from Australia or Tasmania. Our 
species is quite unlike the New Zealand species L. variegata J. Ag. Mr. R. M. 
Laing, to whom I submitted a specimen, writes me: ‘‘We have nothing like it.’ 
Our plant differs from all others previously described by the strongly ribbed 
surface and the well-developed stout marginal prickles. 

I obtained the plant by dredging in 4-5 fathoms in Port Arthur, and gathered 
younger ones in deep rock pools at Southport. It probably occurs all round the 
South Coast of Tasmania. 


CAULERPA ANNULATA, n. sp. Plate xxvii, fig. 1. 

Frondes a surculo repente, continuo, glabro, satis robusto nec rachidibus 
crassiore, erectae. 

Rachides ad 17 cm. altae, simplices vel semel bisve furcatae, 3-4 mm. crassae, 
omnino a basi ima annulato-constrictae, glabrae. Segmenta ramentis geminis sub- 
apice surgentibus, distiche positis, a basi induta. 

Ramenta lineari-cylindracea, 7-9 mm. longa, diametro circiter 3 mm., sessilia 
basi constricta, apicibus rotundis obtusissimis, glaberrima, obscure viridia. 

Surculus continuous, terete, rather stout but not thicker than the rachides of 
the assimilators, of the thickness of a crow’s quill, quite glabrous. 

Assimilators erect to 17 cm. high, simple or once or twice forked, with a 
tendency to give off rooting branches, as is the case with ©. cactoides and 
C. Fergusonii, the rachides about 3-5 mm. thick, glabrous, from the very base 
regularly annulate-constricted into segments as broad as long with rounded 
contours, bearing distichously pinnate ramenta. 

Ramenta rising from just below the apex of each segment, geminate, linear- 
cylindrical, 7-9 mm. long, about as broad as the rachis, with round, blunt, scarcely 
dilated apices, constricted at the base, all conspicuously glabrous and dark green. 

The species clearly belongs to the Section Cactoideae, with ©. cactoides, 
C. Hodkinsoniae from the Richmond River of northern New South Wales, Harvey’s 


Proc. Linn. Soc. 


N.S.W., 1951. 


PLATE XXIII. 


sp. 


Pterocladia pectinata, n. 


sp. 


Gelidiwm rectangulare, n. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XXIV. 


Nitophyllum Perrinae, n. sp. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


PLATE XXV. 


Caulerpa Cliftoni Harvey. 


sp. 


Champia tmsigiis, n. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


é 
E 
u 
0) 
or 
< 
conn SEE > 
S 
* 
2» 
= 
S 
S 
= 
a} 


WILSON 


BRIDGE 


t 


Collacted by J. BRACE 


PLATE XXVI. 


Ag. 


Dictyota alternifida J. 


Ag. 


Dictyota bifurea J. 


PLATE XXVII. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


“AVAIVE DIDINIYAD DALaINDO 


Cm - 


‘ds 


uU DIDINUWUY DdwaInyDyO 


BY A. H. S. LUCAS. 411 


C. articulata (Pl. xxvii, fig. 2) from the eastern coast of the North Island of New 
Zealand and G. Murray’s C. Fergusonii from Ceylon. 

It differs from C. cactoides, widely distributed in the southern half of Aus- 
tralia and in Tasmania, in the magnitude of the parts, the rachides not naked at 
the base, the conspicuously distichous habit, and the linear not clavo-obovate 
ramenta. 

We have no examples of J. Agardh’s C. Hodkinsoniae in Australian Herbaria. 
He, however, describes it as decompound-branching, the joints cylindraceous, 3-4 
times longer than the diameter, and the ramenta cylindraceous-clavate and sub- 
petiolate. 

I thought at first that the plant might be identical with C. articulata, a species 
collected but only rarely in New Zealand, but Mr. R. M. Laing very kindly loaned 
me a fine specimen, and later procured another for me from Lyall Bay. In these 
the surculus is very slender and the whole plant more delicate than ours, the 
joints are not rounded but linear, somewhat dilated anteriorly, and the colour a 
light green. To illustrate the differences, Plate xxvii shows photographs of the 
twe species side by side. 

C. Fergusonii, figured and described by Murray (Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 
1891), has ovate ramenta, rhachis terete below, and a stout surculus. It is much 
more closely related to C. cactoides, and has, in fact, been regarded by Grunow 
as a smaller variety of that species. 

The plant has been found so far only in the outer waters of Port Arthur. 
Mrs. Perrin and I dredged a fragment in 5 or 6 fathoms in February. Other 
specimens were obtained for me in the same locality by Mr. E. Mawle in September. 
Like C. articulata, it appears to grow only in water of moderate depth. 


I take the opportunity of giving photographs of three species not heretofore 
figured: 
Caulerpa cliftoni Harv. (Plate xxv, fig. 2), identified with C. Abies-marina 
J. Ag. by Madame Weber van Bosse, from Pt. Lonsdale, Victoria. 
Dictyota bifurca J. Ag. (Pl. xxvi, fig. 1) and D. alternifida J. Ag. (Pl. xxvi, 
fig. 2), from named specimens in the National Herbarium, Melbourne, by 
the courtesy of the Director. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXIII-XXVII. 
Plate xxiii. 

1.—Gelidium rectangulare, n. sp. 

2.—Pterocladia pectinata, n. sp. 


Plate xxiv. 
Nitophyllum Perrinae, n. sp. 


Plate xxv. 
1.—Champia insignis, n. sp. 
2.—Caulerpa Cliftoni Harv. = C. Abies-marina J. Ag. 


Plate xxvi. 
1.—Dictyota bifurca J. Ag. 
2.—Dictyota alternifida J. Ag. 


Plate xxvii. 


1.—Caulerpa annulata, n. sp. 
2.—Caulerpa articulata Harvey. 


The dimensions are given by the side scale of 3 cm. 


' THE PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. IV. ~ 
NERRIGA. 


By Frank A. CrArt, -B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 
(Plates xxviii-xxix; four Text-figures. ) 
aca 28th October, 1931. ] 


~ Foreword.—This paper. is designed to give a detailed physiographic survey of 
an ‘area where horizontal and folded rocks exist side by side under varying 
conditions, and to determine their relationship to the land forms developed. The 
physiographic history of part of the tableland is further dealt with, and it has 
been possible to date the various features with reference to late Tertiary basalt. 
This should be of assistance in areas of a similar type where such a key is not 
found. The magnetic meridian (trigonometrical survey declination 9° 30’) is 
used in the text and maps, which are based on the parish and county maps kindly 
supplied by the Lands Department. 


wy 
S) 
3 
x 


BUDAWANG 


a Trig. Stations 


Text-fig. 1—Map of the Area, showing the principal names used. 
See also Plate xxviii. 
The Area Dealt With.  Text-figs. 1 and 3. 


When standing on one of the clear hills near the head of Corang River, an 
observer may see the area described in this paper to be part of a wide upland plain 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 413 


stretching far to the west until it is broken by long meridional ridges, which are 
vague and shadowy in the distance. The Shoalhaven River flows over this table- 
land to plunge into the gorges of its lower course. Hastward, the plain rises into 
irregular ridges and buttes which, in their turn, give place to the even heights of 
Bulee Ridge and its southern extension—Sassafras Range. The higher areas form 
the crest of a tilted plain which rises from the coast; the eastward slope is a 
wilderness of narrow ravines carved by tributaries of the Clyde and lower Shoal- 
haven Rivers, but these lie beyond the scope of the present enquiry, which is 
concerned with the westward fall from the coastal highlands and with part of 
the great upland plain. 


Geology and Resistance to Hrosion. Text-fig. 2. 
The geological features which have been noted in the earlier papers of the 
Series continue into this area, although their relative extent and importance are 
found to change as one goes southward. For example, the horizontal Permian 


l g [Pové? ca MILES 


EDrift 

OMasalt Tertiary 
C&)Quartzite 

ESUpper Marine—Permian 


CJLower Palaeozoic 


Text-fig. 2.—Geological Sketch of the Area. Devonian beds probably occur in 
the south-east of the portion marked ‘lower Palaeozoic’’. 


sandstones have determined many of the physical features of the Nerriga district, 
but they end against the northern flank of Currockbilly Range, which is formed of 
older quartzites. A general physiographic classification may be made on the basis 
of age, as follows: ; 
Tertiary.—There is a considerable extent of stream gravels and drift between 
1,650 and 2,050 feet. As in the Nerrimunga Creek area, these deposits fill valleys 
which had been eroded in the upland (Shoalhaven) plain, and they extend over 
part of that surface in the vicinity of the main stream. The more northerly occur- 


414 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv, 


rences are similar to those which have already been described, but southward one 
finds the fine clays replaced by grit, and grits by pebble beds. Included in the 
series are clays containing plant remains, presumably of late Tertiary age, but it 
has not yet been possible to have a determination made. 

Basalt flows have been associated with the drifts, and considerable portions 
of them remain in the valley of Endrick River, whence they extend over low parts 
of the sub-divide on to the Corang drainage area. There the past extent is 
indicated by the presence of grey contact quartzites, which are found scattered 
over the sandy uplands between 1,900 and 2,060 feet. The disappearance of so 
much basalt can be attributed to pre-erosional weathering and the removal of 
soluble products after erosion of the more recent valleys and gorges had com- 
menced. The hard and chemically inactive quartzites survive the basalt, and in 
places protect the friable drift which underlies them. Much of the late Tertiary 
landscape is still in a good state of preservation. 

Permian.—The Upper Marine Series is present in the eastern part of the area; 
it consists of light grey and reddish sandstone with occasional bands of con- 
glomerate and erratics, and rests on layers of agglomerate, heavy conglomerate 
and breccia. The strata are almost horizontal and have a maximum thickness of 
700 feet between Bulee Brook and Corang Trig. station. They contain a great 
number of marine fossils at various levels, and impure alum in certain con- 
glomerate bands. Jensen has indicated a glacial origin for some of the pebbles and 
erratics. 

As on Bulee Ridge, the massive nature of these rocks combines with their 
widely-spaced jointing to give a formation which is very resistant to erosion. 
Meridional and transverse joints are developed, but as many of them are irregular, 
they are widened only gradually by erosion. But master joint planes do exist, and 
they are responsible for straight lines of precipices where an underlying weak 
stratum is being weathered away. For this reason, the valleys in the sandstone 
country are hemmed in by inaccessible cliffs, and outliers of the series generally 
take the form of mesas. 

Older Palaeozoic.—The metamorphic formation of grey slates, quartzites and 
schists is exposed in the deeper valleys and gorges. It is a continuation of the 
Ordovician beds first noticed at Tallong, and it grades upward into little-altered 
sandstones, shales and fissile slates, which occur on the Shoalhaven Plain. These 
rocks have all been greatly folded; sections exposed in stream beds, in road and in 
mining cuttings near Welcome Reefs reveal the presence of wedges of softer rock 
breaking the continuity of the folded strata. Small drag faults are common; there 
is a great number of quartz veins and reefs exposed on the upland surface, and 
their erosion from higher and very ancient levels has given the quartz-breccias 
which occur at Meangora Trig. and on Colombago Creek. The reefs contain a little 
gold—a fact which has led to a great deal of profitless mining, as the veins and 
reefs generally cut out within 300 feet of the present surface. Despite the great 
folding and displacement of these strata, no regional faults or shatter zones have 
yet been disclosed. 

Passing eastward from the Shoalhaven, a series of white and reddish quartzites 
and sandstones is met with in the vicinity of Nerriga, with the meridional strike 
common to all of the older rocks in this locality. These are marked as Devonian 
on the State geological map, but I do not know of any definite evidence to confirm 
the supposition. Red slates are seen at the junction of Endrick River and 
Colombago Creek, and these are associated with massive white quartzites which 
dip eastward at high angles, and can be traced southward to the heights of 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 415 


Currockbilly and Budawang Trigs. Jensen refers to great anticlines in this latter 
mass, which he takes to be of upper Devonian age, and which is probably a north- 
ward continuation of beds of that age on Clyde Mountain. 

The white quartzites appear to be the equivalent of similar beds found to the 
west of Bungonia and Marulan, and between Lithgow and Goulburn. In this area 
they determine certain surface features in the upper Endrick and Corang valleys, 
and they rise southward to form the dominating features of that landscape. Where 
Permian strata rest on the main ridge of the harder rocks, the passage beds are 
agglomerates containing huge masses of quartzite. These give place to con- 
glomerates of decreasing coarseness, and to still higher grits and sandstones. 

As we have found elsewhere, topography has been determined largely by 
resistance to weathering and erosion. The higher surface features are of quartzite 
or horizortal sandstone, whilst the Shoalhaven Plain is developed in less resistant 
strata. These have weathered to a depth of 200 to 300 feet, and give rounded forms 
when subjected to erosion. The hard rocks exposed in the gorges hinder down- 
cutting, but they rise to the tableland level (2,000 feet or more) in very few places. 
Both the Tertiary basalt and drift are weak formations; the basalt has largely 
succumbed to chemical weathering, whilst the drift is readily eroded by running 
water. 


Topography and Physiography. 

1. Sassafras Range.—In Australian maps the term “range’’ denotes a water 
parting irrespective of its shape or origin. Sassafras Range is an area of table- 
land separating the Shoalhaven Valley from the coastal slopes, and having an even 
surface between 2,500 and 2,650 feet above sea-level. It bears a close resemblance 
to its northern extension, Bulee Ridge, but towards the south a different type of 
landscape is met at the head of Corang River, where the highest points rise above 
2,800 feet and the name “Budawang Range” is first applied. 

The eastern fall from the horizontal sandstones of Sassafras Range is by a 
steep monocline to 1,700 feet, whence a gentler slope leads almost to sea-level. The 
tableland itself has a maximum width of eight miles, and presents a remarkably 
even skyline when viewed from similar heights at a slight distance. Its surface 
is broken by rocky terraces on which there are extensive swamps, as the formation 
is impervious, and cold moist winters favour the accumulation of peaty material. 
There are areas of moorland on the exposed western section, but the drier: places 
and those with richer soil are forested, and the abundance of sassafras trees on 
voleanic soil has given the tableland its name. 

An area of basalt occurs on the crest and the eastern fall of the plateau; its 
extent is limited, and its thickness not much in excess of 100 feet. Jensen (1908) 
associated it with the monocline and faulting into which that feature may have 
developed, and ascribed a late Tertiary age to it. The great dissection of the 
slopes combines with irregular bedding in the sandstones to make observation 
a difficult matter, but the basalt is a local occurrence, and has had no surface 
connection with the flows of the Endrick Valley, although it antedates the 
existing eastward fall. 

The western side of this higher tableland is an erosion scarp 600 feet high, but 
broken remnants of a former extension are found on the western side of Endrick 
River. The scarp is surmounted by precipices up to 200 feet high, formed as the 
result of long-continued sapping of the massive upper sandstones. Long sections 
of the cliffs are quite unbroken, but in places where the joints are closer, 
weathering has produced some fine monuments. Major joints have been widened 

Cc 


416 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv. 


in places to give narrow gulches and these, with occasional broken corners, form 
the only means of access to the tableland. The most notable break is that point 
used by the Nowra road, where the sandstones are thin and considerably weathered. 

Following this scarp from Vines Creek northward, its height and difficulty are 
found to decrease with the thinning of the horizontal rocks. At Bulee Brook these 
are found as low as 1,900 feet, but on the Nowra road the base has risen to 2,150 
feet, and the higher part of the older surface on which they were deposited 
continues northward past Coolumburra Creek until a cross-ridge is reached which 
runs westward to the junction of the Shoalhaven and Endrick Rivers. Here the 
sandstones are again found as low as 1,900 feet, but still further north the base 
rises to Touga Trig. station. The breaking down of this scarp gives a false 
impression of lowness to the tableland when it is viewed from the hills about 
Nerriga, and there are few points from which the fine massiveness of the southern 
portion can be appreciated. 


|\ ss OOS SES 
ay i] ds ay ih 


ny 
fl 


ay 
A 


; Og on 
OS 


Text-fig. 3—Block Diagram of the Area. Note the change in land forms as one 
goes westward from the horizontal sandstones, and the entrenchment of the 
Shoalhaven and Endrick Rivers. 


The streams run parallel to the major joints, of which the meridional have 
had the most marked effect in determining stream courses. Deep and narrow 
ravines are found on the eastern slopes, but the Shoalhaven Plain has acted as a 
base-level of erosion for the western side, thus limiting the depth of those valleys. 
However, the heads of these in the higher tableland are narrow and difficult of 
access, and the streams which pass through them from the upland swamps fall to 
the broad valley of the Endrick by a series of cascades over low precipices. 

The western fall was described as a fault-scarp by Jensen—a view which I 
took to be correct after making a hurried visit in 1927. It is, however, a normal 
erosion scarp of considerable age, and its relatively unbroken nature is due to the 
extreme slowness of erosion in the massive tableland block. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 417 


Valley of Endrick River. Plates xxviii, xxix; Text-figs. 3 and 4. 


The main stream rises at Sassafras and breaks through the western scarp to 
flow in a wide valley partly filled with basalt. The head of this valley is directly 
east of Endrick Trig., and its upper slopes are of basalt which has come from a 
low part of the divide between 2,300 and 2,400 feet, and has poured down a 
widening valley between perpendicular cliffs, lying 400 to 800 yards apart. There 
is a further expansion when the main stream is reached, and the Endrick flows 
for a short distance in a level channel, with basalt on the right and swampy 
terraces of horizontal sandstone to the left. Small waterfalls carry it below this 
local plain level, and thereafter its course is in a shallow trench eroded in basalt 
and in the older rocks. Alteration of the horizontal sandstones at the 2,000-foot 
level shows that the basalt once extended to the present left bank of the river, 
and even now a small patch is found on this side immediately above the junction 
of Sally Creek. 

There are great bays in the cliffs to the right where valleys of a triangular 
plan indent the tableland, but erosion on the left has been far more destructive, 
and now only isolated relics of the original surface remain. From this side two 
large affluents are received—Sally and Colombago Creeks—both of which drain 
extensive Swamps. 

The valley of Sally Creek is a mile wide, and branches penetrate the higher 
country. Isolated tablelands or large mesas are found to the east, but there has 
been greater reduction to the west, where sections of the divide have been consider- 
ably lowered. A notable gap is found in the Clyde watershed immediately south 
of Endrick Trig., where swamps rise from either side into a level col at 2,300 feet. 
In this locality Sally Creek falls rapidly across quartzite bars, which mark the 
end of its upper swamps at 2,200 feet. On the downstream side there is more 
horizontal sandstone, and the gentle, swampy course is resumed until the stream 
turns slightiy eastward to pass into a shallow quartzite gully, which is followed to 
the Endrick. 

The course of Colombago Creek is similar, but the absence of high-level 
swamps from its drainage area is reflected in a smaller volume, and the cliffs of 
its western divide are low and broken. Its valley is wider than that of Sally 
Creek, and the older sandstones and quartzites which form the lower levels are 
rough and ridgy. 

Continuing along the Endrick, an area of sandy and basalt terraces is entered. 
A wide tributary valley from the west heads against Nodgengutta swamps, and on 
the east is the valley of Bulee Brook, hemmed in by cliffs. As the Nowra road is 
passed the basalt slopes become wider and gentler, but the stream follows a level 
course through them in a steep-sided trench 150 feet deep, from which it falls into 
a gorge by a series of cataracts. 


The lower part of the valley is marked by the recession of the scarp to the 
east and by the approach of a level ridge from the west, which divides the Endrick 
from the Shoalhaven. A dissected and undulating terrace is found between 1,700 
and 1,900 feet: drift occurs on the Shoalhaven side between 1,650 and 1,900 feet, 
and some of its extends to the edge of the Hndrick gorge. On the ridge leading to 
the junction of the streams, sand and grit have been altered to grey quartzite at 
1,840 feet, and give an outcrop 40 yards wide. Similar material is found at 1,680 
feet, but it may have gravitated from above. 

The presence of basalt flows makes this valley particularly interesting, as it 
preserves the conditions existing before the beginning of the ‘“‘canyon cycle’, and 


418 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv. 


indicates the amount of erosion which the uplands have since undergone. Part 
of the basalt comes from “the Vines’, where it rises to 2,400 feet on the Clyde 
watershed. Vines Creek has a lateral branch on either side of the flow (Text- 
fig. 4), cutting against the original precipices of the sandstone valley. Passing the 
Endrick at 1,980 feet, the basalt is found as a strip on the northern bank known 
as the “red ground’’, and continues beyond Sally and Colombago Creeks, the more 
northerly extension being chiefly on the left bank. The river swings from side 
to side of the flow, and has cut through the deepest part of the basalt-filled channel 
near Bulee Brook. Passing thence to the junction of Titringo Creek, basalt is 
found again in the river bed immediately below the road crossing, but this may 
have been a centre of extrusion. Otherwise it forms a series of terraces which 


Yellow Springs Shoalhaven Meangora Titringo 
(tk aes] aca ae [al 
| Rare) 


Nerr iga Endrick 


ee eerlls ey i ell 
aps sch a cae SALT 
SS SS aa (aie cea ee I ares ua 


Yellow Springs 


Endrick Vines 
eA Vos areeT A Ale Oneal lias Cee | 


Boe) emit 

ian li ey NNN 

| cc TTT Tm ETAT, TT TT NT lI ee 
bedded RE wl eee fede ee | NG lle 


Se Pf ea TTT TTT 


id 


S 


il 


Text-fig. 4. i.—Profile showing the development of the Shoalhaven Plain below 
the base of the horizontal sandstones (hatched), and its extension into the 
Endrick valley. The basalts (black) occupy pre-canyon valleys, and the two 
principal streams have cut gorges in the ancient landscape. Part of the profile 
west of Meangora Trig. is projected to the line from the north.  ii.—Profile 
south of the gorges. Note the protective influence of the sandstones and the 
land forms developed. Re-dissection in the Hndrick valley has given a trench 
similar to that which was filled with basalt, and the valleys to the left also post- 
date the basalt and drift. iii—Profile of the drifts (stippled) of the Shoalhaven 
Plain. The section line gives the modern grade of the river compared to its 
original profile. iv.—qa and ec, land forms in the horizontal sandstones; b, basalt 
in the valley of Vines Creek. yv.—Profiles of the three principal streams. 
Vertical exaggeration: i-iv = 5:3; v = 8:8. 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 419 


have been sharply cut across by the deeper valleys and gorges. Beyond Titringo 
Creek, from whose valley the basalts have been largely eroded, the course of the 
flows becomes uncertain as the surface is covered with sand, which has been 
cemented in parts to a gritty sandstone. Although they continue immediately to 
the north-west, the basaltic exposures are at a higher level, and it is probable that 
the main continuation has been eroded by the modern HEndrick, and that contribu- 
tions have been made from the vicinity of “the Bog”, where basalt rises te 
2,020 feet. 


An occurrence of particular interest is found overlooking the gorge at 
Primrose. Here the base of the flows is at 1,680 feet, and they rest on a thickness 
of 20 to 30 feet of roughly-stratified coarse drift. The relationship of the drift 
and the basalt has been revealed by the shafts and tunnels of alluvial miners, who 
have obtained a little fine gold from the gravels. 


There have been a number of flows, giving a maximum thickness of more 
than 350 feet near Titringo Creek. Layers of solid and vesicular basalt alternate; 
a little stream drift is found between them, and although it is generally not more 
than a few inches in thickness, in places to the west of the Nowra road local 
channels have been filled, to be covered again by the next flow. Most of the 
eravels have been metamorphosed as a result, although the thicker patches are not 
greatly changed, and sand is found beneath the flows some distance above the 
crossing. Weathering and erosion have resulted in the formation of terraces, 
which are best observed between the road and Titringo Creek. They are bounded 
by stony banks, and typical levels are found at 1,840, 1,900 and 1,950 feet. 


Where Titringo Creek crosses the edge of the basalt at 1,680 feet before 
plunging into the gorge, it is found to overlie a deposit of horizontal shale and 
soft white sandstone, from 5 to 10 feet thick. This material rests on folded strata, 
and has been slightly depressed where the basalt has poured over its thicker 
portion. Fine white clays are found further up the same creek at 1,900 feet, 
where they also underlie the basalt, and contain fossil leaves. To sum up: 


The valley of Endrick River is found to be eroded in a tableland of the order 
of 2,500 to 2,600 feet above sea-level. A series of valleys was developed at 2,000 
feet; a channel was cut to a depth of 300 to 400 feet in this surface, and was filled 
with basalt and some drift, which probably extended to the Shoalhaven. Drift is 
found in places above the basalt, and partly cemented sands occur on the hillsides 
facing eastward between Colombago Creek and Primrose. Subsequent erosion 
has given a channel similar to that filled with basalt, but the lower valley has 
been more deeply dissected by the attack of revived streams. 


Upper Valley of the Corang. Plate xxix; Text-figs. 3 and 4. 


The head streams of Corang River rise in a desolate tableland, and their 
upper courses through swamps and gullies traverse unoccupied country. Passing 
southward and westward from Sassafras Range the sandstone tableland rises 
above 2,800 feet, although its continuation to the east of Sally Creek is marked by 
cols of some depth. Coming to the westward turn of the watershed around the 
head of Corang River, the upper layers of sandstone have been eroded, and 
a local plain is found at 2,500 feet with a surface broken by a maze of ravines 
dominated by Corang Trig. station. This peak is a circular cone—a remnant of 
the higher sandstones—from which the whole expanse of country between the 
coast and the western divide of the Shoalhaven can be seen. Great precipices here 


420 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv. 


mark the eastward and southward fall to the Clyde gorges, whilst lower cliffs 
towards the north fall abruptly to level swamps which feed the Corang. 

The heads of this stream flow from the horizontal strata to older rocks in a 
gentle channel about 2,120 feet until they reach a great bar of light-coloured 
quartzite, which runs northward under the trig. station and rises to high, square 
hills across the stream. Here the valley sides close in, and the Corang falls 
through a precipitous gully in a series of low cataracts, emerging to flow in a 
shallower trench and a much wider valley, which is also rough and broken. On 
the right bank, the high ridges either retreat from the stream to give rocky 
terraces some hundreds of yards in width, or they fall uniformly towards it, with 
a sharp drop to the river over the last hundred or two hundred feet. On the left, 
the ridge from Corang Trig. falls steadily, and merges into the general level of 
the Shoalhaven Plain at 2,100 feet before the Braidwood road is reached. 

Approaching this road, the Corang passes to extensive flats somewhat above 
1,900 feet as harder sandstones and quartzites are replaced by shales and more 
friable sandstones. Its further course is over plains or beside low hills until 
the junction of Corang Creek is neared, where precipitous sandstone bluffs are 
found on either side. The valley again becomes gentler and shallower as the 
Nerriga-Oallen road is reached, but the stream soon falls into a steep trench 
leading to the Shoalhaven. 

There are two important tributaries—Corang and Jerricknorra Creeks. The 
first rises in a level, swampy valley whose sides are crowned with horizontal 
sandstone; it flows past the Braidwood road and follows a_ tortuous 
course across local plains and between gently rounded hills into a shallow gully, 
which joins that of the main stream. Jerricknorra Creek comes from the table- 
land near Corang Trig., and passes through broad undulations to the Corang. Its 
lower valley is level and includes wide flats; the clear and grassy landscape 
contrasts with the sterility of the higher tablelands. 

The Corang and its tributaries are typical streams of the Shoalhaven Plain; 
their heads are actively eroding in hard rocks, but the lower courses are mature, 
and lie only a hundred to two hundred feet below a general plain level until the 
fall into the gorges begins. 


Nerriga. Plates xxviii, xxix; Text-figs. 3 and 4. 


Nerriga is situated on a depression in the Corang-Endrick sub-divide, which 
continues as a low ridge to overlook the junction of the Endrick and Shoalhaven 
Rivers. Towards the south-east are three isolated hills rising 400 feet above the 
hamlet; they are crowned by cliffs, but the newer sandstones also extend over some 
of the neighbouring lower and gentler ridges. South of these hills is a great sandy 
valley, partly occupied by the Nodgengutta swamps and partly by a small creek 
falling to the Hndrick. Their divide is a barely perceptible rise in the level 
plain, but as one continues southward higher sandstone ridges are reached which 
separate the valley from those of Colombago and Corang Creeks. 

' There is a sharp fall from the mesas towards Nerriga and the Endrick River, 
but the head of Bindi Brook is found in a level valley between them. About 
Nerriga itself there are two lines of basalt—one in the valley of Titringo Creek, 
and the other passing Bindi Brook to Nodgengutta Creek. Small eminences near 
the hamlet are formed of glassy contact quartzite about 2,100 feet, whilst similar 
material is found on the eastern edge of the basalt at Titringo Creek, and on the 
sandy plain south of the Nodgengutta-lower Corang stream line. Directly west of 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 421 


Nerriga a hollow in the sub-divide is partly filled with basalt, and it seems that 
flows came from this locality to pour over the lower country on either side. 

Most of the basalt has been eroded from the valley of Titringo Creek, which is 
asymmetric, with a steep rise on the eastern side to a ridge composed of soft 
ancient rocks. Towards the south, Bindi Brook has cut through the basalt line, 
and continues some distance along a level valley before it falls to the Shoalhaven 
through a ravine. The valley of Nodgengutta Creek and the lower Corang is 
simply a shallow trench with a plain at 1,900 feet on the south, and a somewhat 
higher bank on the north. Small areas of drift and Tertiary contact quartzite 
rise to 2,040 feet on the sandy southern side, whilst sand and pebble drift also 
occur between 1,920 and 2,020 feet to the north. 

When the dividing ridge turns northward past Meangora Trig., its upper 
surface is an outlier of the horizontal sandstone, which weathers into low cliffs 
at the heads of gullies. The westward fall to the Shoalhaven is broken, but 
gullies from the cliffs on the eastern side widen into valleys as they pass across 
the sandy and basalt slopes to the gently undulating plain by Titringo Creek. 

Still continuing northward, the desolate peninsula of Timberlight is passed on 
the left, whilst the basalts of the Bog (1,950-2,020 feet) and of Mountainy (1,900- 
2,110 feet) are found—the first falling eastward, and the second occupying ancient 
depressions and the heads of old valleys on the divide itself. These appear to be 
local flows, and a series of level ridges continues north of them at a uniform 
height of 2,100 feet. At first there is a steep fall directly to the Shoalhaven whilst 
a terrace at 1,800 feet is found on the Endrick side, but further north these 
conditions become reversed, and the end of the high ridge falls almost sheer to 
the Endrick, and overlooks a wide peninsula or terrace between the two streams. 
This lies between 1,800 and 2,000 feet, and has drift and Tertiary quartzites at 
the lower level. A screening of pebbles is also found on the high ridge and may 
represent the weathered remains of Permian conglomerate, as relics of sandstone 
and grit of that series occur at 2,000 feet at the north-western head of Mountainy 
Creek. 

It will be seen that this ridge rises a little above the level of the Shoalhaven 
Plain, and distinctly above the basalt-filled and drifted Tertiary valleys. But 
south of Nerriga Trig. the horizontal sandstones have not only been cut through, 
but a level valley has been formed and partly filled with sand (in places con- 
solidated by iron oxide), along which water may have flowed in either direction 
through its whole length about the period of basalt flows, for the basalts at 
either end of the valley rise above the present indefinite divide which crosses its 
floor. But even here no appreciable change in stream direction is indicated, 
although this place and the break at Nerriga show how such a divide can be 
lowered in places by attack from either side. 


The Shoalhaven Plain. Plates xxviii, xxix; Text-figs. 3 and 4. 


Passing westward to the vicinity of the Shoalhaven River, a different type of 
country is entered. A quartzite hill rises to 2,250 feet between the Braidwood 
road and Corang Creek, but it falls away to an extensive plain whose highest 
point is rather short of 2,100 feet. In the vicinity of Welcome Reefs and of Oallen 
Ford this plain surface presents a very even skyline and, although it has been 
considerably dissected, it remains the most striking feature near the Shoalhaven. 

If we take the western section of the contour map, the even ridges are 
prominent. An examination of the field shows another thing—hard rocks are 


422 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv, 


absent from a large part of the uplands, although they occur in the gorges and 
even in some of the shallower valleys. The upland slopes are of argillites and 
soft sandstones; the dominant colour of the countryside is yellow—the ridges, the 
slopes and the gullies alike share this feature, which is due to hydrated iron 
oxide in the weathering strata. The downward limit of weathering is found 
between 1,700 and 1,800 feet, so the surface of the original plain in the vicinity 
of valleys is thoroughly rotted te a depth of 200 or 300 feet, and is very suscep- 
tible to erosion. Near Welcome Reefs, mining operations on the surface at 1,900 
feet show the original stratification to be well preserved, but the decomposing 
clay rocks have a soapy feeling, and break up readily on exposure to air. 

Where sandstones occur the groundwater has been able to circulate more 
readily, and it has carried iron in solution to the surface. This has been re- 
deposited in joints and cracks, adding greatly to the hardness and resistance of 
the rock. In other places, surface deposition has given masses of limonite, which 
form knobs on the hillsides. The high points generally owe their existence to 
these surface features, and once the hard crust is removed, the unprotected 
weathering rock is rapidly eroded to give cols in the ridges. Such conditions 
exist on either side of the river with the exception of those places covered by drift 
sand and pebbles. The landscape is characterized by rounded forms; the valleys 
are wide and trough-shaped, and are asymmetric where harder rocks occur closer 
to the stream on one side, either in the valley or on the tableland surface. The 
hilltops are rounded, and the lowering of ridges at the heads of gullies gives a 
confused appearance to the dissected parts. All of these features are well brought 
out by the contours. 

This part of the tableland is of particular interest, for it is here that the river 
becomes entrenched in the uplands. Near Oallen Ford, the stream is 200 feet 
below the Shoalhaven Plain; steep bluffs are found in places along its course, and 
a gentle fall to the east of Oallen contrasts with the sharper and more gullied 
slope across the river. Immediately below the ford the banks close in, and the 
river occupies a rocky channel to Welcome Reefs, where Ningee Nimble Creek is 
received. This stream drains a series of wide, gentle valleys, but its lower course 
is in a stony bed swinging between precipitous bluffs. Below its junction wide 
gullies are found on either side of the river, which follows a gently-falling course 
of considerable roughness, with rising cliffs in places. This section may be 
viewed from the hills above the Corang junction (Plate xxix); at the confluence 
of that stream both it and the Shoalhaven are hemmed in by cliffs, which form a 
gorge 300 feet deep. From here the grade of the river becomes steeper, and 
although in places the slopes on one side or the other are gentler for short 
distances, the channel becomes steadily rougher as the river cuts across bars of 
hard rock. On the outer bends huge bluffs rise sheer from the river to a height 
of 400 feet, but they do not extend for any great distance. Passing Meangora 
Trig. the river sweeps around Timberlight, falling tumultuously through narrow 
crevices in the rock bars. With increasing depth the gorge takes the form of a 
steep “V” in section, and the widening below Jerralong Creek gives a most 
impressive character to the scene. There are no considerable streams from the 
right in this section, and those on the left fall sharply to the river, the waterfalls 
on Jerralong Creek being very fine. In places the northern side of Timberlight 
slopes to the river at an angle of 60 degrees. 


Much of the river’s work has been done in weak rocks, and the presence of 
highly resistant strata at the lower levels has retarded downcutting, and has 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 423 


helped give a smooth profile. The Endrick, on the contrary, has cut down through 
a more uniformly resistant part of the formation—not so hard as the rocks of the 
Shoalhaven channel, nor so readily eroded as those of the uplands—and the result 
has been the formation of a uniform “V’-shaped trench (Plate xxix). The upper 
limit of the most effective attack is found in a series of falls across a huge bar 
of grey quartzite, whereas the Shoalhaven has a gentler fall over a longer distance, 
and is lowering the sloping section at a more uniform rate. But even where its 
grade is gentle the Shoalhaven is a turbulent stream, as its course is broken by 
bends, rocks and bars. In time of flood the rush of water in its gorge shakes 
the hills, and most of the rocks borne by the river are reduced to sand and mud 
long before the eastward bend is reached at Tallong. 

Let us now retrace our steps through the uplands, this time passing over the 
high-level drift. 


This begins near Mountainy Creek about 2,000 feet, where it appears to be 
overlain by basalt, but the first notable deposits are found on Timberlight penin- 
sula, where the aggregate thickness of 270 feet rests on 6 feet of heavy ferruginous 
conglomerate, which is overlain by laminated clays, pebble and sand beds. These 
are similar to those recorded immediately to the north at Black Springs and Spa 
Creeks; the lowest points on their base are at 1,720 feet, and the basal con- 
glomerate occupies channels across parts of the peninsula. The clay beds differ 
from those observed elsewhere in containing very little plant material, but other- 
wise there is no great difference between them and their northern extension on the 
opposite side of the gorge. 

Passing to Yellow Springs Creek, part of the clay is replaced by quartz gravel, 
but the general nature of the deposits does not change. The base lies at 1,740 feet, 
and like similar strata at Timberlight, Black Springs and Spa Creek, it has been 
worked for the gold contained. Extensive tunnels driven into the basal con- 
glomerate reveal its horizontal character, and show its upper surface to be even. 
A feature of this material is the amount of granite which enters into it. In the 
natural sorting much of the heavier granite has been left in this upstream section, 
whilst more of the lighter quartzite has been carried beyond to form the northern 
parts of the drift at Black Springs. The general diameter of the pebbles is from 
3 inches to 12 inches, but exceptionally large masses, including Tertiary contact 
quartzite, are up to 24 inches on the major axis. Practically all are well-rounded, 
as the Shoalhaven above Oallen has, and has had, an appreciable grade, and the 
Corang and Mongarlowe are swift in their upper courses. The virtually horizontal 
section of the drifted channel between Spa Creek and Oallen may owe its negative 
grade to a slight local subsidence of the order of (say) 100 feet after the excava- 
tion of the channel, and before the commencement of deposition. Relative uplift 
to the north would give a similar result. 

The drift continues southward from Yellow Springs, and only thin deposits 
are found on the higher ground by the lower end of Corang River. The main bed 
is cut across by the Shoalhaven at Oallen Ford, and a branch passes into the valley 
of Ningee Nimble Creek at Welcome Reefs. Above Oallen it is found on either 
side of the modern stream with a base of 1,790 feet—only 50 feet above the 
present-day water level—and a broad valley has been partly filled with it. The 
most southerly extension of the coarse basal conglomerate is immediately below 
the ford at 1,725 feet, where the pebbles are cemented by quartz crystals and pyrites, 
and are overlain by clay beds containing abundant plant fossils. This material 
may fill a local deep of the old channel, for it does not continue upstream for any 


424 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iy. 


distance. Passing to the southern edge of the contour map, the base of the drift 
has risen above 1,800 feet, and extensive sluicing has disclosed considerable beds of 
pebbles and sand, crudely stratified in places, and more or less consolidated. Here 
the fine clays are replaced by gritty brown sands, and there are great numbers of 
round pebbles with diameters up to 9 inches. These features are in conformity 
with the rising base of the deposit and with the conditions under which the 
greater part of it was laid down. 


It may be contended that a powerful current was necessary for the trans- 
portation of the large pebbles in the basal conglomerate, and that the present 
grade of the old channel between Oallen and Spa Creek would not allow of this. 
It must be recognized that there are possible small errors in the various heights 
which I have given, and that earth movements which elevated the plateau may 
have produced slight differences from place to place, but my figures showing a 
variation from the horizontal through a range of 20 feet between the points named 
cannot be far from the truth, and in any case the validity of the subsequent argu- 
ment is not affected. The channel was approximately horizontal when deposition 
began, and erosion was proceeding upstream in the Shoalhaven Plain, with a base 
level corresponding to the modern height of 1,600 feet. The main stream and its 
tributaries, on coming from their swifter upper courses to the level channel at 
Oallen, tended to drop their entire loads in still water which had been ponded up 
by a blockage in the channel considerably downstream. In time of flood this 
material was carried northward and distributed in the level channel, for the 
accumulation upstream and the consequent local fall given to the river in that 
vicinity would give the current sufficient power to sweep the material along for 
some distance, in the same way that a breaking dam in a level valley would be 
carried down by the impounded water. Such a combination of circumstances 
would be sufficient to give a layer of coarse material in the level channel with a 
reasonably uniform thickness, such as the conglomerate stratum which we have 
recorded. 


The rising local base level due to further obstruction of the stream to the north 
would check erosion in the channels being cut in the Shoalhaven Plain and would, 
in effect, restore those conditions of general maturity which had existed before 
the commencement of this dissection. The supply of large pebbles and masses of 
rock would gradually cease, and the largest pebbles would be those brought from 
the vicinity of the divides, from a landscape which had already been subjected to 
erosion over the period of time involved in the formation of the 2,000-foot level 
(i.e., the Shoalhaven Plain). These would be dropped when the current first 
became less swift, whilst the greater part of the finer material would be swept 
further on, and then deposited. This would account for the gravel and clay beds, 
and intermediate pebble horizons, such as that at 1,900 feet in the Nerrimunzga 
Creek area, could be ascribed to widespread scattering of the pebbles under 
conditions of very shallow water after the existing lakes had almost been filled 
with drift. 


The origin of the material involved may be briefly noted, although more ample 
information will be given in a subsequent paper. The granite pebbles of the lower 
conglomerate were derived fram the river channel above Oallen, and the quartz 
gravel from mature granite slopes in the uplands about Braidwood. The clay 
came from a similar source, and from the argillites of the Shoalhaven Plain, 
whilst the quartzite pebbles were derived from Upper Marine conglomerates and 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 425 


from quartzite beds towards the divides. A wide area may have contributed the 
sand which forms the upper part of the drift. 

Andrews (1910) has noted similar beds in the valley of the Lachlan about 
._ Parkes and Forbes. Their nature and history bear a close resemblance to those of 
the Shoalhaven sediments, and suggest that similar conditions prevailed in the two 
places. In the case of the Lachlan valley, Andrews ascribed sedimentation to 
subsidence, but a similar view would not account for all the peculiarities of the 
Shoalhaven, as we shall see presently. A layer of pebbles corresponding to those 
at our 1,900-foot level was explained as being due to increased erosion following 
a revival of streams, which was brought about by uplift towards the source of the 
river. These pebbles were, in their turn, overlain by clays, and such a drastic 
change in the nature of the drift cannot be reconciled to the idea of notable uplift 
in the drainage area involved, even if we allow for a considerable lapse of time 
between the two. The clays correspond to the finer drift and sand overlying the 
1,900-foot pebble beds. 

A more likely explanation would involve a change in the incidence of rain- 
fall. At the present time, for example, much of the rain is given by comparatively 
few storms, and the depth of the Shoalhaven at Oallen varies from zero to fifty 
feet. Under such conditions, streams which are level and normally of slight 
volume are capable of transporting large rocks and pebbles in times of flood, thus — 
giving their courses an anomalous appearance. The advent of this type of rain- 
fall regime would increase both the amount of erosion and the size of the material 
transported, whilst a return to less stormy conditions would have the opposite 
effect, and would also allow weathering to disintegrate rocks much more thoroughly 
before erosion takes place. The upper pebble horizons can be ascribed to periods 
of greater storminess, but not necessarily to periods of heavier annual rainfall. 


In conclusion, we may define the Shoalhaven Plain in this area as being a 
deeply weathered surface about 2,000 feet which had been trenched to a depth of 
300 feet about the time of basalt flows. The main channel was subsequently filled 
with drift, which was also spread over parts of the neighbouring plain, and has 
since been cut across and considerably eroded. As with Nerrimunga Creek, the 
Shoalhaven falls gradually past 1,700 feet, but the fall below 1,600 feet is steep, 
although it has been partly regulated by the hard rocks encountered. Further 
consideration will be given to the alluvial deposits under the heading—‘‘Tertiary 
Valleys’”’. ° 


Land Forms. 


Many of the essential features of the area are similar to those of the more 
northerly parts of the Shoalhaven Valley, but local variations and unique develop- 
ments call for description, which might deal specifically with the higher levels 
and with the Tertiary valleys. 

The Higher Levels.—The first suggestion of a peneplain level is found between 
2,400 and 2,500 feet, comprising parts of the country at the head of Corang River 
and the level, swampy valleys of the high tablelands. There are higher levels 
about 2,800 feet, but they are of too fragmentary a nature to yield inferences of 
any great value. In some places, such as the vicinity of Endrick Trig., relics of 
broad valleys exist 300 feet below the highest points of the landscape, and are the 
results of normal erosion and not of exaggerated terrace weathering of the type 
noted on Bulee Ridge. There is a possible correlation between this level and 
similar features in the Tallong and Nerrimunga Creek areas, and in the valley of 


426 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv. 


Mulwaree Creek to the west. The description of these isolated features as relics 
of an ancient peneplain is at least justified in the fact that the present Shoalhaven 
valley has been formed by the removal of rocks which rose to the height of 
Sassafras Range and Bulee Ridge. Valleys now occurring about this level were 
formed when the base-level of erosion was considerably higher than the position 
which it occupied, relatively speaking, during the erosion which formed the 
Shoalhaven Plain. 

Of the nature of this second level there is no doubt. It extends far into the 
block of horizontal sandstones, and while it exists on them in places, elsewhere 
it is cut to 300 feet below their base (Text-fig. 4). The great extent of the 2,000- 
foot level to the west of the horizontal rocks further emphasizes its independence 
of them, and while local terraces and precipices are explained in terms of sapping 
and the so-called benching action, the regional features are essentially independent 
of such factors, and occur impartially in horizontal and highly folded strata. 


This level is pre-basaltic in age, and its relative narrowness in the Mndrick 
valley is due to the resistant nature of the rocks in which much of the cutting has 
been done. On the slopes east of Meangora and Nerriga Trig. stations, mechanical 
erosion has not been very active since the volcanic period, for the slopes and 
parts of the basalt flows are still covered with sand which has been partly con- 
solidated into a gritty white or red sandstone. The width of the Endrick valley 
in these places has changed very little in the time involved. 


The process of destruction in the massive sandstones is of interest. Attack 
is along joints, and may be considerable even away from permanent streams. 
Take the ridges between valleys as examples; tributary gullies extend into these 
ridges along the most notable lines of weakness, and fissures are formed along 
the same lines which, in time, cut right through the ridges. These are well 
developed in the tableland at the head of Corang River (Plate xxix) and in the 
cliffs near Bulee Brook. In the former case the fissures are from a few inches to 
several feet in width, and their further development has given narrow ravines 
which cut right through the Corang-Clyde divide. In the course of time, after a 
fissure has extended downward to a weaker stratum, widening commences and 
the sides of the fissure, being attacked from beneath, recede to leave a gap in the 
ridge, possibly at quite a low level. This process is accelerated because angles in 
the cliffs are involved, and these constitute natural weaknesses. 

A typical example occurs south of Bulee Brook, where the original end of 
the ridge is a mesa separated from the tableland by a level col, which slopes away 
gently on either side to a wide valley. (Plate xxix and Text-fig. 4). The hills and 
passes west of the Hndrick between Nerriga and the head of Corang River have a 
similar origin, and in places the action has been carried below the base of the 
horizontal rocks to approach 2,000 feet. 

This gives an insight into the country around Tallong, where there has been 
considerable erosion under similar conditions, but through a smaller vertical 
range. There, wide valleys also head in breached divides, and the level forming 
the Shoalhaven Plain extends to the heads of the streams. Again the horizontal 
sandstones in their harder portions rise above the more easily eroded members 
of the older rocks. 

Tertiary Valleys—We have noted the pre-basaltic valleys eroded to a depth 
of 300 feet in the Shoalhaven Plain. Those on the Shoalhaven side were filled with 
drift, but that of the Endrick with basalt. Further erosion has been accomplished 
in stages; the first resulted in the formation of trenches or channels very similar 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 427 


to those which had been filled, and the second involved the cutting of deep gorges. 
The first were carved under conditions similar to those existing before the basalt 
flows and sedimentation, or such a coincidence as that noted would hardly be 
possible. We may ask—how much erosion has been accomplished in the Endrick 
valley since the outpouring of the basalts? The answer has already been given 
for that section by Nerriga and Meangora Trig. stations, and there is no reason 
for supposing a much greater degree of widening further upstream. The valleys 
and gorges below the level of the basalt are of recent origin, as are the gullies in 
the floors of the valleys of Colombago and Sally Creeks, since these occur below 
the basalt and drift. But the valley of Vines Creek, which breached the Clyde 
divide, is entirely pre-basaltic (Text-fig. 4), and there seems to be no reason for 
coming to a different conclusion when considering the other mature and swampy 
valleys of the Endrick heads. In the main valley the cliff scarps approach the 
basalt in many places; the precipices tend to rounded forms and monuments on 
their crests and in their broken parts, giving an appearance of considerable age, 
and indicating that a condition of stability had been reached before the trenching 
of the 2,000-foot level. Similar conditions are shown in Plate xxix. 


But although there has been no essential alteration in the dimensions of this 
valley, or rather, in that part unaffected by the “canyon cycle”, it must not be 
thought that the process of erosion in the uplands has come to a standstill. The 
streams coming from the cliff bases carry pebbles with them, and after rain new 
sandbanks and strips of shingle may be observed along their courses, although 
erosion is reduced to a minimum by the presence of trees, heath and swamp plants 
which have not been interfered with by man. In addition, drift overlies the basalt 
in parts, especially near the mouth of Colombago Creek and thence towards Sally 
Creek, where large pebbles are observed which were probably derived from the 
Upper Marine beds. 

Similar conditions appear to have existed during the period of basalt flows; 
there are pebbles between the various lava sheets, an old stream channel has been 
recognized near the Nowra road, and the basalt at Primrose is underlain by 20 to 
30 feet of coarse drift. But the absence of any thickness of drift between the 
basalt sheets is more remarkable than these occurrences when we consider the 
deep drift in the neighbouring Shoalhaven valley, and the erosive competence of 
the upland streams of the Endrick. For if similar conditions had prevailed in the 
two co-existent valleys while the Shoalhaven deposits were accumulating, the basalt 
sheets of the Endrick valley would alternate with thick layers of drift. 


There are two possible explanations of this: either the filling of the Endrick 
valley with basalt prevented the accumulation of sediments in it, or those flows 
and their equivalents further to the north filled the trench in which the Shoalhaven 
was flowing, and caused the accumulation upstream. 

Let us assume the necessary conditions for the first case and disallow the 
second for the time being. We can now explain deposition by a relative uplift 
northward, or by a general subsidence of the land surface to give a negative base- 
level of erosion. (This latter condition would be satisfied if the channels were 
carried below sea-level as it then existed.) It has already been shown that 
differential uplift northward was not considerable; the meridional profiles of the 
Shoalhaven Plain between Oallen and Tallong, the profile of Bulee Ridge and the 
existing grade of the drifted channel combine to attest this, and even if we 
allow a relative uplift of the order of 100 feet towards the north, it explains the 
flattening of the old channel but not the sedimentation. Differential uplift imme- 


428 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iy. 


diately to the north of the lower Shoalhaven during or since the outpouring of the 
late Tertiary basalts is discounted by the topography of that area, and by the 
uniformity of the base of the basalts between Warrima (near Tallong) and 
Robertson. The study of Tallong disclosed no differential movements in its 
vicinity, and certainly no late- or post-Tertiary uplift to the east (see also Craft, 
1928). 

The idea of general subsidence is complicated, as it involves uplift to allow 
the trenching of the Shoalhaven Plain, thus lowering the effective base-level 
by 400 feet at the mouth of the Endrick; then subsidence of the same order which 
was almost immediately followed by the filling of the Hndrick trench with basalt; 
then by uplift, again of the same order, following the deposition of the drifts and 
allowing a new channelling of the Shoalhaven Plain and of the HEndrick valley, 
and finally by the uplift which made the erosion of deep gorges possible. The 
coincidences of such an explanation do not recommend it, and movements of large 
areas are postulated in order to explain localized features. In addition, the nature 
of the coastal slope must be considered, for it shows the effect of much erosion 
accomplished before the cutting of the deep gorges, as we have seen at Tallong 
and on the slope falling from Sassafras Range to Nowra. 

Considering the second of our alternatives—that of basalt filling the stream 
courses and causing sedimentation upstream—an explanation that would only 
satisfy conditions south of the Hndrick junction is insufficient, for the alluvial 
deposits also occur towards Tallong. It is possible that basalt issued from the 
Endrick valley, as contact quartzite is found at 1,840 feet overlooking the junction 
of the Endrick and Shoalhaven Rivers, but this feature does not appear in the 
drift across the gorge immediately to the north. 


About Tallong, however, there are basalt flows and centres of extrusion on 
either side of the river. Parts of them are sharply cut off by modern precipices, 
and there are extensive remains of contact quartzites about the 2,000-foot level in 
that district to mark their former greater extent in the vicinity of the modern 
canyons (Papers i and iii of the series). The Caoura flow rises to 2,080 feet and 
begins on the Shoalhaven cliffs near Badgery’s Lookout, and there is every 
probability of its having extended into the valley of the main stream and having 
risen to that same level. 

Tertiary quartzites in the drift show it to post-date the commencement of 
voleanic activity, and in such places as the vicinity of Bungonia Lookdown, 
Inverary, and above the junction of the Corang and Shoalhaven we find basalt or 
its contact quartzite lying on the higher levels of the drift. Intermediate stages 
have been noted in both the Nerrimunga Creek and Nerriga areas in association 
with the drift, further demonstrating the intimate connection of the two 
phenomena. Lava flows commenced before the beginning of deposition, and lasted 
until after the 2,000-foot level had been attained. Their extent and thickness have 
been shown, but we may again quote the Caoura and Endrick flows; the former 
lies between 1,850 and 2,080 feet, whilst the latter has an extreme range between 
1,680 feet at Primrose and 2,160 feet by Titringo Creek at Nerriga. Even taking 
the upper level of the flows as the 2,060 feet recorded close to the Nowra road 
above Endrick River, it is clear that sufficient basalt has existed in the Shoalhaven 
Valley to block the streams entrenching in the 2,000-foot level, to cause the accumu- 
lation of drift and its ultimate spreading out on that plain surface. Moreover, 
the idea of a gradual or intermittent rising of the barrier to account for the 
diversity of the various layers of drift is one which finds adequate recognition in 


BY F. A. CRAFT. 429 


this explanation, and the relative absence of drift between the basalt sheets of the 
Endrick valley is not difficult to understand, even if the flows occurred at the same 
time as those near Tallong which were the primary cause of deposition. It is 
possible that the two synchronized, and in any case the notable Hndrick flows had 
only to sustain a level in the comparatively narrow valleys they were filling in 
excess of the effective level of deposition. We thus find a satisfactory explanation 
of all the facts involved without having recourse to the postulation of widespread 
and arbitrary earth movements. 


To summarize this briefly: Uplift resulted in the erosion of valleys from 300 
to 400 feet deep in the levels of the Shoalhaven Plain. Basalt flows filled the 
trench of the Endrick, and similar flows near Tallong interrupted the cycle of 
erosion and caused the filling of the Shoalhaven trench with sediments, which 
spread over the neighbouring plain. After the cessation of volcanic activity the 
barrier was cut through and the drifted plain was channelled to give forms similar 
to those of pre-basaltic times. - The Hndrick, confined in a restricted valley, did 
not depart far from its original course; but the Shoalhaven, wandering over the 
plain, assumed and maintained a highly irregular pattern which was probably 
determined, in part, by the incidence of its tributaries, and which differs consider- 
ably from the original linear outline. 


Physiographic History. 

Relics of the Kanimbla folding which affected all the rocks up to the upper 
Devonian occur in the form of quartzite ridges in the south-east of the area. The 
Upper Marine Series, of Permian age, were deposited in the east on a subsiding 
peneplain of some irregularity, and the modern Shoalhaven occurs immediately 
to the west of their periphery. It is unlikely that the Upper Coal Measures had 
any great thickness in this area, and probably the Triassic rocks did not extend 
into it at all. In fact, a stream following the Shoalhaven line along the crest of 
the greatest of the ancient folds may have contributed to their formation. 
Evidences of an old peneplain of indeterminate age are found at a modern height 
of 2,500 feet, whilst older levels are found still higher. In the late Tertiary period 
the Shoalhaven Plain, already a very ancient feature, had been carved out of the 
folded and intrusive strata (the latter occurring further south), and the dissection 
of the horizontal rocks had been carried to maturity. This plain was probably 
not more than a couple of hundred feet above the existing sea-level, whilst the 
sandstone tableland rose 800 feet higher. Effective uplift of the order of 400 feet 
led to the partial dissection of this surface, but the channels were blocked by basalt 
flows and filled with basalt and sediment. A period of quiescence then allowed the 
re-formation of these features, and normal uplifting was resumed to raise the 
land to its present height, and allow the formation of the modern canyons. It has 
previously bren concluded that the most recent uplifts were rapid and involved a 
rise of the order of 1,000 feet, but this may be rather understated. In any case, the 
maximum limit is of the order of 1,400 feet. 


References. 
ANDREWS, E. C., 1910.—The Forbes-Parkes Gold Field. Mines Department, Geological 
Survey, Mineral Resources No. 13. 
CraFt, F. A., 1928.—The Physiography of the Wollondilly River Basin. Proc. LINN. Soc. 
N.S.W., liii, Part 5, 618. 
JENSEN, H. I., 1908.—Some Geological Notes on the Country behind Jervis Bay. Proc. 
Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlii, 296. 


430 PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE SHOALHAVEN RIVER VALLEY. iv, 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXVIII AND XXIX. 


Plate xxviii. 


Topographic Map of Nerriga District, based on parish maps of the Lands Depart- 
ment. Detail is by corrected compass traverses, and heights by aneroid with reference 
to Trig. stations. 


Plate xxix. 


1.—View southward from HEndrick Trig. The valley of Sally Creek is in the middle 
distance, with Budawang Range on the left. Currockbilly Trig. is the high point in 
the far distance, and the square hill to the right of it is also of quartzite, which continues 
northward across the left of the light patch in the valley. Colombago Creek is between 
the ridges in the right background. 

2.—View eastward from Corang Trig., showing the levels about 2,800 feet, and the 
terrace at 2,500 feet cut across by ravines. Pigeon House (2,358 ft.) lies to the right 
beyond the Clyde gorge. 

3.—Pre-canyon valley of the Shoalhaven, looking upstream from near the junction 
of Corang River. The level of the Shoalhaven Plain is shown, and the drift-filled valley 
lies behind the hill to the right. 

4.—The valley of Endrick River. The sandstone tableland (2,400-2,500 ft.) is in 
the background; lower levels in the middle distance are an extension of the Shoalhaven 
Plain, with cleared basalt slopes as a line to the right of the canyon. The ridge at 2,100 
feet and the junction terraces are on the right, whilst the Shoalhaven flows across the 
foreground. 


1931. 


yn. Soc. N.S.W., 


iN 


psoc. Lr 


PLATE XXVIII. 


oz OF 4 


Sah 2 30vaS 


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—T8- 


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2) UA, Oo 


VOTYUAN 


A=: 


jo#2-Dorap 


‘ ry 
BIMON HOLS ) ~~ ay 


wrmar77 


AYN 30479 


Poomplesg O72 


a 


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at 
40901 NITICO 
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Bureyapuiy Woy 


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: 
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An 
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ee, 


ie 


PLATE XXIX. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. 


UsABYTROYS IY} JO 


Age 


A UuodAU'BI-9Iq—'§ 


‘IOATY Yorpum Jo AoT[eA—'F 


‘u0T}BIS 


SIL Suev10og woazy MotA—'Z 


“UOT}eIS 


sIly, Yolupu 


@ worIy MOTA—T 


A CLASSIFICATION OF THE GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS 
APIOMORPHA. 


By WALTER W. FROGGATT. 
(Thirty Text-figures. ) 
[Read 25th November, 1931.] 


The Genus Apiomorpha was established by C. H. Rtibsaamen in 1894 (Uber 
Australische Zoocecidien und deren Erzeuger, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr., xxxix, pp. 
17-42). He described and figured five species of the genus with other Australian 
gall-making insects. This genus now contains all the species previously included in 
the Brachyscelis described by H. L. Schrader, who first. called attention to these 
wonderful gall makers (Trans. Ent. Soc. N.S.W., 1862). He described five species 
which he collected in the neighbourhood of Sydney. My first contribution to the 
study of these remarkable creatures was in 1892 (Notes on the Family 
Brachyscelidae, with some account of their parasites, and descriptions of new 
species, These PROCEEDINGS, 1892, 353). In the following year, J. G. O. Tepper 
published a paper (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.) on the coccid galls in the collections 
of the Adelaide Museum in which he described some new species. 

Between 1893 and 1898 I contributed four more papers on these insects to 
These PROCEEDINGS. In 1896, C. Fuller described some new species in the Agricul- 
tural Gazette of N. S. Wales. In the following year he described some new species 
in the Journal of the Western Australian Bureau of Agriculture. Later in the 
same year he amplified these descriptions (Trans. Ent. Soc. London) and described 
the gall of another species. No further species were added to the genus until 1921 
when I described three (Descriptive Catalogue of the Coccidae of Australia, Part ii, 
Dept. Agric. N.S.W., Science Bull. 18). 

During the last few years, through the kindness of the Commissioners of 
Forestry for the different Australian States, their field officers and other country 
correspondents, I have been able to make a very extensive and interesting collection 
of gall-making coccids from all parts of Australia. During the last two years I 
have described five more new species. 

In this contribution to the study of the Genus Apiomorpha I have mounted 
the skins of the adult female coccid and defined the species upon the arrangement 
of the hairs and spines on the dorsal surface of the derm, and the structure and 
form of the remarkable anal appendages peculiar to the members of this genus. 


The female coccids have been boiled in ten per cent. caustic potash, the 
contents of the body washed out, treated with spirits of wine, chloroform, turpen- 
tine, and mounted on glass slips. The specimens do not require to be stained, and 
when treated in this manner give a clear outline of all the external structure. 

Through the courtesy of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 
who made me a grant for the purpose, I am enabled to illustrate this paper with 
outline drawings of thirty species made by Miss Ethel King. 

D 


432 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


These coccid galls are not produced in the same manner as the galls caused 
through the damage to the plant tissue by other insects. The galls developed from 
direct injury to the bark by the ovipositor of the wasp, fly, or other phytophagous 
insect, results from the intrusion of the egg and the subsequent infestation during 
the development of the larva, in the aborted tissue. In these gall-making coccids 
it is the free moving microscopic larvae which, burying their rostrum in the bark 
or leaf, cause the surrounding tissue to grow up and surround them. These 
larvae, born in the shelter of the mother gall chamber, cluster together in the base 
of the gall (like a mass of yellow dust) for some time before they crawl upward, 
and emerge through the small opening at the apex of the gall. They scatter all 
over the branches and foliage. Under a high power magnification one can see no 
outward difference in these hundreds of larvae, yet some produce male galls, and 
others produce female galls, each species with the same specific characters in the 
gall. If the male galls were always produced upon the foliage and the female galls 
on the branches one could understand the disparity of the size of these sex galls. 
This is not, however, the case because we often find large female galls formed on 
flower buds and, in other species, on the surface of the leaves. The male galls, 
also, though usually upon the leaves, are often found upon the branchlets side by 
side with the female galls, and in three species are formed in masses on the side 
of the female gall. Among the most remarkable forms are the compound galls, 
comprising three species, of which Apiomorpha pharetrata is the type. In this and 
the allied species, the oval female gall grows out on the surface of the leaf and 
when well developed, a fold of tissue grows out on one side, becoming many times 
larger than the supporting female gall. This consists of a mass-of coalescing pits 
or tubes, each containing a larval male coccid, several hundred winged males often 
emerging from the one folded mass. As all the larvae emerge from the old parent 
gall at the same time, how do these males repress the gall-producing activities 
until the female gall is in a condition to support them? In the case of Apiomorpha 
ovicola and A. helmsi, large galls of solid woody tissue, how do they produce such 
a mass of matter through the tiny flower bud or seed capsule of a redgum tree, 
from which they are often developed? The development of these large galls is 
rapid; most of them complete their life cycle in the year. During their earlier 
stages of growth the apical orifice is closed, either by a folding over of the edges 
or a little plug, which contracts and falls out as the gall matures. Two species 
only have a distinct oval-elongate apical orifice: in one, Apiomorpha pileata, the 
young female galls are protected by a pointed cap of woody tissue which, with 
the growth of the gall, often expands into a long pointed tail several inches in 
length, drying up from the rounded base, and falling off like a paper envelope. 
The second species of this group, the largest insect gall in the world, Apiomorpha 
duplex, forms a large solid woody gall more than three inches in length, expanding 
into long curved tails or horns six inches or more in length. This has an even 
larger opening at the apex, but no protective covering. 

In another, Apiomorpha hilli, there are two divisions; the gall chamber in the 
lower half with a closed summit containing the apical opening, with a solid rim 
round it; above the cavity is a conical lid, or elongated cap, which cracks off 
as the gall matures, but previously is the apical portion of the gall. 


In most species the substance of the gall is hard and solid, with the inner 
surface of the coccid chamber smooth. In others, the gall consists of a double 
layer of woody tissue, as if the bark composed the outer layer and the sapwood 
the inner hard and woody portion. In Apiomorpha variabilis the gall is composed 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 433 


of solid woody tissue surrounding a small coccid chamber, but there is a bell- 
shaped cap of softer tissue on the summit, with a rugged opening through it, above 
the apex of the solid gall. Apiomorpha fletcheri is a gregarious species; its infes- 
tation causes large irregular swellings on the branches. There are usually three 
or four coccids hidden in this galled wood, situated under a depression, covered 
by a scale of dried bark, the apical opening just level with the surface of the live 
bark. Remove the bark and soft tissue and you find a detachable funnel of hard 
wood resting on the rim of the coccid chamber, below which is simply an oval pit 
in the solid wood. 


In Apiomorpha macqueeni the gall is a solid fig-shaped mass of wood, in the 
centre of which is a thin slender envelope of woody material readily detached 
from the woody gall surrounding it, in which the coccid is hidden. 


The change from the larva to the first instar of the female coccid takes place 
very soon after the initial swelling out of the plant tissue, and before the gall is a 
quarter grown, the enclosed coccid at this stage exhibiting all the external appen- 
dages of the adult in a rudimentary form. The virgin female has a thin derm 
covered with white mealy secretion, and stands on her head with the tips of the 
anal appendages level with the top of the apical opening on the summit of the 
gall. She can move backwards and forwards in the gall chamber; when removed 
from the gall, and laid upon a glass slip, she has a habit of turning the abdominal 
segments upward and twitching her body. At this stage of development the 
contents of the body consist chiefly of clear watery fluid. 


The full grown female coccid is tinted yellow or brown, the derm tough, and 
the external appendage chitinous with bands of yellow, reddish-brown, or black 
chitin, and the anal appendages hard and horny. They vary somewhat in form, 
but the typical ones are turbinate and are coated with floury secretion which also 
covers the walls of the gall chamber and the edges of the apical orifice in the gall. 
Both ventral and dorsal surfaces are clothed with scattered fine spiny hairs, with 
finer longer hairs fringing the anal segments in some species. Besides the hairs 
on the dorsal surface there are scattered bands, or regular transverse rows of 
lance-shaped, conical, or thorn-shaped spines, on the abdominal segments; in excep- 
tional cases these extend on to the thoracic and cephalic region. 


The cephalic and first and second thoracic segments coalesce to form an oval 
body; the third thoracic segment, round on the sides and across the basal margin, 
forms a distinct band which might be likened to the waist, and the tapering 
rounded anal segments to the tail. The cephalic forms a rounded fold with the 
first thoracic segment, in the centre of which are the aborted antennae, below 
which are the small fore legs, with the mouth in the centre between them. The 
two anterior spiracles are on either side above. The second thoracic segment is 
very broad, with a v-shaped cleft in the centre below the mouth forming a pit 
with a wrinkled area on either side bearing the second pair of legs, and a trans- 
verse fold below, deeply divided on the apical margin by the segmental division 
between it and the third thoracic segment. This bears the larger hind legs, and 
the posterior spiracles just above the base of the legs. There are seven abdominal 
segments, the first six well defined, but the seventh much reduced in size and 
coalescing with the base of the anal appendages, a pair of horny pointed lobes, 
which occupy the tip of the anal segment in some species; in others they occupy 
the dorsal half and the fringed anal ring is behind them on the ventral side; in 
others the anal ring is situated at the base of the anal appendages. The gravid 


434 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


female is a sac of larvae which, as they are born, leave the moribund mother a 
wrinkled skin in the bottom of the gall chamber. 

As previously noted, in a number of species the male galls outnumber the 
female galls by thousands; in one species in particular, the four-horned gall- 
maker, Apiomorpha munita, great masses of the tiny tubular galls, resembling a 
bunch of coral, may be on a branch with not more than fifty female galls. The 
delicate pink two-winged male has been described in my first paper (These 
PROCEEDINGS, Vii, 1892, 356). They develop in the tubular galls with two long 
white filaments produced on the sides of the slender body, extending beyond the 
end of the gall chamber. The larvae, after emergence from the body of the mother, 
congregate at the bottom of the gall chamber and remain in a semi-dormant state 
for some time before they crawl upwards and escape through the apical orifice. 
They are to be found in the galls in September and October. They are pale yellow, 
flattened little creatures, oval in form, with a cleft in the cephalic margin, between 
the base of the seven annular jointed antennae. The anal segment is produced 
into two rounded lobes. The eyes are black, the legs long and slender, with the 
tarsal claws sharp and usually with a pair of digits. The whole body is fringed 
right round with fine sharp spines. 

In the present paper I have briefly described the male and female galls, and 
given the range of the different species, and the specific name of the host 
eucalyptus. I am giving a group classification of all the species of the genus, 
based on the form and disposition of the hairs and spines on the dorsal surface, 
and the structure of the anal appendages. There are two species which I cannot 
place: Apiomorpha Karschi, described by Rtibsaamen, probably a variety or 
abnormal specimen of A. fletcheri and Apiomorpha cucurbita described from the 
female galls only by Fuller. 


Classification of species of Apiomorpha by the structure of the female galls and the 
arrangement of the hairs and spines on the dorsal surface, together with the form of the 
anal appendages. 


Group A.—Galls solid, sessile, formed on the branchlets or stem; apical orifice an 
elongate-oval slit. Coccid with the anal appendages widely separated at the base, 
long, slender, broadest at base, with a tuft of long hairs at the tips .. duplex; pileaia. 

Group B.—Gall variable in form, rugose at apex, with the apical orifice small, circular. 
Sessile on twigs or branchlets. Coccid with the anal segment very long and slender, 
anal appendages not coalesced with anal segment, long, slender, flattened, turning 
outward from the base, bifid at the tips .... wrnalis; macqueeni; wmbellata; sloanei. 

Group C.—Galls formed on the leaves, slender or elongate-oval. The apical orifice small, 
circular. Coccid with anal segment without spines, conical. Anal appendages not 
coalescing with the anal segment, slender, sabre-shaped, with the bases occupying 
only the dorsal half of the anal segment, tips slightly bifid ...................... 
RS HE SARE TRS Seat nar oe, cee pharetrata; thorntoni; rosaeformis; spinifer; fusiformis. 

Group D.—Galls oval, smooth or fluted, sessile, apical orifice small, circular. Normally 
produced upon the branchlets, but often growing out of the flower buds. Coccid 
with the dorsal surface covered with scattered thorn-shaped spines. Anal segment 
longer than broad, anal appendages coalescing with anal segment, which is broad 
at the base, round and rugose on the sides and with the anal appendages forms a 
lance-shaped tip, which is slightly bifid ........ ovicola; helmsi; withersi; floralis. 

Group H.—Galls consisting of oval pits in masses of galled wood upon the branches, with 
a detachable funnel-shaped cap perforated at the apex, which fits over the chamber 
below. Dorsal surface without any large spines, very chitinous, anal segment and 
anal appendages coalesced, broad at base, tapering to the tips ............ fletcheri. 

Group F.—Galls oval, sessile upon the branches, covered with fine curled filaments. 
Coccid with abdominal segments chitinous, fringed with fine spines, short anal 
segment, rounded at the base, coalesced with the short anal appendages which are 
broad at the base, with the tips peg-shaped and curving outward, and fringed with 
fine hairs, bifidat ithe tips) |. 22.558. Satiete ros crete cea eee etre dipsaciformis ; excwpula. 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 435 


Group G.—Galls variable, usually sessile and broad at the base, sometimes slender and 
stalked. Apical orifice small, circular. Coccid with few or no large spines on the 
thoracic and first two abdominal segments. Anal segment longer than broad, trun- 
cated base; anal appendages broad at base, rugose, cylindrical, tapering to the tips 
which open out from the base into pointed tips; coalescing with anal segment 
265 GRETEER spur oe RSC aa ia oa aa pedunculata; longmani; frenchi; conica; attenwata. 

Group H.—Galls sessile, rounded, slightly flattened or depressed on the apex, with small 
circular apical orifice. Growing on the branchlets. Coccid very lightly clothed with 
large spines. Anal segment and anal appendage forming an elongate triangular 
DOMME, UMS GEES Gaerne, wid lollovoye Ore lovael whys soonasconncdoncoosocndooopdaooe 
Ie eee km sep Siena tee ke globosa; matiformis; strombylosa; variabilis; bauerleni- 

Group I.—Galls rather small, sessile, rounded at the base, with or without terminal 
appendages. Apical orifice small, circular. Coccid with the abdominal segments 
small, chitinous, fringed with fine hairs. Spines on dorsal surface scattered, usually 
some on the thoracic segments. Anal segment and anal appendages coalesced, 
broad and rounded at the base, curving out in the centre, with the tips small and 
Lonttaicl. - 4 bo B see anders audtiquors ote munita; hilli; sessilis; minor; dumosa; rugosa; anivulata- 


Group A. 
APIOMORPHA DUPLEX Schrader. Text-figs. 30, 30a. 


This large gall is found from Sydney to Newcastle and the Blue Mountains 
upon Hucalyptus saligna, E. piperita, HE. haemastoma, E. Camfieldi, and 
EH. eugenioides. Other records are given in These PROCEEDINGS, lv, 1930, 471. 


The female gall is sessile, growing out from the side of the branch, swelling 
out into a green four-sided, elongate, ridged mass of solid woody matter, 3 inches 
in length from the base to the apical orifice. The orifice forms a narrow slit 
between the two flattened curled leaf-like horns, often up to 7 or 8 inches in length, 
which project on either side of the solid basal portion. As the galls mature they 
turn brown and are much more noticeable among the surrounding green foliage. 
This remarkable gall has been figured several times. Schrader gave a drawing of 
it when he described the type. The late Mr. Grose (Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 1898) gave 
a life-size drawing which was reproduced in my “Australian Insects,” 1907. 
Tillyard (Insects of Australia and New Zealand, 1926, Pl. 14) figures a very slender 
form. 


°. Coccid 1% inches in length, broad in proportion, thickly covered with 
floury secretion which is also thickly coated over the walls of the gall chamber. 
Derm lightly clothed with some very small slender spines and annular pores on 
the cephalic and thoracic segments. Abdominal segments thickly covered with 
very long spiny hairs and more annular pores; the hairs form regular bands 
across the segments interspersed with lance-shaped spines; 1st and 2nd segments 
with small lance-shaped spines among the hairs, 3rd with larger lance-shaped 
spines forming an irregular band; 4th to 6th with similar spines arranged in a 
regular row across the lower portion; in the 4th and 5th segments the spines are 
grouped in two or four. Anal segment spineless, but lightly clothed with long 
spiny hairs; round on the sides, with the anal ring fringed with fine hairs in the 
centre, at the base of the anal appendages, which, coalescing with the anal 
segment, are broadest at the base, widely separated from each other; long and 
slender to the pointed tips, which are fringed and tufted with long hairs. 


APIOMORPHA PILEATA Schrader. Text-figs. 11, 11a. 
This distinctive gall is found in the vicinity of Sydney, chiefly upon the 
branchlets of stunted specimens of Hucalyptus Sieberiana. I have specimens upon 
#H. uwmbra, Gosford, and on EL. acmenioides from Glen Innes, Mr. T. W. Taylor. In 


436 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


the herbarium of the Botanic Gardens there are specimens on £. piperita, Concord, 
Miss Walker; #. Camfieldi, Hornsby, Mr. W. F. Blakely; #. robusta, Hill Top, Mr. 
E. Cheel; C. virgata, Gosford, Mr. de Beuzeville; EH. acmenioides, Uringa, Mr. F. A. 
Andrews; #. sp., Port Macquarie, Forester Brown. The only specimens from out- 


TT ANN 

Vibe t WOE sy 
alba 

AO ARUP SOLO 


GON Og WK ( 0 

DAA a) OTERO, 
, 
fit 


mye 
OCR AA SD 
(CARON 
NON 8 eas hy 


| heer A's 


Text-figs. 1-6. 
1.—Apiomorpha macqueeni Froggatt. 2.—Apiomorpha fusiformis Froggatt (2a, 
anal segment). 3.—Apiomorpha longmani Froggatt. 4.—Apiomorpha spinifer 
Froggatt (4a, anal segment; 4b, blunt spines on cephalic region). 5.—Apiomorpha 
annulata Froggatt (5a, anal segment). 6.—Apiomorpha wumbellata Froggatt 
(6a, anal segment; 6b, bell-shaped appendages on cephalic region). 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 437 


side the State are from the Dandenong Ranges, Victoria, collected by Mr. C. 
French, Jr. 

The male and female galls are gregarious, often aborting the leaves and 
twigs of an infested tree. The male galls, scattered over the leaves, are cylindrical 
tubes with the apex dilated. The female galls have two distinct forms, but all 


' . 
MO dag Toes ie pe 


not eT a 
Twos 
ey oS Su 
on aN "da 
Waker 
. : as 
aug 0 
Ceol a" y 


THN Oa Oa ry 
ate Sane 


ou 
hin 


Ny 


Nii mate 


— 


vay 


Ny 
TER ayy) 


' 
lg 


4, ae 
Hnintet en Wyn, 


Text-figs. 7-12. 
7, Ta—Apiomorpha dumosa Froggatt. 8, 8a—Apiomorpha minor Froggatt. 
9, 9a.—Apiomorpha excupula Fuller. 10, 10a.—Apiomorpha globosa Froggatt. 
11, lla.—Apiomorpha pileata Schrader. 12, 12a.—Apiomorpha dipsaciformis 
Froggatt. 


438 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


conform to the one type on each tree. They are sessile, green, and in the first 
type elongate-oval, rounded to the apex which is deeply truncate, with the sides 
forming two folds or lips with an elongate slit between them, instead of the 
circular apical orifice of most species. The second form is squat and oval, with 
the summit more deeply cut into on either side of the opening. In the early 
stages of their development the summit of each gall is covered with a tailed cap, 
often tapering out several inches in length; as the gall develops this cap dries 
and drops off the gall. Schrader figured these galls in his original description of 
the type. I give a drawing of the oval variety in my Descriptive Catalogue, Part ii, 
1921, and Tillyard also figures them (Insects of Aust. and N.Z., Pl. 14). 


Female coccid three-fourths of an inch in length. Derm clothed with fine spiny 
hairs increasing in numbers and length to the tip of the abdominal segments. The 
whole surface covered with small annular pores, densest on the abdominal 
segments. A few scattered small lance-shaped spines across the centre of the 
thoracic segments; 1st and 2nd abdominal segments with scattered lance-shaped 
spines across the centre; 3rd to 6th banded with chitin and an irregular row of 
larger lance-shaped spines. Anal segment small with a dark chitinous band on 
each side coalescing with the base of the anal appendages which are separated 
from each other by the fringed anal ring; anal appendages peg-shaped, broad at 
the base, slender, irregularly rounded to the pointed tips which carry a tuft of 
three or four long hairs. 


Group B. 
APIOMORPHA URNALIS Tepper. Text-figs. 26, 26a. 


The type specimen of this dainty jug-shaped gall was described from South 
Australia. We now know it as one of the inland species common upon various 
species of the dwarf gums of the Mallee scrubs. 


The range and list of eucalypts it infests I have recorded (These PROCEEDINGS, 
1930), with a photograph showing the variations in the form of the female galls. 
The male galls are of the typical cylindrical form, and are scattered over the twigs 
and foliage among the female galls. 

The female coccid is very slender, with the base narrow, round, and swelling 
out on the sides in a line with the second pair of legs, the first four abdominal 
segments with the outer margins uniform, with the 5th and 6th narrow and 
rounded, 7th spindle-shaped, tapering to the apex, longer than the 5th and 6th 
combined. Anal appendages not coalescing with the anal segment, dark reddish- 
brown, long and slender, open at the base, and curving outward, bifid at the slender 
tips. 

Derm with a yellow chitinous patch in the centre of the cephalic fold covered 
with small slender lance-shaped spines of variable sizes, which are encircled by 
ten irregularly rounded dark-brown lobes, with three irregular shaped spined black 
lobes below, two above, and one below the second pair of legs. The thoracic 
segments clothed with scattered, very fine spiny hairs. The legs rather slender, 
dark brown with a short narrow bar of the same colour on each side of all the 
segments. The first three abdominal segments broadly banded with fine spiny 
hairs, and a few small stout spines in the centre; 4th to 6th with similar hairs and 
a regular band of small lance-shaped spines; 7th deep yellow, with very fine spiny 
hairs lightly scattered all over the surface and a few long slender spines in the 
centre. 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 


APIOMORPHA MACQUEENI Froggatt. Text-fig. 1. 


439 


This species, which is apparently confined to the southern forest land of 


southern Queensland, has only been recorded upon the branchlets of the 
leaved ironbark, Hucalyptus pilligaensis. 


a, CST sy 
Aden he 
nd, Linen es 


E A King 


Text-figs. 13-18. 


narrow- 


13.—Apiomorpha ovicola Schrader (13a, anal segment). 14.—Apiomorpha 
pedunculata Fuller (14a, anal segment). 15.—Apiomorpha strombylosa Tepper 
(15a, anal segment). 16.—Apiomorpha variabilis Froggatt (16a, anal segment). 
17. Apiomorpha withersi, n. sp. (17a, anal segment). 18.—A piomorpha 


maliformis Fuller (18a, anal segment). 


440 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


The female gall is very variable in form, and since it was described in These 
PROCEEDINGS in 1929, I have had a large series from Mr. Macqueen, some of which 
have a wonderful resemblance to a fig, others to a top; others are almost spindle- 
shaped, but all have the typical ragged apex. 

The male galls which have also come to hand are of the normal type of small 
cylindrical tubes, scattered over the surface of the leaves. The extraordinary 
elongation of the anal segments, particularly the anal one, which is quite distinct 
from the slender flattened anal appendages, is well depicted in Miss King’s drawing. 


APIOMORPHA UMBELLATA Froggatt. Text-figs. 6, 6a, Db. 


The type specimens were collected by Mr. J. L. Boorman upon a Mallee gum, 
Eucalyptus dumosa, near Cobar, N.S.W. It has since been sent from Griffith, 
N.S.W., upon H. oleosa, by Mr. W. D. Campbell. Another unique specimen on the 
branch of a Mallee gum comes from Coelebah, N.S.W., where several galls of this 
species are growing side by side with other galls of Apiomorpha conica. Professor 
J. B. Cleland has lately sent it from Flinders Range, South Australia, upon 
EF. odorata. 

The female galls, usually in clusters upon a branchlet, are sessile, narrow at 
the base, cylindrical, swelling out to the truncate apex, which is rugose, the small 
apical orifice in the centre. 

Female coccid very slender, the cephalic segment rounded, clouded with yellow 
in the centre, and covered with fine pointed spines, encircled by a band of dark 
brown lobes, three on either side and four below, besides which there are three 
black, irregularly spined lobes, two above and one between the second pair of 
legs. There is a pair of short brown bars on each segment; the thoracic ones 
clothed with fine spiny hairs and a few short small spines; Ist to 3rd abdominal 
segments clothed with fine spiny hairs and a few short spines; 4th and 5th with 
similar spiny hairs and a band of fine spines; 6th contracted and rounded on the 
sides with the short spines forming a band across the lower margin. The anal 
segment yellow, very long, slender, spindle-shaped, narrow to the apex, clothed 
and fringed with fine spiny hairs, not coalesced with the anal appendages which 
open from the base and are dark brown, very long, irregularly rounded, slender, 
rugose and bifid at the tips. 


APIOMORPHA SLOANE! Froggatt. 


The gall and adult coccid of this species are figured and described in These 
PROCEEDINGS, 1898. The type specimens were collected by Mr. T. G. Sloane on an 
unidentified eucalypt in the Wagga district, N.S.W. I have never seen any other 
specimens. 

The elongate cylindrical galls have a general appearance similar to those of 
Apiomorpha pedunculata. The enclosed coccid, however, belongs to the group with 
the slender form, in which the anal segment is longer than the rest of the 
abdominal segments combined, not coalesced with the anal appendages which open 
from the base and are long and slender. 


Group C. 
APIOMORPHA PHARETRATA Schrader. Text-figs. 27, 27a. 


This ‘‘cockscomb” gall was described and figured by Schrader in 1862 upon 
Eucalyptus corymbosa growing in the vicinity of Sydney, and is recorded upon 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 441 


several other species. It has a wide range, a record of which is given in my paper 
in These PROCEEDINGS, 1930, where it is figured. There is another figure in my 
Descriptive Catalogue, Pt. ii (Science Bulletin 18, Department of Agriculture of 
N.S.W.). 


i te Z a age 
f ay sy Teeth tit 


oo AAR AINA ese Frente Get 
é . ' pes 


Tne 
' AGE 
entenauntionG 


7G 
Wn tg tt an 
inp Ai Ma ee 
WC eta oe SUN ont, 


RINT 
y Tilak v 
Mil sitet 


Text-figs. 19-24. 
19.—Apiomorpha conica Froggatt. 20.—Apiomorpha thorntoni Froggatt. 21.— 
Apiomorpha attenuata Froggatt. 22.—Apiomorpha munita Schrader (22a, anal 
segment). 23.—Apiomorpha bduwerleni Froggatt (23a, anal segment). 24.— 
Apiomorpha helmsi Fuller (24a, anal segment). 


442 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


The female galls produced upon the leaves often springing from the midrib 
and aborting the foliage. The gall is oval, with the apex truncate. The male galls 
consist of a mass of coalesced tubes turned down and enfolded in a smooth 
rounded mass of tissue which springs out of the side of the female gall and is 
concave on the gall-tube side, and many times the size of the half-hidden female 
gall. ; 

Female coccid turbinate, 10 mm. in length. Derm lightly clothed with fine 
spiny hairs, a slight chitinous fold between the second pair of legs. ist and 2nd 
- abdominal segments covered with longer spiny hairs and a few scattered small 
lance-shaped spines; 38rd to 5th with an open row of small lance-shaped spines 
across the centre, but not extending to the outer margins; 6th with a reddish 
chitinous band across the lower margin, fringed with lance-shaped spines. Anal 
segment cone-shaped, apical half reddish-brown, truncate on the ventral side 
which bears the anal ring fringed with hairs. Anal appendages reddish-brown, 
not coalescing with the dorsal surface of the anal segment, slender, pointed and 
curving outward. 

APIOMORPHA THORNTONI Froggatt. Text-fig. 20. 


This species is found upon the foliage of Eucalyptus piperita in the Newcastle 
district and in the vicinity of Sydney. I have it from Guyra, N.S.W., upon 
EL. macrorrhyncha, Rev. E. N. McKie; and EH. amygdalina, Dandenong Ranges, 
Victoria, Mr. C. French, Jr. The galls are compound and differ from those of 
Apiomorpha pharetrata in the female galls being smaller, ribbed on the sides, and 
the attached mass of male galls being much more irregular in form and wrinkled. 
A description of the immature female gall and coccid is given in my paper in These 
PROCEEDINGS, 1930. 

Female coccid turbinate, tapering to apex. Length, 8 mm. Derm thin, with 
the cephalic and thoracic segments lightly clothed with fine spiny hairs, Ist and 
2nd abdominal segments with an irregular band of fine lance-shaped spines inter- 
spersed with spiny hairs; 3rd to 6th with a regular row of lance-shaped spines 
along the lower margin, on the 6th a narrow chitinous band carries the spines. 
Anal segment conical, with the exception of the basal margin reddish-brown; in 
general structure like that of Apiomorpha pharetrata, but the anal appendage 
rugose on the ventral surface, and curving outward. Anal ring on the ventral 
side of the tip of the anal segment. 


APIOMORPHA ROSAEFORMIS Froggatt. 


This beautiful compound gall is a very rare species and in the three specimens 
examined the spindle-shaped female galls contained nothing but the remains of 
the female coccid. The type specimen came from Wingham, Manning River, 
N.S.W. Two other specimens were collected by Professor J. B. Cleland on a 
stringybark, Hucalyptus capitata, at Neutral Bay, near Sydney. 

I figured the type specimen in These PROCEEDINGS, 1895, and in 1930 I gave a 
figure showing the slender female gall with its attached mass of pink-tinted disk 
of male galls. 


APIOMORPHA SPINIFER Froggatt. Text-figs. 4, 4a, b. 


This species was described in my paper in These PrRocEEDINGS, 1930, from 
specimens upon an undetermined species of Hucalyptus from Stanthorpe, Queens- 
land. These galls were very like those of Apiomorpha fusiformis, but more trun- 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 443 


cate at the apex. Since this was described I have received a fine series of this 
species from Portland, N.S.W., from Archdeacon Haviland, also on an undeter- 
mined species of Hucalyptus. 

. The male galls appear to be rather short and squat, with the apex swollen 
out into a rounded lump deeply depressed in the centre, but are much aborted by 
chalcid parasites, which also have infested many of the adult females in the galls. 
The female galls are in threes and fours along the midrib of the leaf, 10 mm. in 
height and 4 mm. in diameter. They are very irregular in form and colour, 
varying from green to brown and often blackened with fumagine. The galls are 
narrow at the base, irregularly oval in form and not so slender as in the type 
specimens, but the apex is ringed in the same manner. 

The female coccids have the cephalic spines very well defined, varying from 
two to four in number. 


APIOMORPHA FUSIFORMIS Froggatt. Text-figs. 2, 2a. 


This species was described in my paper in These Procrepines, 1930. It comes 
from Queensland, and the type is in the Queensland Museum. The anal ring is 
fringed with fine hairs, and occupies the ventral side of the anal segment. 


Group D. 
APIOMORPHA OVICOLA Schrader. Text-figs. 13, 13a. 


This is an inland species found upon the branchlets and not uncommon on 
the flower buds of the red gum, Hucalyptus rostrata, and as this gum tree is 
found along the edges of all the inland rivers and water-courses in all parts of 
Australia, it probably has a very wide range. The type was described by Schrader 
from the vicinity of Sydney. I have specimens, usually solitary, upon Hucalyptus 
microtheca, Narrabri, Mr. Gordon Burrows; £H. siderophloia, Gilgandra, Mr. G. 
Withers; H#. crebra, Dubbo, W.W.F.; E. fructorum, Griffith, Mr. W. D. Campbell; 
E. largiflorens, Curra Curra, Mr. J. H. Maiden. From Queensland on £. paniculata, 
Mr. A. M. Rankin. From Victoria on E. melliodora, Stawell, Mr. C. Daley. From 
South Australia upon two mallee gums, EL. incrassata and E. gracilis. 

Male galls small, cylindrical, dilated at the apex, scattered over the leaves and 
branchlets. 

Female galls broadly oval, green and smooth, walls solid, apex slightly 
depressed, with small circular apical orifice. When infested with phytophagous 
inquilines feeding in the tissue of the young galls, they often become aborted and 
vary in form. Tepper (Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Australia, 1893) described and figured 
two of these aborted forms under different names. 

Female coccid slightly less than an inch in length. Derm thin and clear, 
slightly chitinous on the abdominal segments, and a narrow band between the 
legs. The whole surface clothed with scattered long spiny hairs; the central area 
of the cephalic and thoracic segments covered with short, dark-brown, slightly 
curved, rose-shaped thorns which, upon the ist to 3rd abdominal segments, are 
in more uniform bands and extend across the segments; 4th to 6th segments with 
the whole surface covered with these spines, with the chitinous bands covered 
with very small spines. Anal segment short, coalescing with the anal appendages, 
truncate at base, both very rugose, the anal segment covered with fine spines spring- 
ing from little bosses. Anal appendages long, in contact from the base, with the tips 
bifid. 


444 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


APIOMORPHA HELMS! Fuller. Text-figs. 24, 24a. 


The type specimens were taken from an undetermined species of eucalypt near 
Perth, W. Australia. I have a fine series in groups of two or three formed upon the 
flower buds of Hucalyptus redunca collected by Mr. J. Stair, near York, W.A. 

The male galls are scattered over the surface of the leaves. They are of the 
usual tubular form with the apex dilated, but have the outer surface ribbed and 
are usually of a yellow colour. 

The female galls are sessile, elongate-oval in form, narrow at the base, with 
from five to seven ridges or angles extending up to the apex, which is arcuate 
on the edges, convex in the centre with a little projecting cone round the apical 
orifice. 

Female coccid turbinate. Derm slightly opaque, legs and apical abdominal 
segments brown, anal appendages black. The whole of the dorsal surface clothed 
with fine spiny hairs increasing in size and numbers on the terminal abdominal 
segments. The centre of the cephalic and thoracic segments covered with short 
dark-brown thorn-shaped spines; Ist and 2nd abdominal segments with the central 
area covered with similar spines; 3rd and 4th with the spines in a transverse row; 
5th and 6th with the spines in contact at base along the apical margin. The 
anal segment rounded on the sides, fringed with fine hairs, coalescing with the 
slender anal appendages which are rugose on the outer margins, almost in contact 
along the inner edges and terminating in a fine point turning outward. 


APIOMORPHA WITHERSI, nN. Sp. Text-figs. 17, 17a. 


This is an interesting species which I have received from two localities upon 
the narrow-leaved ironbark, Hucalyptus pilligaensis, first from Mr. G. Withers, 
Gilgandra, N. S. Wales, and the second lot from Mr. J. Macqueen, Millmerran, 
Southern Queensland. At first sight the female galls might be taken for a small 
variety of Apiomorpha ovicola, but the apex is generally more depressed and they 
are usually gregarious, several in a row upon the branchlet. 

Male gall unknown. 

Female coccid light brown, with the external appendages yellowish-brown. The 
antennae large, broad at base, tapering to the tip, apparently six-jointed; the legs 
large, the third pair very finely shagreened; thoracic spiracles large, irregularly 
rounded. The derm lightly clothed with fine hairs on the cephalic and thoracic 
segments which are more spiny and abundant on the abdominal segments. The 
3rd thoracic and ist and 2nd abdominal segments covered with scattered, dark- 
brown, small, sharp, thorn-shaped spines, which on the 3rd to 5th abdominal 
segments form a regular band across the centre, with a cluster of three or four 
spines in the centre above the regular band; 6th with a band of similar spines 
along the lower margin. The anal segment long, rounded and rugose on the sides, 
coalescing with the anal appendages which are slender, finely serrate on the outer 
margins and separated from each other on the inner margins which are smooth; 
the tips slightly bifid, turning outward. Anal ring on a chitinous ridge at the base 
of the anal appendages. 


APIOMORPHA FLORALIS Froggatt. 
The gall is large, oval and resembles that of A. ovicola, but the apex, instead 
of being rounded, has a distinct raised ring round the apical orifice. The type 
was growing from a flower bud, Hucalyptus sp., and comes from Central Australia. 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 445 


The general form of the coccid is like that of A. ovicola, but the dark thorn- 
shaped spines down the centre of the cephalic and thoracic segments are much 
more closely grouped together, forming a continuous, broad, parallel band, not 


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Text-figs. 25-30. 
25.—Apiomorpha frenchi Froggatt (25a, anal segment). 26.—Apiomorpha urnalis 
Tepper (26a, anal segment). 27.—Apiomorpha pharetrata Schrader (27a, anal 
segment). 28.—Apiomorpha fletcheri Fuller (28a, anal segment). 29.—A pio- 
morpha sessilis Froggatt (29a, anal segment). 30.—Apiomorpha duplex Schrader 
(30a, anal segment). 


446 : GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


extending much beyond the base of the legs; on the abdominal segments the spines 
are more scattered and numerous. The outer margins of the anal segment and 
anal appendages with the marginal spines larger, but very irregular, the tips 
similar and bifid. 

I have only had the single type specimen. 


Group E. 
APIOMORHA FLETCHERI Fuller. Text-figs. 28, 28a. 

This is a very remarkable form of gall structure; the presence of the coccids 
produces large irregular gouty swellings on the branches. On the surface of these 
are depressions varying in number from two to five according to the size of the 
aborted tissue. Over these indentations is a small shred of dead bark, beneath 
which is the tip of the gall encircling the small circular apical orifice. The real. 
gall consists of this cap which is a thin hard wooden funnel forming a detachable 
lid fitting over the basal gall chamber containing the coccid. This is simply an 
oval cavity in the solid mass of aborted wood tissue. The male galls are just as 
remarkable, masses of tiny pink tubes covering the surface of the leaf. They were 
described and figured in my paper in These PROCEEDINGS, 1930. 

It is also interesting to note that they infest gum trees of such distinct species 
as the red gum with its smooth bark, and the red box growing on the inland 
rivers. Since my previous paper I have had specimens of this gall from Western 
Australia. 

Female coccid with the cephalic and thoracic segments broad and rounded; 
the abdominal ones contracted and tapering, rounded on the sides and thickly 
coated with chitin, the anal one and anal appendages black and rugose. The 
derm covered with very fine spiny hairs; the abdominal segment thickly covered 
with fine spiny hairs springing from little bosses, but there are no large distinctive 
spines like those found on the abdominal segments of all other known species of 
this genus. The anal segment and anal appendage coalesced form a long lance- 
shaped tip to the abdomen; the latter finely serrate on the outer edges, with the 
tips pointed and opening out. 


Group F. 
APIOMORPHA DIPSACIFORMIS Froggatt. Text-figs. 12, 12a. 

The type specimen was figured and described in These PROCEEDINGS, 1895; 
the galls were perfect, with the whole of the outer surface covered with fine 
filaments, which curled downward just like a diminutive teasel. 

Specimens received from Queensland on Hucalyptus pilligaensis were much 
more matured and had lost much of their spiny covering. These were figured 
in my paper in These PROCEEDINGS, 1930, together with the male galls. 

Female coccid broad rounded, the apical abdominal segments reddish-brown, 
banded with chitin. Derm lightly clothed with fine spiny hairs, and annular pores 
thickest upon the basal half of the abdominal segments; a few small lance-shaped 
spines on the cephalic fold near the base of the antennae, and irregular bands of 
larger lance-shaped spines upon the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments; the 1st and 2nd 
abdominal segments with similar spines on basal bosses, 3rd to 6th banded with 
chitinous plates bearing a row of stouter spines with the annular pores showing 
through the chitin and very fine spines over the apical portion. Anal segment very 
small and narrow, coalescing with the stout peg-shaped anal appendages, which 
are broadest at the base, open in the centre, rounded and rugose on the outer 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 447 


sides, bifid at the tips and fringed with fine hairs. Anal ring chitinous, indistinct. 
In most species the number of segments in the antennae is difficult to determine, 
but in this and the following species they are well defined. 


APIOMORPHA EXCUPULA Fuller. Text-figs. 9, 9a. 

This species is confined to New South Wales; I described the male galls and 
figured them with the female galls in These ProcrkEpiInGs, 1930. 

Female coccid broadly rounded to the abdominal segments. Length, 13 mm. 
Derm slightly opaque with the last four abdominal segments banded with chitin, 
reddish-yellow, the whole surface clothed with fine spiny hairs, and annular pores, 
the latter thickest on the abdominal segments. A few small lance-shaped spines 
on the cephalic fold, and irregularly scattered over the last two thoracic segments; 
1st to 3rd abdominal segments thickly covered with fine spiny hairs and a band 
of long slender lance-shaped spines, 4th to 6th fringed with a band of long 
lance-shaped spines. Anal segment very small, coalescing with the anal appendages, 
which are broad at the base, curving outward into peg-shaped bifid tips, rugose, 
open on the inner margins, with a tuft of long hairs on either side. Anal ring at 
base of anal appendages chitinous and indistinct. 


Group G. 
APIOMORPHA PEDUNCULATA Fuller. Text-figs. 14, 14a. 

This fine species which varies somewhat in both form and size, is recorded 
upon a number of different species of Eucalypts and has a wide range over southern 
and eastern Australia. 

In the vicinity of Sydney it is found upon Hucalyptus viminalis and E. saligna; 
Moira, Murray River, on HE. rostrata; Lansdown, N. S. Wales, on H. punctata, Mr. 
A. C. Melvor; Gilgandra, EH. amplifolia, Mr. G. Withers. From Queensland, at 
Imbil, on H. punctata, Mr. A. M. Rankin. From South Australia on EH. leptophylla, 
Encounter Bay, Professor J. B. Cleland. From Victoria on an undetermined 
eucalypt, Mr. C. French, Jr. 

Male galls of the typical tubular form with the apex dilated are scattered 
over the foliage. 

The female gall, springing from the branchlet in a slender circular stem, 
swells out into an elongate-oval gall, truncate at the tip. Sometimes solitary, at 
other times in clusters of three or four. 

Female coccid rounded at base with the segments tapering to the apex, but 
of uniform width. Length, 25 mm. Derm slightly opaque, last three abdominal 
segments and anal appendages chitinous, the latter black. The whole surface 
thickly covered with very fine small slender spines and annular pores. Abdominal 
segments banded with longer slender spines, with a few short conical spines on 
the 1st abdominal segment, 2nd and 3rd with an irregular band of conical spines, 
4th to 6th with a row of larger conical spines in the centre, not reaching to the 
outer edges. Anal segment coalescing with the long awl-shaped anal appendages, 
rounded at the base, outer edges fringed with hairs and slender spines, in contact 
at the base, opening out into slender irregular lance-shaped tips. 


APIOMORPHA LONGMANI Froggatt. Text-fig. 3. 


This species is described, and the galls figured in my paper in These PRocEED- 
mnes, 1930. The type is in the Queensland Museum. The female coccid is about 


E 


448 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


9 mm. in length. The cephalic and thoracic segments rounded to the abdominal 
segments, which are contracted and narrow from the second segment. Anal 
segment rounded at the base, coalescing with the stout lance-tipped anal appendages 
which are open from the base, curving outward, rugose and spined on the outer 
margins. 


APIOMORPHA FRENCHI Froggatt. Text-figs. 25, 25a. 


This species was described in my Descriptive Catalogue (Science Bulletin 18, 
Department of Agriculture, N. S. Wales, 1921). The type specimens were collected 
by Mr. C. French, Jr., on the branchlets of a red gum, Hucalyptus rostrata, growing 
on the banks of the Werribee River, Victoria. I have since had a large series 
in all stages of development from the same locality. 

The male galls are very numerous on the leaves and branchlets among the 
female galls. They are of the typical cylindrical form, but rather short, with the 
apex broadly dilated. 

The female galls single or clustered together in groups on the branchlets, 
sessile, cylindrical, with the apex truncate, centre slightly convex, with the apical 
orifice small. The immature galls are green, but as they mature they change to 
brown, and in old specimens crack into fine rings on the surface. 

Female coccid 11 mm. in length; abdominal segments contracted, reddish- 
brown, banded with chitin, anal segment and anal appendages black. Derm lightly 
clothed with very small short spiny hairs, forming bands across the first two 
abdominal segments; 3rd with an irregular band of lance-shaped spines in the 
centre, 4th to 6th with a regular band of larger lance-shaped spines. Anal segment 
rounded at base, coalescing with the anal appendages, which are broad at the base, 
opening out and rounded, forming broad lance-shaped tips. 


APIOMORPHA CONICA Froggatt. Text-fig. 19. 


This somewhat variable gall has a wide range over eastern and southern 
Australia, but I have not seen specimens from Queensland. In the vicinity of 
Sydney it is found upon Hucalyptus robusta, E. viminalis and EH. Deanei; from 
Guyra, N. S. Wales, on H. Nicholi, Rev. HE. N. McKie; Glen Innes in the north 
and Captain’s Flat in the south on undetermined eucalypts. From Victoria 
upon H. Gunni, Hamilton, and H. regnans, Croydon, Mr. C. French, Jr. It was 
described from South Australia by Mr. J. G. O. Tepper. In the herbarium of 
the Sydney Botanic Gardens there are specimens from Broken Hill on EZ. dumosa, 
Mr. A. Morris; Cobar, #. dumosa, Mr. J. C. Boardman; East Mirool, £. oleosa, 
Mr. Campbell; Bellerive, W. Australia, H. viminalis, Mr. J. H. Maiden; Kaneara. 
Victoria, H. bicolor, Rev. W. W. Watts. 

Male galls of typical form, tubular with dilated apex, scattered about over the 
surface of the leaves. 

Female galls broadly oval, with the conical apex distinctly ringed round the 
apical orifice, grouped in bunches or single on the branchlets. A plate is given 
in my Descriptive Catalogue, 1921, showing the variation in form of this gall. 

Female coccid with the derm clothed with fine spiny hairs increasing in size 
and numbers to the abdominal segments. Length, 20 mm. Annular pores present, 
thickest on the abdominal segments; the 38rd thoracic and 1st abdominal segments 
covered with stiff spiny hairs, 2nd to 6th abdominal segments banded with chitin, 
dull yellow, clothed with fine slender spines and banded with stout lance-shaped 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 449 


spines, in the last three forming a close row along the lower margin. Anal segment 
merged into the anal appendages, rounded at the base, short and broad, terminating 
in two broad pointed fingers opening outward. 


APIOMORPHA ATTENUATA Froggatt. Text-fig. 21. 


This species was described from a gall from a spray of slender fusiform galls 
produced on the flower-buds of an undetermined species of Hucalypius which came 
from South Australia, without any definite locality. There is a drawing of this 
spray of galls in my original description in These ProcEEDINGS, 1898, and a photo- 
graph in my Descriptive Catalogue (Department of Agriculture, N. S. Wales, 
Science Bulletin 18). 

Female coccid with the cephalic and first two thoracic segments rounded, 
contracted on the upper margin of the third thoracic segment which, with the 
first abdominal segment, is broad and of uniform width, the 5th and 6th abdominal 
segments reddish-brown, chitinous, anal segment and anal appendages dark reddish- 
brown. Length of female coccid, 9 mm. 

Derm clothed with fine spiny hairs, Ist to 3rd abdominal segments with a few 
scattered small lance-shaped spines across the centre interspersed with long spiny 
hairs, 4th to 6th with the lower margin fringed with a row of stout lance-shaped 
spines. Anal segment merged into the anal appendages which are broad and 
rounded at the base, divided and curving outward into lance-shaped tips, fringed 
on the sides with fine hairs. 

Considering the slender form of the gall, one would expect to find the enclosed 
coccid of the slender type with attenuated abdomen, instead of this rather stout 
coccid with thickened anal appendages. 


Group H. 
APIOMORPHA GLOBOSA Froggatt. Text-figs. 10, 10a. 

The type specimens were collected on the branchlets of the red gum, Hucalyptus 
rostrata, near Hay, N.S. Wales. I have lately received a fine series from Gilgandra, 
N.S.W., on EH. dealbata, from Mr. G. Withers. The female galls dull brown when 
mature, sessile and usually solitary, rounded and slightly concave on the summit. 

Female coccid pale-yellow, semi-opaque, in old specimens the abdominal 
segments reddish-yellow and the anal appendages black; broadly turbinate. Length, 
10 mm. Derm clothed with rather long spiny hairs thickest on the sides of the 
cephalic and thoracic segments, 1st and 2nd thoracic segments with an irregular 
line of very small lance-shaped spines across the centre; 1st to 6th abdominal 
segments with a scanty line of small lance-shaped spines across the centre of the 
segments. These spines, opening out at the base, might be likened to arrow heads, 
particularly on the 4th and 5th segments. Anal segment and anal appendages 
coalesced, fitting close against the 6th segment, truncate and combined, forming 
an elongated triangle, with the anal ring with a chitinous ridge in the centre. The 
anal appendages in contact along the inner edges, slender, rugose, the outer edges 
serrate, with the tips pointed and turning outward. 


APIOMORPHA MALIFORMIS Fuller. Text-figs. 18, 18a. 
This species comes from south-western Australia, where it infests the blackbutt, 
Eucalyptus patens. I have had a fine series of galls from Messrs. Wallace and 
Stewart from Busselton, and Mr. Kessell from Jarradale and Margaret River, 


450 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


chiefly upon branchlets, but in one case the galls were half embedded in the bark 
of a stout sapling gum. Mr. L. J. Newman sent me specimens from near Perth 
on #. Toddiana. 

Fuller when describing this species said that the galls were usually found upon 
the flower-buds of the eucalyptus, but this, I think, is a slip, confounding them with 
the smaller Apiomorpha helmsi, described in the same paper, which is also plentiful 
in the same localities. 

The male galls are small slender tubes, slightly dilated at the apex, which 
are produced on the surface of the leaves. 

The female galls are solid woody masses, apple-shaped, broadly rounded and 
depressed in the centre at the apex, with the apical orifice in the centre. They 
are light brown in colour, slightly roughened, and often massed together in: groups 
of three or four; up to 14 inches in diameter and 14 inches in height. 

Female coccid broadly turbinate, abdomen coming to a point, terminal ones 
chitinous. Length, 15 mm. Derm clothed with fine spiny hairs, thickest on the 
abdominal segments, which show annular pores scattered among them; 8rd thoracic 
and ist abdominal segments with irregular band of lance-shaped spines, 2nd to 
6th with a more regular band of thorn-shaped spines. Anal segment very small, 
coalesced with anal appendages, rounded on the sides, rugose; anal appendages 
rugose, in contact on the inner edges, fringed with fine hairs, bifid at tips. Anal 
ring fringed with fine hairs. 


APIOMORPHA STROMBYLOSA Tepper. Text-figs. 15, 15a. 

This distinctive gall has a wide range over eastern and southern Australia, 
and infests many different species of eucalypt. In the vicinity of Sydney it is found 
on Hucalyptus siderophloia, the broad-leaved ironbark. The type was described 
from South Australia on EH. incrassata; I found it at Huston, N. S. Wales, upon a 
mallee gum, EH. transcontinentalis; Ourimbah, N. S. Wales, on EH. punctata, Mr. 
de Beuzeville; Imbil, Queensland, on EL. paniculata, Mr. M. Rankin; W. Australia, Z. 
sp., Mr. C. Fuller; Victoria, HZ. polyanthema, Mr. C. French, Jr. The female galls 
are shaped and have a rough brown surface like a sheoak seed-cone, and on 
account of their dark colour and size are very noticeable among the foliage. 
They are sometimes solitary on the stem or branch, or in clusters of three or four. 
The male galls are irregularly rounded, slender, without the apex dilated, dark 
reddish-brown; thickly scattered over the surface of the leaves. 

Female coccid broadly turbinate, terminal abdominal segments small and 
barred with chitin. Length, 21 mm. Derm clothed with very long spiny hairs 
and annular pores, the former forming regular bands across the thoracic seg- 
ments, the latter very small and most numerous on the thoracic and abdominal 
segments; Ist abdominal segment with only one or two lance-shaped spines, 2nd 
with an irregular band of rather long lance-shaped spines, 3rd to 5th with a 
regular row of similar spines; 6th with fewer spines across the centre. Anal 
segment truncate at base, sloping in on either side and coalescing with the 
anal appendage, both rugose, covered with spiny hairs springing from rounded 
bosses. Anal appendages lance-shaped, open along inner margin, rugose and 
fringed with fine hairs, bifid at the tips, anal ring indistinct. 


APIOMORPHA VARIABILIS Froggatt. Text-figs. 16, 16a. 
This species is restricted in its range from Sydney to southern Queensland. In 
the Sydney district it is found upon Hucalyptus saligna, E. Sieberiana, E. piperita. 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 451 


EH. Camfieldi and EL. umbra. At Gosford, N.S.W., on H. pilularis, Mr. A. Murphy; 
Port Macquarie, #. sp., Forester Brown. From Queensland, Imbil, on 
H. acmenioides, Mr. M. Rankin. 

This female gall is sessile and consists of two parts. The basal portion 
consists of a solid woody mass, cevered with a smooth green skin which contracts 
about two-thirds from the base, and rises like a rounded dome over the basal 
gall. It has a ragged opening on the summit, above the irregular cavity, between 
it and the apical orifice into the gall chamber. Though this is not an uncommon 
species, I have seen no male galls. 

Female coccid broadly turbinate, 13 mm. in length. Pale yellow with the 
abdominal segments darkest. Derm clothed with scattered hairs and annular 
pores. The 38rd thoracic segment thickly covered with long spiny hairs inter- 
spersed with fine short spines; 1st to 3rd abdominal segments covered with 
similar spiny hairs and small lance-shaped spines; 4th to 6th with large spines 
forming a regular band across the lower margin of the segments. Anal segment 
coalescing with the anal appendages and combined forming an elongate triangle, 
slightly rounded at the base, covered with fine spines, slightly rugose on the outer 
margins and fringed with fine hairs; the anal appendages slender, almost in contact 
along the inner margins, and the tips bifid, the outer point largest and turning 
outward. 


APIOMORPHA BAUERLENI Froggatt. Text-figs. 23, 23a. 


The type specimens were collected at Ballina, N.S.W., upon an undetermined 
species of Eucalyptus. I have never seen any more specimens. Male gall unknown. 

Female galls are sessile, single or in groups of two or three upon the branchlets. 
They are rounded, slightly ribbed on the sides, and depressed on the apex; the 
walls are double round the coccid chamber, the outer one soft, over a hard woody 
sheath round the enclosed coccid. This often produces a ragged edge round the 
apical orifice. 

Female coccid broadly turbinate, much wrinkled, with the abdominal segments 
coming to a fine point, 12 mm. in length. Derm slightly chitinous, anal segments 
yellow, very lightly clothed with short spiny hairs; 2nd and 3rd thoracic segments 
bearing a few small blunt spines; 1st and 2nd abdominal segments with irregular 
bands of longer sharp lance-shaped spines; 3rd to 6th with the spines increasing 
in size and forming regular rows across the lower margins. Anal segment 
coalescing with the anal appendages, tapering to a slender point, serrate along 
the outer margins, in contact on the inner margins and slightly bifid at the tips. 
Anal ring showing on a chitinous ridge at the base of the anal appendages. 


Group I. 
APIOMORPHA MUNITA Schrader. Text-figs. 22, 22a. 


This is the most variable form of gall, and one of the widely distributed species 
of the genus. The original specimens described by Schrader were collected near 
Sydney. 

I have specimens upon Eucalyptus saligna, EH. piperita, E. siderophloia and £. 
paniculata from the vicinity,of Sydney; from Gilgandra, N.S.W., on H#. crebra and 
E. siderozylon, Mr. G. Withers; EH. leptophylla, Euston, N.S.W., W.W.F.; from 
Victoria on several undetermined species of eucalypt; from Western Australia, Z. 
sp., Mr. L. J. Newman; from Cairns, N. Queensland, Mr. EH. Jarvis. 


452 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA, 


In the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, there are specimens from 
Lockhart, N.S.W., on #. melliodora, Merool, on #. oleosa, Urunga, on #. grandis, 
Pine Creek, on HE. fructorum; Murray Bridge, S. Australia, on H. incrassata. 


Male galls irregular, slender, rounded tubes, massed together in great numbers 
upon the branches and often formed upon the horns and sides of the adjacent 
female galls. 


The typical female gall springs from the branch with a rounded base with 
the apical margin angulated, and each corner produced into a long projecting 
slender horn. The variations in both the male and female galls are illustrated 
on plates 132 and 134 in my Descriptive Catalogue. 

Female coccid turbinate, abdominal segments chitinous, small. Length, 20 
mm. Derm clothed with a few spiny hairs and many very small lance-shaped spines 
of different sizes, forming with the spiny hairs irregular bands across the thoracic 
and abdominal segments; 4th to 6th abdominal segments closely covered with 
rounded chitinous bosses from which small spines spring. Anal segment short and 
broad, rounded on the sides, coalesced with the anal appendages which are short, 
broad at the base, tapering to the tips which turn outward and are bifid. The 
whole rugose and fringed with fine hairs. 


APIOMORPHA HILLI Froggatt. 


This curious gall was described and figured in my Descriptive Catalogue, Pt. ii 
(Department of Agriculture, N.S.W., Science Bull. 18, 1921). It is found on the 
woollybutt, Hucalyptus miniata, in the vicinity of Darwin, North Australia. 


The remarkable likeness of the female gall to the seed capsule of its host 
tree is shown in the plate in my Catalogue. Somewhat like the gall of Apiomorpha 
variabilis, the basal portion is solid wood enclosing the gall chamber; above this 
is a cavity surrounded by an outer rim to which coalesces a pointed wooden cap, 
which cracks off but remains attached on one side as the gall matures. 


Adult coccid about half an inch in length, very broad, rounded, and wrinkled, 
the anal segments very small. Abdominal segments banded with long lance- 
shaped spines; anal segment coalescing with the short anal appendages, rounded 
at the base, broad and tapering to the tips which turn outward. Fringed with 
fine hairs. 


APIOMORPHA SESSILIS Froggatt. Text-figs. 29, 29a. 


This is a rare species; the type specimens were collected at Newcastle, N.S.W., 
on an undetermined species of Hucalyptus. Several other specimens were collected 
near Hornsby on Hucalyptus deformis by Messrs. Shiress and Blakely, and a single 
specimen by Miss T. M. Irby at Casino, N.S.W. 

Male gall unknown. 


.Female gall cylindrical, the base buried in a swelling in the stem; the summit 
truncate, rugose, and the apical orifice in the centre. 


Female coccid broadly turbinate, yellow, apical segments chitinous. Length, 
10 mm. 


Derm clothed with fine spiny hairs springing from small rounded bosses, 
thickest on the lower thoracic and abdominal segments; 3rd thoracic segment 
with a few stout conical spines scattered across the centre; Ist to 2nd abdominal 
segments with a scattered row of small conical spines across the centre, 3rd to 


BY W. W. FROGGATT. 453 


6th with a very close row of similar larger spines, on the 6th along the lower 
edge. Anal segment short, rounded at the sides, coalescing with the short anal 
appendages, which are broad at the base, tapering to the pointed tips which turn 
outward, slightly serrate and fringed with fine hairs. Anal ring obscure, at the 
base of the anal appendage. 


APIOMORPHA MINOR Froggatt. Text-figs. 8, 8a. 


The type specimens were collected at Wollongong, N.S.W., upon Hucalyptus 
haemastoma. It has been recorded upon the same eucalypt by Mr. D. Shiress, 
near Sydney; H. eugenioides, Hornsby, Mr. Blakely; E. capitellata, Neutral Bay, 
Professor J. B. Cleland; H. sp., Guyra, Rey. H. N. McKie. From Victoria, Mr. C. 
French, Jr., collected it on #. polyanthema at Warrandyte. 


Male galls upon the foliage rather small, of the typical tubular form, with 
the apex dilated. 


Female galls sessile, oval, broadest at the base, truncate at the apex with the 
apical orifice in the centre of the concave depression. Generally in clusters 
of three or four on the branchlets. 


Female coccid turbinate, with the abdominal segments small. Length, 12 mm. 
Derm thickened, yellow, last four abdominal segments banded with chitin; the 
whole surface covered with short slender spiny hairs springing from circular 
bosses; a few short spines on the second thoracic segment, with an irregular band 
across the third thoracic segment; 1st to 3rd abdominal segments with a row of 
thorn-shaped spines forming a band across the centre; 4th to 6th with the spines 
forming a closer band across the lower half of the segments. Anal segment 
coalescing with the anal appendages, rounded at base and sides, rugose, the anal 
appendages short, broad at the base, tapering to pointed tips which curve out- 
ward and are fringed with fine hairs. Anal ring surrounded by a chitinous ridge 
at the base of the anal appendages. 


APIOMORPHA DUMOSA Froggatt. Text-figs. 7, Ta. 


This species was described and the galls figured in my paper in These 
PROCEEDINGS, 1930. It is found in the Mallee scrub and the oval sessile gall has 
nothing very characteristic about it. The enclosed coccid, however, has distinct 
specific characters and falls into this group. The derm is chitinous with no large 
spines on the thoracic segments, with the 2nd to 6th abdominal segments thickly 
clothed with very fine spines and rows of lance-shaped spines across the apical 
half of each. Anal segment very small, with the anal appendages small, rounded 
at the base, tips small, bifid, and curving outward. 


APIOMORPHA RUGOSA Froggatt. 


This species was described from a number of galls collected upon an undeter-~ 
mined species of eucalypt growing at Hllalong, near Maitland, N.S.W. 


The galls are sessile, with the rounded surface furrowed and rugose, the apex 
slightly depressed, with a circular pit above the apical orifice. The coccid irregu- 
larly turbinate, wrinkled, with the abdominal segments small and coming to a 
fine point, the abdominal segments fringed with fine spines, and the anal appen- 
dages and anal segment small, fringed with fine hairs, the former short, broad at 
base, with the tips tapering to the tips which open out, the sides rugose. 


454 GALL-MAKING COCCIDS OF THE GENUS APIOMORPHA. 


APIOMORPHA ANNULATA Froggatt. Text-figs. 5, 5a. 


This species was described in my paper in These PROCEEDINGS, 1930, with the 
galls figured. It comes from Queensland. 

The galls and coccid fit into this group. The coccid has the typical distribu- 
tion of spiny hairs and spines on the dorsal surface, of which Apiomorpha munita 
might be taken as the typical form. The abdominal segments are small, and agree 
in general form, but the anal appendages are not quite typical as they are not so 
broad at the base, are more lance-shaped, and do not curve outward so much at 
the tips. They, however, come nearer this than any other group. 

The type is in the Queensland Museum. 


A NOTE ON THE LEAF BUDS OF ANGOPHORAS. 
By GuLapys Carkry, B.Sc. 
(Four Text-figures.) 


[Read 25th November, 1931.] 


In a recent paper concerning leaf-bud structure in New South Wales perennials 
(Carey, 1930), the bud of Angophora lanceolata Cav. was classed as a microscopic 
bud which gave rise on expansion to a shoot of a type intermediate between 
that formed from a scaly bud and that from a naked bud. However, a full 
description of the bud of Angophora lanceolata was not given, it being described 
“as an ill defined axillary swelling”. Further examination shows that this axillary 
swelling is in reality a deep-seated bud of peculiar type, in which the primordia 
are well differentiated. 


In all species of Angophora the leaves are opposite and the inflorescence is 
borne terminally so that all leaf buds occur in an axillary position. A common 
feature of this genus is the presence of a second or accessory bud, one occurring in 
the axil of each leaf, between the growing bud and the stem (Text-fig. 3). This 
occurrence is general in four of the five species described; it is less usual in 
Angophora lanceolata. 


The leaf bud of Angophora lanceolata is an invaginated one, the growing 
apex being depressed as in Jsoetes (Lang, 1915), only to a less extent (Text-fig. 1). 
The outer rudiments in the dormant bud each show a conducting strand of spiral 
elements close to the adaxial surface. The parenchymatous cells contain an 
abundance of calcium oxalate in the form of druses, and occasionally young 
schizogenous glands are found. These partially mature structures are the outer 
transitional forms of the open bud. The term “transitional form” has been 
applied by Foster (1929) to those structures which occur on the shoot arising 
from a scaly bud between the true scales and the first true leaf. The writer has 
applied this term to similar structures occurring on the outside of a bud of the 
“intermediate” type (Carey, 1930). On the expansion of the bud these transitional 
forms, although buds appear on their axils, themselves show only a slight degree 
of development. Passing inwards in the bud each successive pair of rudiments 
shows less divergence from the meristematic cone. This cone occupies but a small 
area only a few cells in depth and the elongation zone behind it is very short, 
with the result that it comes to lie at the bottom of a pit. 

The bud is covered by a rubbery secretion of the nature of caoutchouc 
described by Welch (1923). This secretion helps to mask the bud and make its 
position in the axil of the leaf indistinguishable. This covering is secreted by 
the papillate epidermal cells of the foliar rudiments (Text-fig. 2). Similar epidermal 
cells on the young leaves of Hucalyptus corymbosa have already been figured by 
Welch (1923) and those occurring in Angophora lanceolata are mentioned by him. 


EF 


456 NOTE ON THE LEAF BUDS OF ANGOPHORAS, 


The epidermal cells found on the outer transitional forms of A. lanceolata as seen 
in Text-figure 2 are more elongated and hair-like than those recorded for 
Eucalyptus corymbosa and occasionally show one or two transverse walls. 


Text-fig. 1.—The dormant bud of Angophora lanceolata. lL, leaf; A, stem apex; 
T, transitional form. x 40. 
Text-fig. 2.—Papillate epidermal cells occurring on the transitional forms of a 
leaf bud of Angophora lanceolata. x 350. 
Text-fig. 3.—An expanding bud of Angophora subvelutina. lL, leaf; S, stem; 
T, transitional form; A, accessory bud. x 40. 
Text-fig. 4.—A. The epidermal cells of a developing primordium of Angophora 
cordifolia. x 350. B. The epidermal cells of a transitional form of Angophora 
cordifolia. x 350. 


With the advent of the growing season, rapid division and elongation begins 
at the apex of the meristematic cone, so that the younger primordia are carried 
above the level of the outer organs of the bud. As soon as this extension begins 
the bud becomes quite obvious to the naked eye and assumes the appearance 
which has already been figured (Carey, 1930). 


Angophora subvelutina F.v.M. has a similar but smaller leaf bud than that of 
A. lanceolata. It-is covered by the same type of secretion, produced in papillate 
epidermal cells. An expanding bud of this species is shown in Text-figure 3, 
together with a dormant accessory bud. The latter is gradually crushed out by 
the growth of the former. The expanding shoot shows transitional forms similar 
to those of the shoot of A. lanceolata. 

A. Bakeri C. Hall and A. intermedia D.C. have leaf buds similar to those of 
A. lanceolata. 

Angophora cordifolia Cav. has also a hidden bud. The leaf axil is usually 
flattened and in it occur two buds further apart than in the other types. The 
outline of the bud is similar to that of A. lanceolata, except that the bud is broader 


BY GLADYS CAREY. 457 


and flatter than in that type. The epidermal cells of the young primordia appear 
slightly papillate (Text-fig. 4, A), but the outer more mature rudiments of the 
bud show the development of the emergences and hairs characteristic of the 
species as is shown in Text-fig. 4, B. The expansion of this shoot has already 
been mentioned (Carey, 1930). 


Literature Cited. 


CAREY, GLADYS, 1930.—The leaf buds of some woody perennials in the N.S.W. flora. 
Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 55, 1930, 719-20. 


Foster, A., 1929.—Investigations on the morphology and comparative history of the 
development of foliar organs. The foliage leaves and cataphyllary structures in the 
Horsechestnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum), Part 1. Amer. Journ. Bot., xvi, 1929, 466. 


LANG, W. H., 1915.—Studies in the morphology of Isoetes. 1. General morphology of 
the stock of Isoetes lacustris. Mem. Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc., lix, 1914, 22. 


WetcH, M. B., 1923.—Secretory epidermal cells of certain Eucalypts and Angophoras. 
Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., lvii, 1923, 218-26. 


NOTES ON NEW SOUTH WALES ORCHIDS. 
By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupep, B.A. 
(One Text-figure.) . 
[Read 25th November, 1931.] 


ORCHIDS OF THE SouTH MAITLAND COALFIELDS.—In These PROCEEDINGS, 1930, 
p. 413, and 1931, p. 133, I have recorded 68 species of orchids from this area. Six 
more have since been added to the list, as follows: 


69. Bulbophyllum Elisae F.v.M.—Mrs. C. A. Messmer found this plant during 
an excursion to Rocky Glen, beyond Mount Vincent. 


70. Thelymitra media R.Br.—Between Pelaw Main and Mount Vincent, August, 
1931 (Mrs. C. A. Messmer, E. Minchell and H.M.R.R.). At first these were taken 
for early specimens of 7. ivioides Swz., but examination showed the columns in 
agreement with descriptions of 7. media. The flowers, intermediate in size between 
those depicted by Fitzgerald and the larger Victorian form, were deeper in colour 
than those of J. ixioides, which was plentiful in the same locality two or three 
weeks later. 


71. Diuris maculata Sm.—Neath Public School, August, 1931. This is the only 
specimen I have seen in the Hunter River district of this species, which is so 
abundant in other localities north and south. It was found by a schoolboy near 
Neath Colliery, and is quite typical. 


72. Prasophyllum elatum R.Br.—Near Kurri Kurri and Pelaw Main, September, 
1931. Fairly typical, up to 2 ft. 6 in. in height. One plant bore distinctly yellow 
flowers. 


73. Prasophyllum brevilabre Hook.—Near Hebburn No. 1 Colliery dam, 
Weston, August, 1931 (Mrs. C. A. Messmer, E. Minchell and H.M.R.R.). Quite 
plentiful in this locality, but not seen elsewhere. Very variable in size. 


74. Pterostylis rufa R.Br.—I have on several occasions called attention to the 
need for careful revision of this group in the genus Pterostylis, commonly called 
the “rufous” or “ruddy’’ Greenhoods. Published descriptions do not always agree; 
and there is undoubtedly discrepancy between the forms known in New South 
Wales as P. rufa and P. Mitchellii, and those recognized by these names in 
Victoria. P. pusilla var. prominens, a form described by me in These PROCEEDINGS, 
1931, p. 186, is probably sometimes taken for P. rufa. While it is certainly not 


BY H. M. R. RUPP. 459 


that species, I have made it clear (loc. cit.) that I am not satisfied with its 
inclusion in P. pusilla. I have only once seen a rufous Greenhood with the curious 
globular hairy structure shown on the under-side of the labellum in Fitzgerald’s 
P. rufa, and that particular plant was sent to me (in bud) asa Victorian P. pusilla. 
It is possible that—as was the case with Corysanthes dilatata until a few years 
ago—there is an unrecognized species causing confusion in the group. The P. rufa 
recorded here was found by me on the hill behind Neath Colliery in September, 
1931, in association with P. mutica and P. pusilla var. prominens. Mr. E. Minchell 
and I searched diligently for further specimens in vain. The plant agrees with 
specimens from other localities in New South Wales, except for the unusual 
brilliance of the colouring—the flower is almost scarlet. It differs from P. pusilla 
var. prominens in the following respects: The flowers are quite erect on relatively 
short pedicels with much longer subtending bracts. The whole flower is broader, 
the lateral sepals are much so; and all sepals have longer caudae. The incidence 
of the very long white cilia on the labellum-margins is different; the labellum is 
very deep red from base to tip, the latter being neither bifid nor emarginate. 


CORYSANTHES UNDULATA Cunn. 


Russell Island, Moreton Bay, Queensland, June—July, 1931, Mrs. H. Curtis (new 
record for Queensland). Since the re-discovery of this long-lost little orchid at 
Bullahdelah in 1924 (see These ProcEEprincs, liii, Part 2, 1928, p. 88, and references 
given there), it has not been recorded elsewhere until 1931. Mrs. Curtis sent me 
two living specimens in June, followed by more in July. They were identical in 
all respects with the Bullahdelah plants. It is a pity Cunningham’s locality is not 
Known. The occurrence of a species with the habits of this Corysanthes in such 
widely-separated localities as Bullahdelah and Moreton Bay suggests that it is 
probably not as rare as was supposed. At Bullahdelah I do not think it is ever 
in flower so late as July: May—June is the period. This leads me to remark that 
for some years I have had Queensland plants of Dendrobium falcorostrum, 
D. aemulum, and D. teretifolium. Every year they come into flower just as the 
New South Wales forms of these species are going off. I had supposed this to be 
due to the requirement of a temperature equivalent to that of their northern home. 
But if Corysanthes undulata flowers in Queensland some weeks later than it does 
more than 300 miles further south, some other cause is apparently to be sought. 


CALADENIA ANGUSTATA Lindl. 


Guyra district, New England, October, 1929, and 1930, Rev. E. Norman McKie 
(new record for N.S.W.). So far as I can ascertain, this species is not previously 
on record for this State, and its occurrence on the highlands of New England is 
interesting. It has hitherto been regarded as confined to the southern States, and 
in Victoria was for long confused with C. testacea R.Br., a very distinct species. 
Mr. McKie first sent specimens to me in 1929, but they suffered in transit, and I 
included them tentatively in C. dimorpha Fitzg. In 1930 I received specimens in 
excellent condition. I was inclined to regard the orchid as a large form of 
Fitzgerald’s C. cucullata, but Mr. W. H. Nicholls determined it as C. angustata, 
and after exhaustive comparisons with my Victorian and Tasmanian specimens, 
I fully concur. It possesses a sweet musky odour akin to that of Caladenia carnea 
var. gigantea. 


460 NOTES ON NEW SOUTH WALES ORCHIDS. 


CALADENIA TESTACEA R.Br. 
Teratological specimens are always of interest, 
and it is remarkable how often we find in them the 
labellum “reverting to type”, i.e., returning to its 
original form as a third petal. In September, 1931, 
in company with Mr. EH. Minchell of Weston, I found 
amongst a colony of C. testacea one specimen which, 
had it not been for its associates, I should have 
found difficult to place in any known species. The 
stem and leaf were those of C. testacea, but there 
the resemblance ended. The solitary flower was 
half as large again, and, except for purple specks 
all over the column, was wholly dull-green. The 
dorsal sepal, instead of forming a hood over the 
column, was reflexed backward like the other two. 
The paired petals were very convex: the labellum 
was a perfect petal, concave, horizontal, and devoid 
of any trace of calli. At one side of the usual 
anther at the top of the column was a_ second 
smaller anther. 


DENDROBIUM TERETIFOLIUM R.Br. var. FAIRFAXI1 
Fitzg. and v. M. 

This variety of D. teretifolium (as I regard it) 
is itself exceedingly variable: so much so that it 
would be most difficult to attempt definitions of 
many of the forms. One sent in 1930 by the Rev. 
EH. Norman McKie from the Guyra district, however, Text-fig. 1.—Teratological 
is very distinct and seems worthy of mention. Mr. ‘Specimen of  Caladenia 
McKie sent me a plant after the flowering season and, eb Pasta aie CVSS EH 
though he stated that it was growing on a tree, it appeared to me very like the 
rock-loving D. striolatum, the leaves being very short, curved, and slightly fluted. 
It flowered in September, 1931, and the flowers, though very small, conform in all 
other respects to the type of Fairfaxii. It may perhaps be a natural hybrid. 


THE STRATIGRAPHICAL AND STRUCTURAL GHOLOGY OF THE 
DEVONIAN ROCKS OF THE SOUTH COAST OF 
NEW SOUTH WALES. 


By Iba A. Brown, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology. 
(Plates xxx-xxxiv; seven Text-figures. ) 


[Read 25th November, 1931.] 


Introduction and General Geology.—Previous Records.——Geology of the Eden 
District.—Other Occurrences of Devonian Rocks on the South Coast.—Petrology of the 
Igneous Rocks.—Age of the Basal Rhyolites.—Correlation of the Devonian Rocks of the 
South Coast.—Tectonic History and Palaeogeography.—Summary 


INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL GEOLOGY. 


A brief general account of several occurrences of Devonian rocks on the 
far South Coast of New South Wales has been given in a paper by the writer 
(1930), in which most of the known earlier literature on the subject is recorded. 

The present paper describes in more detail the stratigraphical and structural 
relationships of the Devonian system as represented on the far South Coast of 
New South Wales, and suggests certain correlations with occurrences of similar 
age in other parts of south-eastern Australia. 


Recent field work has shown that there is a much more extensive development 
of Devonian rocks in this region than was supposed formerly, when geological 
examination had been confined to the section along the main coast road or 
Prince’s Highway, which runs over pre-Devonian sediments and granitic rocks 
for the greater part of two hundred miles; the country to the west of the road is 
not easily accessible. 


It is now known that a belt of Devonian rocks runs from the coast south 
of Eden through Wolumla, Yourie, Nerrigundah and thence northwards across 
the Deua River, through the Clyde Mountain and on towards Yalwal. This general 
trend of Devonian rocks is suggested in the writer’s previous paper (1930, p. 154), 
and is shown more clearly on the map accompanying the present paper. 


It has not been found practicable to trace the beds continuously in the field 
owing to the mountainous and inaccessible nature of the country. The sequence 
has been examined in some detail in the Eden district, where the rocks have . 
suffered least disturbance by post-Devonian earth movements; the knowledge thus 
obtained provided a key to the interpretation of various sections examined across 
the geosyncline to the north, as will be obvious from a consideration of the 
accompanying maps and sections. 

It is proposed, therefore, to give an account of the geology of the Eden district, 
followed by descriptions of areas and sections to the north, and finally to suggest 
correlation with other areas in New South Wales and Victoria. 


462 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


PREVIOUS RECORDS. 


Earlier descriptions of the geology of this area are mentioned in the writer’s 
previous paper (1930). Of these, the most pertinent are the works of the late 
J. E. Carne, published in the Annual Reports of the Department of Mines and 
Agriculture, New South Wales, for 1896 and 1897. These include “Preliminary 
Notes on the Yowaka or Pambula Goldfield” (1896, pp. 107-122), “Report on 
Goldfind, Wolumla” (1896, p. 122), “Report on the Geology and Mineral Resources 
of the South-east Border of New South Wales between Cape Howe and the Head 
of the Murray River” (1897, pp. 151-160), and “Notes on the Geology and 
Auriferous Deposits of the Wolumla Goldfield” (1897, pp. 162-167). 

These reports are essentially of an economic nature, but contain valuable 
information concerning the stratigraphy of the district. On account of more 
extended field-work the writer places an interpretation on many of the facts of 
field-occurrence, which differs from that of Mr. Carne, but this in no wise tends 
to diminish her appreciation of his careful observations. 

The Jingera or Whipstick bismuth and molybdenite deposits occurring in 
granite, which is intrusive into Devonian rocks between Pambula and Wyndham, 
have been described by E. C. Andrews (1916a.). 

In his Presidential Address to the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 
Assistant-Professor W. R. Browne (1929, p. xix) included a brief description of 
the Devonian igneous rocks of the district, based on Mr. Carne’s reports and a 
re-examination of his rock-collections. 


Other references will be given in the course of the paper. 


THE GEOLOGY OF THE EDEN DISTRICT. 


The township of Eden is situated on the shores of Twofold Bay, on the south 
coast of New South Wales, about 350 miles by road from Sydney, and half-way 
between Sydney and Melbourne. 

The coastal district between the Brogo River and the Victorian Border is 
drained by two large rivers and their tributaries, the Bega and the Towamba 
Rivers, which flow from the edge of the tableland eastwards to the Pacific Ocean, 
while the Genoa and Wallagaraugh Rivers rise in the southern part of the area 
and flow southwards across the border into Victoria. The smaller coastal rivers 
and creeks, such as Merrimbula, Pambula and Womboyne, flow into lakes, which 
form a characteristic feature of the coastal topography. 

The physiography of the area is being considered in a paper in the course 
of preparation. 

The geological nature of the underlying rocks has played an important part 
in the physiographical and economic development of the region under considera- 
tion. In general, sedimentary rocks outcrop from the coast inland for a distance 
of 6 to 12 miles, and the area to the west consists mainly of granite, which produces 
gently undulating topography. As a result, the district has good road communica- © 
tion with the Monaro Tableland lying to the west. 

‘The principal roads are from Bega to Cooma over the Brown Mountain; the 
Tantawangalo road from Bega to Bombala through Candelo and Catheart; the 
Wyndham and Towamba roads over Big Jack Mountain to Cathcart and Bombala; 
and the recently constructed Mount Darragh road from Wyndham to Cathcart. 
In addition, the maturely dissected granite country affords easy grades for 
numerous roads through the districts of Pericoe, Towamba, Burragate, Wyndham, 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 463 


Candelo, Wolumla, Kameruka, Bemboka, Numbugga, Bega and Brogo. The more 
rugged and barren country composed of sedimentary rocks offers less inducement 
for road-making. 

The Devonian rocks of the Hden-Pambula district outcrop along the coast 
north and south of Twofold Bay, and have been described by W. B. Clarke (1860), 
EK. F. Pittman (1880) and J. E. Carne (1896). 

These rocks are bounded on the west by intrusive granite and unconformably 
overlie older Palaeozoic schists and slates. The latter outcrop between the western 
portion of Twofold Bay and the Victorian Border, and again between Bega and 
Tathra, this being the southern extension of the outcrop from the Clyde River 
along the coastal districts through Narooma and Bermagui. 

It is the writer’s intention to give a detailed account of the older Palaeozoic 
rocks of the coast on a future occasion; in this paper merely incidental references 
will be made to the pre-Devonian sediments. 

The distribution of the Devonian and older rocks of the Eden district is 
indicated on the accompanying map, Plate xxxiii. 

Three divisions of the Devonian system are represented in the Eden district, 
(a) a lower volcanic stage, consisting of acid igneous rocks; (0) a middle stage, 
containing chocolate shales, thin-bedded buff and red grits and sandstones with 
interbedded igneous rocks; and (c) an upper stage consisting chiefly of marine 
conglomerates, grits, sandstones and quartzites containing Upper Devonian fossils. 


(a) The Lower Volcanic Stage. 


Members of the. volcanic stage outcrop on the Womboyne River and along 
its southern tributary, Watergums Creek, and form a belt about 250 yards in 
width running from Disaster Bay, into which the Womboyne flows, in a northerly 
direction to Munganno Point, on the southern side of Twofold Bay. This outcrop 
is bounded on the west by folded pre-Devonian sediments, but no clear vertical 
section of the junction has been observed on the south side of Twofold Bay. 

On the northern side of the Bay this belt outcrops over the peninsula on which 
the Eden Lighthouse is situated, and along the cliffs for a short distance to the 
north. It then swings westward through the town of Hiden, under the Prince’s 
Highway, where it is obscured by Tertiary drift formation, and continues to the 
south of the Nethercote road through rough country to the west; its extension 
beyond this has not been determined. 

Similar rock outcrops at Bournda Head and its adjacent “tied island’, about 
five miles north of Merrimbula; and 9 miles east of Bega, at Tathra and on the 
coast to the south, similar formations occur. 

The rocks under consideration include the “quartz felsite or porphyry ; 
best studied at Eden’, as described by Mr. Carne (1896, p. 110), who considered 
that these “igneous rocks are intrusive into the older sedimentary series 
(Silurian?) and partly so into the Upper Series (Devonian?), for undoubtedly 
the former are overlaid in parts by the latter.” 

The present writer is of the opinion that the igneous rocks are not intrusive 
into the Devonian beds, but occur below Upper Devonian sediments exposed in 
this area, and that they represent terrestrial flows of acid lava over the eroded 
surface of folded older Palaeozoic sediments. 

The igneous rocks outcrop always between the older, highly folded series 
with meridional strike and the more gently folded Devonian beds. Frequently 

Ga 


464 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


some type of fluxion structure is developed which dips at an angle more or less 
conformably with that of the adjacent Devonian sediments, and sometimes 
columnar structure, platy-parting and jointing, probably parallel to the cooling 
surface, indicate a similar direction and amount of dip; these rocks will he 
referred to as rhyolites. 

The actual junction of the older Palaeozoic sediments and the rhyolite is 
exposed in several cliff-sections close to the town of Eden, and also on the 
northern face of cliffs, north-west of the village of Tathra. The best exposure is 
at the base of the cliffs immediately west of the Eden Lighthouse, where columnar 
rhyolite dipping at 30 degrees to the east rests on the upturned and denuded edges 
of folded, older Palaeozoic rocks. Similar relations are apparent at Yallumgo 
Cove, Mirare Point and at Tathra (Plate xxx, figures 1 and 2). 

On the south side of Twofold Bay the direction of banding in the rhyolite is 
approximately N.40°W., and the dip of this is H.40°N. at 45°. The overlying red 
shales and grits along the coast near here dip H.30°N. at 35° to 40°. Beach sand 
obscures the base of the rhyolite on the south side of Twofold Bay. 

In the neighbourhood of Eden township and at Munganno Point measurements 
of the rhyolites indicate a thickness of between 450 and 500 feet. 

It is highly improbable that only one flow occurs, for there are lithological 
variations and different types of structure on various horizons. Near the base 
of the series a very extraordinary type of spherulitic structure is developed, in 
which the spherulites range from an inch up to 14 or 15 inches in diameter 
(Plate xxxii, fig. 1). This phase is well exposed on Mr. J. R. Logan’s property, 
“Hdrom’”, on the south side of Twofold Bay, and has been recorded from near 
Eden by Mr. Carne (1896, p. 111). Columnar structure is well developed through 
the main portion of the series, particularly in the cliffs near the Eden Light 
(Plate xxx, figs. 1, 3), and on both sides of Yallumgo Cove. Sometimes the rock 
is amygdaloidal, and the vesicles may contain amethystine quartz, as in the 
cliffs below the Roman Catholic Convent; or crystallized haematite, popularly 
thought to be molybdenite. Platy-parting occurs at the east of “Edrom’’, at Eden 
and at Tathra. 


The petrological characters of the rocks are considered later. " 


(6) The Middle Stage. 


Rocks of the middle stage overlie the rhyolites and outcrop at the mouth of 
the Womboyne River; along the coast from Disaster Bay to Munganno Point, 
Twofold Bay; and extend along the coast from Eden to Tura Head, north-east of 
Merrimbula. They may be traced inland from Eden through the Nethercote 
district, across the Pambula-Wyndham road on towards Wolumla. 

The relation to the underlying rocks is best exposed on the south side of 
Twofold Bay, on the property of Mr. Logan, where conglomerates and other shallow- 
water beds are deposited over the eroded surface of the rhyolite (Plate xxxi, fig. 1). 

A large boulder of the conglomerate on the beach close to the junction contains 
fragments of the rhyolite and a large spherulite, thus confirming the previous 
observation of the post-rhyolitic age of the conglomerate and the overlying beds 
which are conformable with it. 

The erosional break and the slight differences in dip which have been recorded 
thus point to a disconformity between the two series, probably indicating vertical 
movement and a change from terrestrial to sub-aqueous conditions. 


BY IDA A, BROWN. 465 


On the northern side of the Bay, the junction of the rhyolite and the overlying 
series occurs in the cliff sections near the end of Chandos Street, Eden, slightly 
to the north of the R.C. Convent grounds. Here the nature of the contact 
is not so obvious as at “Edrom’”. It was probably some such section as this 
which led Mr. Carne to believe that the “porphyry” was intrusive into the adjacent 
sediments. A photograph of this cliff section appears in Plate xxxi, fig. 2. The 
rhyolite is on the left-hand side and its junction with sediments is almost vertical 
in the centre of the photograph: on the rock-platform in the foreground the gently- 
dipping conglomerate and shaly beds are seen to overlie an eroded surface of the 
rhyolite, a repetition of the condition at “Edrom’. There is no trace of contact 
metamorphism of the sediments against the rhyolite, and the possibility of fault- 
ing is discounted by the relations of the two rocks on the adjacent rock-platform- 
The steep junction of the two series is explained best as being due to the deposition 
of sediments on a slowly subsiding floor against an old cliff headland of rhyolite. 
The rhyolite is in contact with red beds again in a small valley (Portion 136, 
Parish of Bimmil) near the road from Eden to Nethercote, but their relations 
are obscured by cultivation. The rhyolite of Bournda is separated from the red 
beds by stretches of Tertiary and recent sands. 

The rocks of the middle stage consist largely of the ‘‘clay-slates’” of W. B. 
Clarke (1860), which have been described by J. E. Carne (1896, p. 110). These 
form conspicuous cliffs along most of the coast from Disaster Bay to the north 
of Merrimbula, where they are interbedded with thin bands of red, purple and 
buff-coloured sandstones and grits, some of which may be tuffaceous. 

In the Nethercote district and to the north the sediments are interbedded 
with rhyolites, felsites and amygdaloidal basalts. 

Typical sections of this stage are exposed east of the rhyolite at Munganno 
Point, at the south end of the Ocean beach at Eden, at North Head of Twofold 
Bay, at Lennard’s Island, Pambula Heads and Merrimbula Head, and along most 
of the roads and tracks west of the Prince’s Highway. 

East of the rhyolite at Munganno Point the rocks consist of a series of 
alternating red shales and yellow grits, whose dip is somewhat variable, the 
average being in a direction E.30°N. at 35° to 40°. 

North of the rhyolite at Eden a similar series of interbedded red clay-slates, 
quartz-grits, purple, grey and buff sandstones and thin green shales dip N.30°W. 
at 12°, the strike swinging round in approximate conformity with that of the under- 
lying rhyolite. On account of local folding the beds a few hundred yards to the 
north dip N.40°R. at 12°. From the cliff section north-east of the Convent, Miss 
G. Joplin, B.Se., collected a specimen of red shale containing fragmental plant. 
remains, some of whose pinnules show well-preserved venation, which Dr. A. B. 
Walkom considers are possibly fragments of Cordaites of Upper Devonian age. 

In the Museum of the Department of Geology, the University of Sydney, are 
specimens of Protolepidodendron, similar to those described by Dr. Walkom (1928) 
from Yalwal. These were collected by Dr. W. G. Woolnough from the east of 
Eden (see These PROCEEDINGS, liii, 1928 (1929), p. xl). 

There is a fair amount of local folding throughout the middle stage, which 
may be seen in most of the sections along the coast. The directions and amounts 
of dip are indicated on Plate xxxiii. 

The shallow-water origin of the beds, suggested by the presence of Cordaites, 
is confirmed by the preservation of sun-cracks and fine ripple-marks in the red 


466 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


shaly beds and overlying sandstones in the rock-platform north of Merrimbula 
Head. 

This stage of the Upper Devonian is no doubt analogous to that of the Nungatta 
and Yambulla Ranges, near the head of the Genoa River. Of these beds, J. E. 
Carne (1897) writes: “‘This formation consists of alternations of quartz-pebble 
conglomerates, grits, sandstones and clay shales.” “In the clay shales, which are 
frequently strikingly red-coloured and ferruginous, abundant obscure impressions 
of plant remains occur both at Yambula Peak and further west on the Genoa 
River. In the greenish-grey arenaceous shales and finely laminated sandstones 
the impressions are better preserved. Amongst a number of specimens collected 
at the above localities Mr. Dun was able to identify the following forms: 
Archaeopteris Howitti McCoy, Cordaites australis McCoy, Sphenopteris Carnei, sp. 
nov., Pecopteris (?) obscura, sp. nov.” 

An association of similar plant remains in the Upper Devonian beds of the 
Perry Basin of South-eastern Maine has been described and figured by D. White 
(1905, p. 68), who considers that Mr. Dun’s description (1897) of ““Pecopteris (?) 
obscura’ from Genoa River leaves little room for doubt as to the identity of the 
latter with Barinophyton”. 

Interbedded with the sediments of the middle stage are a nunaber of volcanic 
flows, which outcrop to the west of the Prince’s Highway. These have not all 
been mapped in detail, but their approximate positions are indicated on Plate 
xxxiii. The detailed petrological characters are described later. 

The rhyolites outcrop in the Nethercote district, along the Yowaka River 
and its tributaries, through the Mt. Gahan ridge, and in the neighbourhood of 
Lochiel. They show pronounced banding and spherulitic structures, and are usually 
of a cream, pink or purple colour. 

The basalts are generally amygdaloidal, although the stratigraphically lowest 
horizon is a fairly compact rock. They are characterized by an abundance of 
epidote, and in places veins of fibrous asbestos and quartz occur. These characters 
are generally sufficient to distinguish them from the limited outcrops of Tertiary 
basalt in the district. 

The variety of rock-types present in the middle stage, the local folding of 
beds, and the poor exposures of consecutive sections render the determination of 
the thickness of this stage somewhat difficult. Measurements indicate a thickness 
of between 1,500 and 2,000 feet. 


(c) The Upper Stage. 

The red beds of the Middle Stage are succeeded by an Upper Stage of massive 
conglomerates, sandstones and quartzites, with thin bands of red shales, which 
contain no volcanic rocks so far as the writer is aware. As a rule these beds 
are nearly horizontal or only slightly dipping. These differences in the amount 
of folding and the marked lithological change from fine-grained, soft red shales 
to coarse massive conglomerate indicate a break in the conditions of deposition 
amounting to a disconformity or perhaps even unconformity. 

Unfortunately no clear vertical exposure of the junction is known to the 
writer, for the cliffs along the coast are carved out of the middle stage of red 
beds. Perhaps the relations may be traced by detailed work near the turn-off to 
Nethercote on the Prince’s Highway at the Yowaka-Saltwater Bridge, or in the 
cliff sections on Broadwater Lagoon, but these are somewhat inaccessible. 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 467 


Near the head of Bald Hills Creek, north-east of Pambula Trigonometrical 
Station, there is an extensive outcrop of typical amygdaloidal basalt, which is 
overlain by dipping red shales at a turn of the creek. Above the red shales are 
almost level-bedded massive purple conglomerates, more or less silicified, and 
strongly jointed; the vertical master-joints cut through the included pebbles and 
give the appearance of artificial “marble”, thus probably accounting for the 
popular name of the locality. Somewhat similar relations occur along the Pambula 
River near the “Six Mile’, on the road from Pambula to Wyndham, where the basalt 
outcrops in the bed of the river, and the overlying massive conglomerates cap 
the hills to the east. 

It is considered that the central portion of the outcrop of the Devonian rocks 
between Eden and Wolumla, including the sandstones and quartzites of Bellbird 
Creek, the Bimmel Mountain, and the higher parts of the area between Pambula, 
Merrimbula and Wolumla, consist chiefly of rocks of the Upper Stage. At the 
southern end of this outcrop there is evidence of overlap of the basal conglomerates 
of the Upper Stage on the lower stages, west of the Prince’s Highway, and a 
mile south-west of Eden. 

Further evidence of the more extensive development of the Upper Stage is 
afforded by outliers of this stage resting directly and unconformably on the 
pre-Devonian sediments along a ridge followed by the Towamba road, north of the 
Nullica River, and also on the top of Mount Imlay (Text-fig. 1, Section 4). The 
older Palaeozoic series outcrops on Mount Imlay up to about 1,800 feet above 
sea level, above which are almost horizontal red beds, followed at the 2,100 foot 
level by conglomerates, grits and sandstones, with occasional bands of red shales. 
The Trigonometrical Station at the top (2,913 feet) is situated on a band of red 
shale. No igneous material has been observed by the writer in this section, and 
it is considered that only the upper stage is represented here. The lithological 
differences in the rocks comprising the mountain are responsible for the varying 
resistance to erosion and the resultant angle of slope, which has produced a 
distinct shelf at the top of the older sediments. 

The thickness of the Upper Stage is estimated at about 1,200 feet, but, as 
the upper surface is eroded, it may have been originally much greater. 

Fossils have been found in only two localities, as recorded previously by the 
writer (1930, p. 153). From Bellbird Creek, three miles north of Eden, the follow- 
ing forms have been recorded (J. H. Carne, 1897; I. A. Brown, 1930): Rhynchonella 
pleurodon, R. (?) cuboides, Atrypa sp. (?) reticularis, Polyzoa, Phthonia, Aviculo- 
pecten (?). W.N. Benson (1922) records Rhynchonella primipilaris from Wolumla 
Creek. The quartzites of Bellbird Creek contain worm tracks and well-preserved 
ripple-marks as additional evidence of their shallow-water origin. 


OTHER OCCURRENCES OF DEVONIAN ROCKS ON THE SouTH COAST. 
Descriptions of other occurrences of Devonian rocks have been given by the 
writer (1930) and others, but, for the sake of clearness, these accounts are sum- 
marized in the following pages and some additional details are recorded. 
Diagrammatic sections across the areas mentioned are given in Text-figures 
1 and 2. 
(a) The Quaama—Cobargo District. 
The village of Quaama is situated on the Prince’s Highway between Bega and 
Cobargo, on the granitic batholith extending from Victoria to the north of Cobargo. 


468 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


About three miles east of Quaama, a tributary of the Murrah or Dry River, 
Pipeclay Creek, works its way along the junction of the granite and the intruded 
rocks. On the eastern side of Pipeclay Creek and south of the Old Bermagui Road 
are gently dipping sandstones and quartzites containing typical Upper Devonian 
fossils, determined by Mr. W. S. Dun to be Spirifera disjuncta, Rhynchonella 
pleurodon, Pterinea and Pteronites. The discovery of Devonian forms in this 
district was due in the first place to Dr. A. A. Pain, as previously recorded by the 
writer (19380), who has subsequently collected these fossils from other localities 
in the district. 


- There is considerable variation in the dip of these beds, no doubt on account 
of their proximity to the intrusive granite batholith. In the upper parts of Pipe- 
clay Creek the rocks are almost horizontal, and consist of bluish and purple 
sandstones and quartzites remarkably similar to those at Bellbird Creek, north of 
Eden. Strong jointing is developed in a direction N.10°W. . 


Underlying the Upper Devonian with a strong uncontormity are thin-bedded 
conglomerates, slates and black cherts, in which graptolites were discovered in a 
hill overlooking the swimming pool at Pipeclay Creek; these Ordovician rocks dip 
steeply to the south-west. 

North of this area, towards Cobargo, the granite is in contact with Devonian 
sediments, but on the main road six miles east of Cobargo it intrudes steeply- 
dipping, sandy slates and black cherts, whose direction of strike is almost 
meridional. Contact altered quartzites, possibly of Devonian age, occur in the 
neighbourhood of Sam’s Creek, near the road from Cobargo to Dignam’s Creek, 
and similar rocks outcrop to the west near the road from Cobargo to Wandellow. 
Between these localities, north-west of the Narira Trigonometrical Station, 
Ordovician rocks outcrop, from which C. F. Laseron obtained Diplograptus foliaceus 
Murchison, Climacograptus sp. and Dicellograptus sp. (W. R. Browne, 1914, p. 194). 

Granitic rocks extend a considerable distance to the west of Quaama, and 
near the head of the Brogo River (Portion 10, Parish of Mookerah, County of 
Auckland) they are in contact with purple sandstones and quartzites with inter- 
bedded red shales, similar to the Devonian beds of the Eden district. These 
sediments dip H.35°N. at 45°, and the intrusive granite appears to have worked 
its way along the ‘bedding planes of the invaded sediments; there is clear 
evidence that the granite is later than Upper Devonian. 


Rough inaccessible country separates the outcrop of this contact from that 
exposed at Yourie, some 10 miles north-west of Cobargo, where the granite again 
intrudes sediments having the lithological characters of the Upper Devonian. 

A diagrammatic section from Upper Brogo to the east of Quaama is given 
in Text-figure 1, section 6. 


(0) Nerrigundah to EHEurobodalla. 


Folded pre-Devonian rocks extend from the coast in the neighbourhood of 
Narooma, to Bodalla and Eurobodalla, on the Tuross River. West of Tuross 
Bridge at Eurobodalla are typical Upper Devonian sediments, purple quartzites 
and interbedded chocolate shales, which extend as far as Nerrigundah and form 
a ridge about 700 feet in height. These sediments are folded in a meridional 
direction, the dips amounting to about 25 degrees. West of Nerrigundah outliers 
of Devonian sediments form cappings to hills, which consist chiefly of the highly 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 


469 
6. UPPER BROGO-QUAAMA-BERMAGUI 


Upper Brogo 


Ory River Pipeclay Creek 
Round Hill Dry River . 


Upper Devonian 


Quartzites 
Sea Leve/ 


Upper Devonian 


2 FE Za 
SUS SLY LY 
5 —Y——— 


Bermagui 


SS 


ranite fi 
2 Slates 
2 4 MILES 
i?) 
5. MT. GAHAN —PAMBULA 
Back Creek 


Pipeclay Creek 


Yowaka River Saltwater River 
Sea Level ; 


\ 
Basalt 


4. MT. IMLAY 


Mt. Iml 
: Pate Upper Devonian, 
ZA E 
Sea Level 
a 4000 goog FEET 
3. MUNGANNO POINT-TWOFOLD BAY 
Upper Devonian 
Munganno Point Red Beds 
Rhyolite é 500 1000 FEET 
st 
. EDEN q 
4 Eden 
| Convent 
Mirare Point 
Sea Level 


Upper Devonian 


see HAO OR Red Beds 
7 CA = - 4 
~ 
BIN, Beer peer BED 
Fg | 


10009 FEET 
————S SSS) 
ule 


EDEN PENINSULA 


Eden Light House 


f 
Slates 


Ahyolite 


1) 9090 


Text-fig. 1.—Diagrammatic geological sections of the South Coast. 


470 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


folded pre-Devonian series. Gold-bearing reefs occur in the older series, and these 
have been described by L. F. Harper (1923). 

The Devonian beds are about 1,000 feet in thickness, and are lithologically 
similar to those of the upper stage at Eden. No interbedded igneous rocks are 
known to occur here (Text-fig. 2, section 1). 


(c) Wamban Creek. 

Quartz-porphyry or rhyolite occurs about seven miles south-west of Moruya, 
south of Wamban Creek, the general direction of strike being slightly west of 
north. This outcrop is possibly a continuation of the rhyolite occurring at the 
junction of Burra Creek and Deua River. About a quarter of a mile west of the 
porphyry is a conglomerate ridge bearing N.40°W. and S.40°E., which runs through 
the Little Sugarloaf and the Wamban Sugarloaf, and continues towards the 
Bendithera Track to the north. These rocks are lithologically similar to the Upper 
Devonian of the coast. 


(d) Section along the Bendithera Track, West of Moruya. 

The section from Moruya to Bendithera has been described in detail by the 
writer (1930). Devonian rocks outcrop between the junction of Burra Creek and 
the Deua River and Bendithera near the head of -the Deua River. These beds 
overlie the rhyolite outcropping along the Araluen Road south of Larry’s Crossing; 
they have been cut through by Diamond Creek, a southern tributary of Burra 
Creek, and possibly by the Upper Deua River at Bendithera, so that the’basal (7?) 
rhyolite is exposed. 

The series is more strongly folded along this section than in the southern 
areas, the general trend of the fold axes being in a north-north-westerly direction. 
The rocks comprise conglomerates, quartzites and purple clay-slates; a thin bed of 
quartzite crowded with casts of Spirifera disjuncta outcrops south of Coondella 
Trigonometrical Station at an elevation of nearly 1,900 feet above sea level, and 
thus indicates an Upper Devonian age for the series (Text-fig. 2, section 2). 


(e) Deua River Section. 

The section along the Deua River was described by the writer in 1930, and 
its re-examination since the study of the Eden district confirms the previous sug- 
gestion that the sediments are of Upper Devonian age. lt is now Known, however, 
that the “porphyry” outcropping to the west of Moruya for several miles along 
the Deua River below Larry’s Crossing is not intrusive, but takes the form of a 
series of flows over the surface of the older Palaeozoic schists which outcrop to 
the east. The western portion of the outcrop shows very distinct rhyolitic banding, 
especially in the slightly weathered rock, and the dip of the banding is in a 
westerly direction at 35 degrees, that is, approximately conformable with that of 
the overlying Upper Devonian sediments. The rhyolite is brecciated in places, a 
feature which may be due to movement of the lava under a partially consolidated 
crust, and is associated with tuffs on some horizons. The rhyolitic nature of the 
occurrence is confirmed in the field by its extension northwards, where it forms the 
upper portion of the range through the Wandera Mountain, west of the Buckem- 
boura district. The field-relations therefore suggest its correlation with the Eden 
rhyolite and its lithological and chemical characters are strongly in favour of this 
supposition. The approximate thickness of the rhyolites and tuffs in this locality 
is about 700 to 800 feet. The lithological characters are described later, page 474. 


BY IDA A. BROWN. A771 


6. YALWAL. After E.C. Andrews, 1901 | 


P.C. Sandstone Danijera Ck. Jinkbilly Ck. Sandstone 
. {} 
if 


Tap 


Manes 7 Contemporaneous Conglomerate 
Quartz Porphyry Chist Intrusive Flow 
Felsite Dolerite Contes ; 
on Balotae 0 10 20 3o 40 CHAINS. 
————— 


5. BACK CREEK — BRAIDWOOD — CLYDE MOUNTAIN. After T. W. E.David, 1893 » Clyde Mountain 


Back Creek 
Little River 


ace 
Bg YB 
>— 


Nn 
SEA LEVEL + 


F jan(?) 
Quartz Felsite Quartzite Granite Slates Dolerite Diabase Upper Devonian( 


Conglomerate | 


BRAIDWOOD — NELLIGEN . 


Mongarlowe River 
Warrambooka River Clyde Mountain 


Granite Slates 


Braidwood ( 
aidwoo Currawan Creck his 


Nelligen 


a IE ROT RR x 
Ree NSN SON ON Nigics 
at 


aca 
SEA LEVEL 


Granite 


(0) 2 4 MILES 
_— ry 


3 ARALUEN — MORUYA 


Merricumbene Larry’s Mountain 


Araluen 


Granite 


Granite Rhyolite 


Upper Devonian P 
Upper Devonian 0 2 4 MILES 


2  BENDITHERA — MORUYA . 


Coondella T-S. 
Bendethera T.S. Deua River 


Bendithera Coondella Ck. seals Creek Donald's Creek | 
Fi ee 
ZESS ZV 


Moruya 


Granite Upper Devonian Ahyolite 
o 2 4 MILES 


NERRIGUNDAH 


Nerngundah Eurobodalla | 


Tuross River To Wagonéga 


aaa 
EA LEVE 
: C Slates 


Upper Devonian 
Conglomerate and Quartzite | 
0 72 4 MILES 


Text-fig. 2.—Diagrammatic geological sections of the South Coast. 


472 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALKS, 


The overlying series of sediments has been described previously by the writer 
(1930). Lithologically the rocks bear very striking resemblances to the Upper 
Devonian rocks of the Eden district, and like them contain purple sandstones 
and quartzites with well-preserved ripple-marks as evidence of their shallow-water 
origin. A good example occurs near the 22 mile-peg from Moruya in beds that dip 
W.20°S. at 65° (Plate xxxi, fig. 3). 


An important feature of this section is the high degree of folding of the 
sedimentary series as compared with that of the occurrences to the south. The 
direction of the fold-axes varies from north and south (magnetic) to N.20°W. 
and §.20°E., and the intensity of the folding increases as the granite batholith 
of the Araluen district is approached (Text-fig. 2, section 3). 


(f) Bateman’s Bay to Braidwood via Monga. Text-fig. 2, section 4. 


The portion of the section from Bateman’s Bay to the Clyde Mountain has beer 
described previously by the writer (1930). West of the Clyde Mountain the road 
rises to a height of more than 2,500 feet above sea-level on the edge of the Main 
Divide, east of the village of Monga. It then runs in a northerly direction along 
the Mongarlowe River, a tributary of the Shoalhaven River, for six or seven miles 
before turning westwards to Braidwood. The granite of Araluen and Braidwood 
extends almost to the Mongarlowe River, where it is bounded by the older 
Palaeozoic series, consisting here of bluish-black slates dipping W.10° N. at 75°. A 
couple of miles to the south-east a hard bar of felsitic rhyolite, similar to that of 
Eden and the Lower Deua River, causes a waterfall in the Mongarlowe River. The 
flow structure in this rhyolite dips to the south-east. 


At the village of Monga and along the river to the north, the rhyolite is 
overlain by a basaltic flow. A small quarry in the upper portion of the flow at 
Monga shows well-developed columnar structure; the rock is amygdaloidal, contains 
veins and amygdules of epidote, and is lithologically similar to the basalts of 
Nethercote and Pambula. The eroded upper surface of the basalt is exposed 
in the quarry and in the adjacent road-cutting, where it is overlain by about 19 
feet thickness of red shales dipping south at 45 degrees, followed by interbedded 
purple quartzite and conglomerates containing rounded boulders of hardened red 
shales and purple quartzite, a typical Devonian sequence. Monga is about two 
miles west of the Clyde or Sugarloaf Mountain, where Rhynchonella pleurodon 
occurs in abundance in greenish-grey quartzite (T. W. E. David, 1893a; H. I. 
Jensen, 1908; W. S. Dun, 1930). 


It is probably an extension of the basalt at Monga that has been described by 
H. I. Jensen (1908, pp. 57-58) as follows: “The basaltic mass which I examined in 
a valley near Sugarloaf Mountain is over half a mile wide and extends in a 
north and south direction for about ten miles. . . . The rock here termed basalt 
is a volcanic rock, in places quite vesicular and amygdaloidal.” “The rock is 
certainly later than the Silurian schists and probably later than the Devonian, 
and may even be as late as the Tertiary, but its exact relations to the Devonian 
I have not yet worked out. The surrounding rocks are Devonian shales, quartzites 
and tuffs. They contain well preserved fossils, Rhynchonella pleurodon, Spirifer 
disjuncta and Chonetes.” 

This outcrop is indicated on the State geological map to the west of Budawong 
Mountain, and from its lithological character and field-associations there is little 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 473 


doubt that it is a continuation of the Devonian basalt examined by the writer at 
Monga. 


(g) Major’s Creek, near Braidwood. 

At Major’s Creek, about ten miles to the west of Monga, Upper Devonian sedi- 
ments rest on an eroded surface of quartz-felsite (Text-fig. 2, section 5); this 
occurrence was described by W. Anderson (1892), T. W. EH. David (1893a@ and 
18936), and T. W. EH. David and EH. F. Pittman (1893). The latter authors write: 
“In July, 1892, Mr. T. P. Hammond, assistant to Mr. Geological Surveyor W. 
Anderson, discovered Lepidodendron australe in association with marine fossils, in 
rocks which are probably of Upper Devonian age on a hill overlooking Back 
Creek, about three miles from Major’s Creek township. A number of other 
specimens of L. australe (some of them in situ) were subsequently discovered in 
this locality by Mr. W. Anderson and the authors. . .. The specimens are pre- 
served as casts in ferruginous gritty sandstones, below which occur purple shales 
succeeded by marine grits and a basal conglomerate of quartz-felsite resting on an 
irregularly eroded surface of quartz-felsite.”’ 


Later (18930) Professor David suggested the correlation of these Upper 
Devonian sediments with those of the Clyde Mountain and Mt. Lambie in New 
South Wales and with the Avon River sandstones and shales in Victoria. Of the 
underlying felsites he said: “The possibility suggests itself of this quartz-felsite 
being homotaxial with the Snowy River porphyries, which are probably of Lower 
Devonian age, according to A. W. Howitt and R. A. F. Murray.” 


(h) Yalwal District. 

The Devonian rocks outcropping between Nelligen and Monga extend north- 
wards and underlie the Permo-Carboniferous (Upper Marine) formation south 
of the Shoalhaven River. They are exposed by Httrema and Yalwal Creeks, tribu- 
taries of the Shoalhaven, and have been described from Yalwal by E. C. Andrews 
(1901) as a series of folded sediments containing contemporaneous lavas (Text-fig. 
2, section 6). 


Mr. Andrews writes (p. 15): “The order of succession appears to be as 
follows: First a series of Devonian mudstones, sandstones and allied rocks were 
laid down. 


“Intermittent periods of intense vuleanicity occurred at this period’ during 
which immense rhyolite and basic flows were poured forth from various local 
centres. 


“The higher members of the Devonian series consist of soft shales, grits 
and soft and hard tuffaceous material containing numerous Lepidodendron remains. 
With these are associated several sheets of very vesicular dolerite, numerous 
dolerite sills and smaller rhyolite flows.” 


No marine fossils have been found in the Yalwal series. 


The rhyolites show conspicuous flow structure, and (p. 22) “‘a most interest- 
ing feature is the occurrence of large spherulites, varying in size from a pin’s 
head to subspherical and ellipsoidal bodies two inches in diameter. The flow 
structure passes uninterruptedly through them. Concentric structure is plainly 
visible in some of the individual spherulites.” 


474 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


The dolerites are amygdaloidal, the amygdules containing “chloritic products, 
quartz, calcite and epidote” and the rock is traversed by “long strings of epidote 
and serpentine”, a description which applies equally well to the basalts of Nether- 
cote and Pambula, and with which they probably may be correlated. 


It is interesting to note that (p. 22) “Copper .... has been found in one of 
the dolerite flows’, an occurrence that is probably analogous to that described by 
H. I. Jensen (1908) from the basalt near Sugarloaf (Clyde) Mountain and Monga. 


The Lepidodendron remains mentioned by Mr. Andrews have been described 
and identified by Dr. A. B. Walkom (1928) as Protolepidodendron lineare, 0. sp., 
P. Yalwalense, n. sp., and Lepidodendron (?) Clarkei, n. sp. These plants are 
generally considered to be early forms, more primitive than the Lepidodendron 
australe of Major’s Creek and Mt. Lambie. 


To the north and west of Yalwal is a series of more arenaceous sediments 
(shown as “quartzites, and siliceous slates” on the map accompanying the Memoir 
of the Geological Survey, Geology, No. 7, by L. F. Harper (1915)) in which C. F. 
Laseron (1908, 1910) found Devonian marine fossils. 


From the quartzites, sandstones and grits at the junction of Yalwal and 
Ettrema Creeks, Mr. W. S. Dun identified: Allorisma sp., Sphenotus sp., Leptodomus 
sp., Pterinea sp., and Goniophora sp., and from the Shoalhaven River, three miles 
west of Yalwal Creek: Bellerophon sp., Huomphalus ? sp., Naticopsis ? sp., 
Mourlonea ?, Goniophora ?, Ctenodonta sp., Spirifera disjuncta, and Rhynchonella 
pleurodon. 

The relations between the Yalwal series and the Shoalhaven series of marine 
Devonian beds have not been observed, although C. F. Laseron (1908) gives some 
evidence in favour of the possibility that the marine beds overlie the Yalwal beds. 


PETROLOGY OF THE VOLCANIC ROCKS. 


Igneous rocks of probable Upper Devonian age on the South Coast may be 
grouped in three divisions: (1) Rhyolites occurring below Upper Devonian sedi- 
ments; (2) rhyolites, rhyolite-breccias and felsites interbedded with Upper 
Devonian sediments; and (3) basaltic rocks partly intrusive into, and partly inter- 
bedded with Upper Devonian sediments. 


(1). The first division comprises the lower volcanic stage of the Eden series, 
including the rhyolites of the Womboyne River, the rhyolite belt on both sides of 
Twofold Bay, the outcrops at Bournda Island, the coast near Tathra, Wandellow 
(?), the acid porphyritic rocks of the Lower Deua River, Diamond Creek (7), 
and the acid flows of the Mongarlowe River, north of Monga. Possibly the quartz- 
felsite of Major’s Creek (T. W. E. David, 18936, and W. Anderson, 1892) also 
belongs to this group. 


The field occurrences have been described previously, where mention is made 
also of most of the macroscopic structures, such as columnar, nodular or spheru- 
litic, and various types of fluidal structures in the rocks. 


In the handspecimen the rocks vary in colour, texture and mineral constitution. 
The colour may be cream, light or dark grey or purple. The rocks are usually 
porphyritic; the phenocrysts are less than three millimetres in diameter, and are 
of quartz, or quartz and felspar; in some of the rocks of the Lower Deua River 


BY IDA A. BROWN. A475 


the phenocrysts are very small and consist of orthoclase. The groundmass is 
lithoidal or felsitic. 


Under the microscope the quartz phenocrysts show corrosion; the felspar is 
generally altered, but appears to be acid plagioclase as a rule; orthoclase has 
been noticed only in the Deua River rocks. The rhyolite from the quarry at 
“Hdrom”, Hden, shows pseudomorphs in chlorite and iron oxide apparently after 
a ferromagnesian mineral. The groundmass is devitrified, microcrystalline or hypo- 
hyaline. Frequently the fluidal fabric is indicated by streaks in the groundmass 
of varying crystallinity. Radiating spherulitic structure is present in some sections. 


A section of one of the larger spherulites from Munganno Point shows con- 
eentrically arranged layers of flinty material, with slight radiating structure, 
through which the original flow-lines may sometimes be seen to pass. In the 
centre there is an amygdule of crystallized quartz, and the spherulite appears to be 
a secondary structure developed about the original geode at the expense of the 
rhyolite (Plate xxxii, fig. 2). The structure resembles that described in great 
detail by Cole (1886) and Parkinson (1898, 1901) as “pyromérides”, and seems to 
be due to the replacement and growth of normal spherulitic structures by flinty 
material. On weathering, the surface of the outer layer exhibits an appearance 
similar to perlitic cracking in rhyolites. 


Two analyses of rocks of this series have been made, and are given in 
Table I. The first is of the rhyolite from the quarry at “Edrom’, Twofold Bay, 
which is typical of the rocks in this district; the second is of a banded rhyolite 
near the top of the rhyolite series outcropping along the Lower Deua River, 
west of Moruya. 


The analyses quoted in Table I are very similar, being both those of normal 
potassic rhyolites, and as such show resemblances not only to those of Devonian 
age, but also to some described by H. C. Richards (1916) and H. C. Richards and 
W. H. Bryan (1924) of Permo-Carboniferous and even Tertiary age. 


The excess of potash over soda is shown in the norm by the greater abundance 
of orthoclase than plagioclase, although this does not appear to be so in the 
mode. The felspar phenocrysts are usually plagioclase; anorthoclase is suspected 
in one rock (M. 960), and orthoclase occurs in some of the Deua River rocks. 
Apparently much of the potash occurs in the minerals of the groundmass. 


The analyses are compared with those of three rocks from the Gippsland 
district of eastern Victoria, two being from the Wellington district and one from 
Mt. Tara Range, belonging to the Snowy River porphyry series. 


The Mount Wellington rocks have been referred to by A. W. Howitt (1876-77), 
R. A. F. Murray (1877, pp. 44-57), EH. W. Skeats (1909), H. O. Teale (1920), and 
others, and form part of a flow or series of flows between 1,000 and 2,000 feet 
in thickness at the base of sediments of probable Upper Devonian age. Thus 
they occupy a position analogous to that of the South Coast acid volcanic rocks. 
HE. O. Teale (1920, p. 125) notes that “the porphyries and rhyolites of the Wellington 
Series form again a more acid series than those of the Snowy River’. This is 
clearly seen by a comparison with the analysis in Column V of an acid porphyrite 
from Mt. Tara, in the Snowy River Series. 


476 


DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


TABLE I. 
I II Til IV Vv VI VII Vill 
SiO, 75°34 75°91 78:64 78-47 72°55 62-56 74-72 69-24 
Al,QO, 11-89 11-89 9-85 10-68 11-74 16-60 13-05 12-88 
Fe,0; 1:54 1-58 0:54 0-18 2-54 1-02 0-52 0:20 
FeO 1:60 0-96 2-00 2-23 0-46 5°98 1-42 4-05 
MgO 0:28 0-47 0-10 tr. 0-68 oF 0-41 2:21 
CaO 0-16 0-26 0:80 0-66 1-85 4-30 0-66 3:10 
Na,O 2°06 2-23 2-03 3:29 3-46 2-98 3°62 2-94 
K,0 3°82 5:59 5-16 4-15 4-41 PA Bf 4-31 3:66 
H,O+ 1:18 0-58 0-40 0-2 0-41 0-68 0-61 0-80 
H,O— 0-16 0-09 0:14 0-09 0-06 0-18 0-13 0-06 
co, 1-60 1-80 0-08 
TiO, 0-31 Q-28 0-67 0-59 0-175 1-10 0-16 0:04 
P,O, tr tr. 0-14 0-17 0-38 abs. 
MnO tr. tr. tr. 0-06 
Other Con. 0-82 
100-04 99-84 100-33 100-54 100-27 100°85 100-07 100-06 
TABLE OF NORMS. 
| 
I II Til IV \W VI VII 
Quartz 40-68 44-70 40-98 18-48 35-58 
Orthoclase 33-36 30-58 24-46 15-57 25-58 
Albite 18-86 16:77 PAT 7f 25-15 30-39 
Anorthite 1:39 2°78 2°22 20-57 0-56 
Corundum 1-63 — — 1°33 2-24 
Diopside — 0-96 0:99 — —_ 
Hypersthene 0-10 2-05 2-51 15-12 2-85 
Magnetite 2-32 0-70 0:23 1:39 0-70 
Iimenite .. 0-61 2 1-06 2-13 0:30 
Apatite 0-34 0-93 
Class 1 I I II I 
Order 3 3 3m 4 3 
Rang 1 1 1” 3 il 
Subrang .. (2)3 2 3 (3)4 3 
Magmatic Name. 
oO 
a 
o 
“4 oS -| wd 
3 Ey 3 5 E 
< = < iS) <x 


I.—Rhyolite, Quarry, east of ‘““Edrom”, East Boyd, Twofold Bay. Anal. I.A.B. 
IIl.—Rhyolite, Deua River, road to Araluen, 11 miles from Moruya. Anal. 1.A.B. 
IlJ.—Banded Rhyolite, Southern Plateau of Wellington, Victoria. Anal. E. O. Thiele. 
Soc. Vict., xxi, Part i, 1908, p. 266. Norm from Washington’s Tables, p. 59. 
1V.—Quartz-porphyry, southern shore of Lake Karng, Wellington district, Victoria. 
Anal. G Ampt. Proc. Roy. Sec. Vict., xxi, Part 1, 1908, p. 266. 


Proc. Roy. 


Tables, p. 


Gale 


Norm in Washington’s 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 477 


V.—Quartz-porphyrite, No. 100, Mt. Tara Ranges, Snowy River Porphyry Series. 
Anal. E. O. Teale. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xxxii, Part ii, 1920, p. 125. 

V1I.—Dacite, Willimigongong Creek, near ‘“Cheniston’”’, Upper Macedon. Anal. Lewis 
and Hall. Bull. Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 24, 1912, p. 17. Norm from Washington’s Tables, 
p. 401. 

VII.—Rhyolite, Blue Hills, Taggerty. Anal. E. S. Hills. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., xli, 
Part ii, 1929, p. 189. 

VIII.—Hypersthene-bearing quartz-porphyry, Burrenjuck, near Yass. Anal. J. C. H. 
Mingaye. Ann. Rept. Mines Dept. N.S.W., 1907, p. 185. 

These analyses may also be compared with that of a rhyolite from the Blue 
Hills, Taggerty, which also occurs near the base of Upper Devonian sediments, 


and has been described by E. S. Hills (1929). 


The table of norms shows the similarity of the Deua River, Lake Karng and 
Taggerty rocks even more distinctly, and they all belong to the same subrang 
according to the C.1.P.W. classification. 


On account of slight carbonation, the norms of the Eden rhyolite (Column I) 
and the quartz-porphyry from Mt. Tara Ranges (Column V) were not calculated. 

The dacites of Mt. Macedon, a typical analysis of which is quoted in column VI, 
are described by E. W. Skeats (1909) and E. W. Skeats and H. S. Summers (1912) 
as probably ‘equivalent to the Snowy River porphyries and of Lower Devonian age; 
the later work of E. S. Hills (1929) suggests that the Macedon dacites may be 
Upper Devonian. The rock is more basic than the South Coast series. 


Similarly the porphyrite from Burrenjuck, whose analysis is quoted in Column 
VIII, shows resemblance to the South Coast rocks: it occurs between intrusive 
granite and the Middle Devonian rocks of the Murrumbidgee district, described 
by L. F. Harper (1909a). 


(2). The second division consists of rhyolites, rhyolite breccias and felsitic 
rocks interbedded with sedimentary rocks of Upper Devonian age. ‘The best 
exposures of these rocks in the Eden district occur to the west of Eden, through 
the Nethercote district and northwards to the Mt. Gahan Ridge and the Pambula 
to Wyndham road; the outcrops are indicated on Plate xxxiii. Similar rhyolites 
interbedded with Upper Devonian sediments have been described from Yalwal 
(E. C. Andrews, 1901). 


The rhyolites and felsites of this stage differ from most of the rocks of the 
lower stage in having few or no phenocrysts. The rocks show little variation: 
they are very fine-grained and frequently show well-developed banding due to 
flow structure. Macroscopic and microscopic spherulitic structures also occur. 
Specimens of acid rocks belonging to this and the lower stage have been collected 
by the writer from about seventy different localities, and the Mining Museum, 
George Street North, Sydney, contains specimens from the Mt. Gahan Goldfield. 

Under the microscope the rocks are seen to be devitrified, and the fluidal 
fabric is shown by variations in the grainsize of the different bands. The pheno- 
crysts, which are seldom present, consist of either the acid plagioclase, oligoclase 
(M.960, M.359), or orthoclase,. both of which are decomposed, and rarely quartz. 
The groundmass is very finely crystalline, frequently showing spherulitic struc- 
ture (M.960, M.775). A section of an altered rhyolite from Mt. Gahan (M.749) 
shows well-developed perlitic fracture in ordinary light. 

No chemical analyses of these rocks have been made; many of them look 
very similar to the rhyolite from the Deua River, whose analysis is given in 
Table I. 


478 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


(3). Amygdaloidal basalts form the third group of Devonian igneous rocks. 
The chief outcrops occur west of Eden and in the Nethercote district, where at 
least two distinct flows occur to the east of Nethercote Model Farm. An extensive 
interbedded flow outcrops between Back Creek, a western tributary of Yowaka 
River, and Lochiel on the Pambula to Wyndham road, and continues to the “Six 
Mile” on the latter road. Other outcrops occur near the head of the Bald Hills 
Creek north of Pambula Trigonometrical Station, and west of the main road 
between the Saltwater Creek Bridge and the Mt. Gahan turn-off. These areas are 
shown on Plate xxxiii. 

At Monga, south-east of Braidwood, a similar rock overlying the rhyolites is 
probably an extension of the outcrop described by H. I. Jensen (1908), and 
amygdaloidal basalts are interbedded with the Upper Devonian of the Yalwal series 
described by HE. C. Andrews (1901). 

The lower horizons of the basalt are more compact than those above, which 
are generally amygdaloidal, the amygdules consisting of epidote, calcite, chlorite 
and zeolites. Occasionally the rock is traversed by veins of fibrous asbestos and 
quartz, the asbestos fibres being at right angles to the length of the vein. 

Under the microscope the rocks show some variations. They are all holo- 
crystalline; the grainsize varies from very fine to medium; sometimes the rock 
is slightly porphyritic in plagioclase, and amygdaloidal structure is common. Most 
sections show at least a tendency to ophitic fabric, and one (M.808) is inclined to 
be variolitic. 

Plagioclase occurs as idiomorphic laths, but rarely appears fresh. M.898 
contains patches of fresh oligoclase, and other slides contain albite-oligoclase, 
but usually the felspar is albite, even in a fresh rock. Slides M.899 and M.900 show 
the complete replacement of plagioclase by epidote crystals, which are distinctly 
lighter in colour than the surrounding interstitial epidote. In one of the rocks 
analysed (M.938) there are a few phenocrysts of unaltered anorthoclase. The ferro- 
magnesian mineral is colourless augite, allotriomorphic and interstitial; no fresh 
olivine has been observed, but pseudomorphs in serpentinous material and iron 
oxides indicate its former presence. Interstitial chloritic material is present in 
most sections, and vesicles contain calcite, epidote, chlorite and sometimes small 
quantities of a colourless radiating zeolite, with low double refraction, whose 
exact identity has not been determined. 

The albitized nature of the felspars and the occurrence of calcite, epidote 
and alteration products in apparently fresh basalt are considered to be due to the 
action of deuteric agencies during the consolidation of the rock. The effects of 
this process are widely distributed and following the work of Bailey and Grabham 
(1909), Dewey and Flett (1911), A. K. Wells (1922-23), H. C. Sargent (1917) and 
others, albitization and kindred phenomena have been recognized in many rocks 
of all ages. 

The occurrence of spilites in the Devonian rocks of the Tamworth district, 
described by W. N. Benson (1913, 1915a@, 19156, 1918) and in the Silverwood 
district of Queensland (Richards and Bryan, 1924) suggested the possibility of 
their occurrence among the Devonian rocks of the South Coast. However, a 
critical examination of the albitized basalts of the South Coast and a comparison 
with the published descriptions of spilitic rocks from Great Britain (H. Dewey 
and J. H. Flett, 1911, A. K. Wells, 1923), Hastern Fennoscandia (P. Eskola, 1925) 
and elsewhere indicates that the South Coast rocks are not true spilites, although 
they show some of their characteristics. 


No pillow structure has been observed in the Nethercote basalts, although 
they are interbedded with red mudstones, and were formed in an area that was 
undergoing slow subsidence, and a change from freshwater to marine conditions. 
Like the spilites, they appear to be very altered, and the chief constituents are 
albitized plagioclase, augite and the remains of olivine, together with deuteric 


minerals (Sederholm, 1916). 


Two analyses have been made of these rocks, one of relatively compact basalt, 
Since the minerals of the amygdules 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 


the other of a slightly amygdaloidal type. 


are regarded as essential magmatic products, they were not separated from the 


basalt, but were included in the rock analysed. 


TABLE IT. 
I Il Ill Vi Vv 
SiO, 46-28 49-87 54-10 49-35 51-14 
Al,O; 16-02 15-91 16-45 17-61 14-47 
Fe,0; 2-43 3°55 4-04 1-50 3-60 
FeO oe 10-09 6:49 9-72 8-28 
MgO 6°84 4-84 3-69 3:17 5-80 
CaO 8-86 8-27 6-16 Weal 9-64 
Na,O 2-83 Dig 4-97 3-10 2-43 
K,0O 0-25 1-10 1-01 1-56 0-57 
H.O+ 3°65 2°44 1-01 2-56 Q52, 
H,0O — 0-30 0-19 0-16 0-65 0-34 
Co, 2-58 0-22 0-75 — — 
TiO, 1-94 1-89 S22, 2-83 0-75 
P,O; 0-34 0-26 tr. 0-08 
MnO : 0-11 pr 0-26 0:07 0-22 
Other Const. 0-34 0-03 
99-70 100-54 100-37 100-17 99-87 
TABLE OF NORMS. 
I IL 
Quartz .. 1-08 4-92 
Orthoclase ibestil 6-67 
Albite 24-10 18-34 
Anorthite 25-58 30-30 
Corundum 1-73 — 
Diopside = 7-82 
Hypersthene 25-42 20-63 
Magnetite 3°48 5-10 
Ilmenite | 3°65 3°65 
Apatite 0-67 — 
Calcite .. 5:90 0-50 
Class “ADDL (II) IIL 
Order 5 5 
Rang 4 4 
Subrang 4-5 4-5 
Magmatic Name Auvergnose Auvergnose 


WAL 


oof 


SCOoOCNWNrFON OK @®u 


479 


Vil 


480 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


I.—Amygdaloidal Basalt, east of Nethercote, Eden district, N.S.W. Anal. 1.A.B. 

I1I.—Compact Basalt, portion 68, Parish of Eden. Anal. I.A.B. 

IlIl.—Andesite (Spilite), Elbow Valley, Silverwood, Queensland. (Anal. ?). Proce. 
Roy. Soc. Queensland, 1924, xxxvi, No. 6, p. 88. 

IV.—Melaphyre, Moroka Snow Plain, Victoria. Anal. G. Ampt. Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Vict., xxxii, Part ii, 1920, p. 98. 

V.—Albitic Dolerite, Loomberah, Tamworth district, N.S.W. Anal. J. C. H. Mingaye. 
Proc. LInn. Soc. N.S.W., xliii, 1918, p. 368. 

VI.—Spilite, Frenchman’s Spur, Nundle. Anal. W. N. Benson. Proc. LInn. Soc. 
N.S.W., xl, 1915, p. 139. 

VII.—Ophitic Albite-Clinopyroxene rock. Spilitic lava bed in the Solomen Breccia, 
Solomen, western shore of Lake Onega. Anal. P. Eskola. Fennia, 45, No. 19, 1915. 

The two analyses show variations compatible with mineralogical differences; 
the relatively greater abundance of chlorite, epidote and calcite accounts for the 
higher percentages of water and carbon dioxide in the amygdaloidal basalt. The 
analysis of a melaphyre from Moroka Snow Plain in the Mount Wellington district 
of Victoria, quoted in column IV, shows close resemblance to the Eden rocks, a 
feature which is interesting in view of their similar field associations and probable 
ages. 


Compared with the two analyses of spilitic rocks quoted in columns VI and VII, 
the Eden rocks differ in exactly those respects which specially characterize the 
spilites. Although soda is dominant over potash, the alkalis are not particularly 
high, and the alumina of the Eden rocks is comparable to that of normal basalts, | 
whereas the spilites are somewhat deficient in alumina. It is therefore evident 
that the Eden rocks are not true spilites, although they show some resemblances 
to rocks such as the albite-dolerite, whose analysis is quoted in column V, that are 
associated with the spilites. 


There is also a general resemblance to the rock whose analysis is quoted in 
column III, which is regarded by H. C. Richards and W. H. Bryan (1924) as 
spilitic. This similarity is interesting as the rock is associated with spherulitic 
rhyolites of the Devonian series at Silverwood, Queensland. 


THE AGE OF THE BASAL RHYOLITES. 


The only direct evidence of the age of the igneous flows of the lower stage 
is that they overlie sediments of Silurian or Ordovician age with a marked 
unconformity, and underlie Upper Devonian sediments with a slight uncon- 
formity, indicated mainly by an erosional break. The general trend and dip of 
the igneous flows are approximately conformable with those of the overlying beds, 
suggesting that although erosion and probably vertical movement took place 
before the deposition of the red beds, the unconformity does not necessarily 
indicate a long time-interval between the two formations, say equivalent to that 
of the Middle Devonian Epoch, when enormously thick deposits of shales, lime- 
stones and tuffs were deposited in the Murrumbidgee area (L. F. Harper, 1909a). 
So far as the writer is aware there are no Middle Devonian sediments on the 
South Coast. 


In the adjacent district in Victoria the Lower Devonian is represented by the 
Snowy River Porphyries, which are partly overlain by Middle Devonian sediments, 
as described by A. W. Howitt (1875), E. O. Teale (1920). and others. The dacites 
and quartz-porphyrites of Mt. Macedon (Skeats and Summers, 1912) and the 
Dandenong Hills, and the series of alkaline rocks of Mt. Leinster; Frenchman’s 
Hill, Omeo; and Mt. Elizabeth, Noyang, have all been regarded as probably Lower 
Devonian (EH. W. Skeats, 1909; T. W. E. David and E. W. Skeats, 1914, p. 305), 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 481 


but the recent discovery by E. S. Hills (1929) may modify these correlations. Mr. 
Hills discovered fish remains of a typically Upper Devonian aspect in sediments 
underlying rhyolites that were “formerly believed to be Lower Devonian dacites”’. 
This important discovery “necessitates a revision of our conception of the age of 
the other Victorian dacites, and those that can be linked petrographically with 
the Marysville rocks must also be placed in the Upper Devonian”’. 


An extensive flow of rhyolite occurs at the base of the Mt. Wellington series, 
and is chemically similar to the acid igneous rocks of the South Coast, with 
which it has been compared, page 475. HE. O. Teale (1920, p. 125) calls attention 
to the fact that the rock is more acid than the Snowy River porphyries, and 
implies that petrological distinctions may be made. Teale regards the sedimentary 
series as Lower Carboniferous, but the Geological Survey map (1909) shows it as 
Devonian. 

The Snowy River porphyries were considered by A. W. Howitt (1876-7) to be 
due to the activity of a line of volcanoes running approximately in a meridional 
direction near the course of the Snowy River. The distribution of the later 
Middle Devonian rocks both in Victoria and in New South Wales suggests that 
the occurrence of the Snowy River porphyries had a tectonic significance, fore- 
shadowing the position of subsequent geosynclinal deposition during Middle 
Devonian time. 

Since no Middle Devonian sediments occur above the lower igneous series 
of the South Coast, which might have been heralded by igneous activity, and 
since the series is comparable petrologically, chemically, and stratigraphically 
with the rhyolites of Mt. Wellington and probably those of Taggerty-Marysville, 
it is considered by the writer that these groups may be correlated, and that the 
Eden series and its equivalents along the South Coast may be regarded as the 
lowest stage of the Upper Devonian rocks on the South Coast of New South 
Wales. 


CORRELATION OF THE DEVONIAN ROCKS OF THE SourH COAST. 


From the descriptions in the preceding pages it is evident that outcrops of 
Upper Devonian rocks occur at a number of localities along the South Coast 
between the Shoalhaven River and the Victorian Border. Reference to the 
accompanying map (Plate xxxiv) indicates that the formations were deposited 
in a relatively narrow synclinal trough, whose axis was situated inland from the 
present coast-line. Subsequent earth movements produced folding of the sediments, 
the axes of the folds being approximately parallel to the trend of the structural 
depression in which the sediments were deposited. The arcuate character of the 
trough, which is emphasized by the arrangement of the trend lines, as shown on 
the map between Eden and Yalwal, suggests that a massif of older rocks existed 
to the east, which may have been portion of the Tasmantis of Stissmilch and 
David (1919, p. 277). 

The Devonian rocks, which all belong to the Upper series, rest with a 
marked unconformity on a highly folded series of Pre-Devonian schists, phyllites 
and slates. The sediments contain plant remains and a marine fauna, which are 
typically Upper Devonian, and evidence has been produced in the previous pages 
to show that the underlying volcanic rocks are also probably of Upper Devonian 
age. 

The most complete sequence occurs in the Eden district, where three stages 
of Upper Devonian series have been recognized, (i) a lower volcanic stage, 


482 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


possibly of terrestrial origin, (ii) a middle stage of sediments and contem- 
poraneous volcanic rocks, and (iii) an upper stage of marine, arenaceous sediments. 

These three stages may be recognized at intervals along the South Coast, 
although the entire sequence is not always represented. The diagrammatic 
columnar sections (Text-fig. 3) of the areas previously described, illustrate the 
writer’s opinion of the age relationships of the formations under. consideration. 


(i). It is proposed to call the lower volcanic stage the Hden Stage on account 
of its typical development in the vicinity of Eden. The distribution of the Eden 
stage is more limited than that of the succeeding stages; it outcrops at intervals 
along both sides of the zone of Upper Devonian sedimentation, occurring on the 
western side of the red beds south of Twofold Bay, and under the sediments of 
the Eden district; at Monga the basal Devonian rhyolite dips towards the east 
under the quartzites of the Clyde Mountain; and the quartz-felsite of Major’s 
Creek, described by Professor David (189306) is possibly a western extension of this 
occurrence. The quartz-porphyry indicated north-west of Yalwal on the map by 
Mr. Andrews (1901) may possibly represent the Hden stage. Along the eastern 
border of the Devonian trough the Eden stage is well developed in the neighbour- 
hood of the Wandera Mountain, west of Buckemboura, and along the Lower Deua 
River and its tributaries. ; 


Again at Tathra, east of Bega, and along the coast as far south as Bournda 
Island, the outcrops of “porphyry” and rhyolite are to be correlated with the lower 
or Eden stage. The maximum thickness of this stage varies from 450 feet in the 
Eden district to 800 feet along the Lower Deua River. 

(ii). It has been shown that in the Eden district the middle stage is deposited 
over the eroded surface of the lower stage, and consists of a great development 
of red beds, with contemporaneous basalts, rhyolites and felsites. On account 
of the striking lithological resemblances to the series described by Mr. Andrews 
from Yalwal, confirmed by the occurrence of Protolepidodendron in the Eden 
and Yalwal beds, it is considered that the rocks are of similar age. 

In the Eden district the middle stage attains a thickness of 1,500 feet and 
dips more or less conformably with the underlying igneous flows. Igneous action 
continued during the deposition of the red beds and produced interbedded flows 
of rhyolite, felsite and basalt. The red beds themselves may be of tuffaceous 
origin. The occurrence of basalts, related in some respects to the spilites, may be 
significant of the general movement of subsidence, which produced the marine 
transgression of the following stage. 


The most extensive outcrops of the middle stage occur along the coast from 
Disaster Bay to the north of Merrimbula and inland through the Nethercote 
district. 


Lithological similarities and the occurrence of Upper Devonian plant 
remains (Cordaites?) suggest the correlation of the Upper Genoa Creek beds and 
the middle stage of the Eden series. 


Red beds of the middle stage occur in the Upper Brogo River and at Yourie, 
as well as along the Deua River Valley below Araluen. The thin series of red 
beds and basalts near Monga, occurring between the basal rhyolites and the Clyde 
Mountain sediments are considered to belong to the Yalwal stage, but evidently 
it thins out entirely before reaching Major’s Creek, according to the section given 
by Professor David (18930), (see Text-fig. 2, section 5). 


483 


IDA A. BROWN. 


BY 


‘oye ‘Ssaqtepa0g 


TAA T MOH Sy 1a4doavyory 
oipuspoptdeaytoyoug 


‘eTeigsne uolpuapoptdaT 
‘uoposmnatd BT Tauoyouckyuy 
eyounfstp dazzatds 


UsABUTeOUS 
AT9mOT 


S4STUOS 


sy Teseg 
se4tToAud 
squautpes 


6648 1aWoOTZuU0) 
Sa4tzjzreng 
sauozyspues 


poompyteag *au 
Yeer9 gs, soley 


-a4ttoxuuh, 


NVIUNTIS 20/pUB NVIOTAOGHO 


LSVOO HLNOS 
AHL dO 
SMOOU NVINOAUC waddN 
AHL JO 


NOLLVTdYYOO UNV AONANOAS 


GOVLS (NGGa) wAamoT 


AOVLS (TVMTIVA) AICCIN NVINOASG Waddn 


qOVLS (SIGNV1) uRdaa ONILVULSNT1 


SNOILLOdS OLLVNNVYOVIG 


824k1S 
4 


4 S4styos Wy, 
aq1TO kU /) 


a4tTOAUH 


, 


soral///) e a ——— 
mz LN sped pay 


aytuedy 


sped peu 
A 


(eT Ta puo0d) 


6o4}z97eNb 39}, e1awoTZU0) 


8947z2918Nd | 
sauo04spues}: 


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BeZUOW 


BANIOW 
yo 4S9M 


YBspuNne tT I1IN 
euBeend 


yaa19 BoUs) 


at anog 39741481 


of the 


illustrating sequence and correlation 


10nS 


.—Columnar secti 


3) 
v 


Text-heg. 


Upper Devonian formations of the South Coast. 


484 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


Yalwal may be considered as the type locality for the rocks of this stage, 
and it is proposed to designate this the Yalwal Stage, defining the term to include 
the freshwater sediments, characterized by the presence of Protolepidodendron, 
Archaeopteris Howitti, Cordaites, and similar plant remains, together with con- 
temporaneous lava flows. 

(iii). Rocks that are lithologically equivalent to the Upper Stage of the 
Eden series have a more widespread distribution on the South Coast than either 
of the lower stages, since they overlap their outcrops and frequently rest directly 
‘and unconformably on pre-Devonian sediments. They consist essentially of con- 
glomerates, grits, quartzites and mudstones of shallow water origin, and occa- 
sionally contain typical Upper Devonian marine fossils. No definite evidence of 
igneous action has been recognized in this stage on the South Coast. 

Reference to the accompanying maps and sections shows that at Mount Imlay 
and along the ridge north of the Nullica River the Upper Stage rests on pre- 
Devonian formations, and similar relations occur east of Quaama and in the 
neighbourhood of Nerrigundah. 

Along the Bendithera, Deua River and Clyde Mountain sections the marine 
beds overlie those of the middle (Yalwal) stage, but to the west of Monga, near 
Major’s Creek, the middle stage is not represented and the marine stage rests on 
the quartz-felsite of the lower (Eden) stage. In the Shoalhaven district to the 
north there is a series of grits and quartzites from which a variety of Upper 
Devonian marine fossils, including Spirifera disjuncta and Rhynchonella pleurodon, 
has been collected by C. F. Laseron (1908). The exact field relations of these 
marine beds to the Yalwal beds have not been observed, but the lithological and 
palaeontological evidence strongly supports their correlation with the Upper and 
Middle Stages respectively, of the Eden district, thus placing the Devonian marine 
beds of the Shoalhaven River stratigraphically above the Yalwal beds. 

In New South Wales the sediments outcropping at Mt. Lambie have been 
regarded as typical of the Upper Devonian of the south-eastern province (W. N. 
Benson, 1922). Compared with the Upper Devonian of the South Coast, it appears 
that only the Upper or Marine Stage is represented at Mt. Lambie. 

As the origin, distribution, palaeontology and lithology of this stage are 
characteristic and distinct from those of the Eden and Yalwal stages, it is proposed 
to call it the Lambie Stage, understanding the term to apply not only to the sedi- 
ments at Mt. Lambie, but to the whole of the marine stage of the Upper Devonian, 
which is stratigraphically above the Yalwal or middle stage of the Eden series. 


The Lambie Stage is characterized by the presence of conglomerates, grits, 
quartzites and mudstones, in which a variety of marine forms is preserved. Typical 
fossils include Spirifera disjuncta, Rhynchonella pleurodon and Lepidodendron 
australe. 

A review of the literature on the Upper Devonian rocks of New South Wales 
and Victoria suggests that the threefold division of the Upper Devonian series 
Tecognized on the South Coast may have more general application. Thus to the 
north of Yalwal, at Yerranderie, in the Upper Burragorang Valley, L. F. Harper 
(1930) shows (in section) the occurrence of a Devonian series of interbedded 
sediments and volcanic rocks underlying sediments containing Upper Devonian 
marine fossils. Upper Devonian sediments extend intermittently through the 
Kowmung Valley towards Hartley, Mt. Lambie, Capertee and Mudgee. Although 
the recorded Upper Devonian rocks of Mt. Lambie are chiefly marine sediments, 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 485 


‘volcanic rocks occur immediately to the west, and may underlie the Lambie beds. 
This sequence is being investigated by the writer and Miss G. Joplin, B.Sc. From 
the Upper Macquarie Valley L. F. Harper (1909b) has described a series of 
Devonian rocks consisting of tuffs and contemporaneous lava flows of augite- 
andesite, felsite and rhyolite occurring beneath conglomerates, massive quartzites 
and sandstones containing Rhynchonella plewrodon and Spirifera disjuncta, a 
sequence which corresponds to that developed on the South Coast. 

Maps of the Capertee district by J. EH. Carne (1903) show a series of 
apparently unfossiliferous slates and sandstones separated by a belt of quartz- 
porphyry from a series of slates, sandstones and limestones from which a collec- 
tion of Middle Devonian fossils was obtained (Carne, 1903, p. 125). 

The whole series is regarded as Devonian and the occurrence of boulders 
containing Spirifera disjuncta in the overlying Permo-Carboniferous conglomerate 
indicates the existence of the Upper Stage of the Upper Devonian in the vicinity. 
The field relations of the quartz-porphyry to the Middle Devonian sediments on the 
one side and Upper Devonian (?) sediments on the other side are not definitely 
known, but the possibility of their analogy to the early Upper Devonian flows of 
the South Coast should be considered in future work in the district. 

Records of the Devonian rocks of the Mudgee district include references to 
“andesites and rhyolites’” (Benson, 1922, p. 103) which may correspond to the 
early Upper Devonian of South Coast. To the west of these areas the Devonian 
rocks consist mainly of arenaceous marine sediments of late Upper Devonian age. 

In the adjacent areas in Victoria there are formations which appear to be 
analogous to the Upper Devonian rocks of the Hden district. These occur at Mt. 
Tambo, the Bemm River, Tabberabbera, Iguana Creek, and through the Mount 
Wellington and Mansfield districts, and have been described by a number of 
Victorian geologists including A. W. Howitt (1874-7), R. A. F. Murray (1877), 
E. O. Teale (1920), E. W. Skeats (1929), and many others. Palaeontological 
evidence of the age of these rocks is confined to fish and plant remains, and there 
appears to be no consensus of opinion regarding their age. This problem has 
been discussed recently by Professor Skeats (1929). 

On the Geological Map of Victoria (1912) the beds round Mansfield are 
coloured as Carboniferous, and those to the south-east, surrounding Tamboritha 
and Wellington Mountains through to the head of the Avon River, Iguana Creek 
and the Tabberabbera districts are shown as Devonian. 


The writer would tentatively correlate with the Lower (Hden) Stage of the 
Upper Devonian, the rhyolite of Lake Karng (Thiele, 1908, 1920) at the base of 
the Mt. Wellington series, and the rhyolites of the Taggerty-Marysville district 
(Hills, 1929a, 1929b), together with analogous voleanic rocks in Victoria. 

The Middle Stage appears to be represented by the red and chocolate-coloured 
shales and sandstones of Iguana Creek, which contain Cordaites australis and 
Archaeopteris Howitti, and at Mt. Wellington and Snowy Bluff similar rocks are 
interbedded with rhyolites, felsites and basalts that are lithologically and 
chemically equivalent to those of the middle stage of the Upper Devonian at Eden. 
Probably at least portion of the Upper Devonian at Tabberabbera, described by 
Professor Skeats (1929), may be correlated with this stage. 

A section through the lower part of the Upper Devonian at the Mitchell 
River, above Horseshoe Bend, is described as consisting of 350 feet of red and 
purple mudstones with thin bands of breccia and conglomerate and two flows of 
spherulitic rhyolite, followed by 70 feet of conglomerate and 500 feet of sand- 


486 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


stone. The presence of melaphyre or altered basalt is suspected from boulders 
in the Mitchell River, but these have not been found in situ. Red mudstone, 
rhyolite-breccia and other specimens from this series, kindly lent to the writer by 
Professor Skeats, are remarkably similar to the South Coast rocks. 

Similar red beds outcrop at Valencia Creek and Freestone Creek. 

The Mansfield series of arenaceous sediments were classed by McCoy as the 
top of the Upper Devonian on the evidence of Lepidodendron Mansfieldense and a 
fossil fish. Later A. S. Woodward (1906) described the fossil fish as Carboniferous, 
and his classification is adopted by the Geological Survey. Professor Skeats 
(1929) points out that the absence of contemporaneous iavas in the sediments 
of the Mansfield region, as contrasted with the proved Upper Devonian beds of 
Victoria, may be regarded as evidence in favour of their possible Carboniferous 
age. It may be noted, however, that the upper stage of the Eden series is also 
devoid of igneous flows. 


Lepidodendron australe, which was named and described by F.. McCoy in 1874, 
was discovered in sandstones near the junction of Valencia Creek and the Avon 
River (Chapman, 1914). Regarding the stratigraphical horizon of the original 
specimen, R. A. F. Murray (1887) writes: “Professor McCoy expresses a strong 
opinion as to the Lower Carboniferous aspect of this fossil plant impression; and 
from my own observations I am inclined to believe that the beds in which it is 
found are among the uppermost of the group, and younger than, though conform- 
able with, the Upper Devonian Beds of Freestone and Iguana Creeks.”’ Since then 
Lepidodendron australe has been found at four other localities in the Macallister 
basin by E. O. Teale (1920), who tentatively regarded the Mt. Wellington beds 
as Lower Carboniferous, as they had not been distinguished from the Mansfield 
formation. In New South Wales Lepidodendron australe oceurs in association 
with marine Upper Devonian fossils at a number of localities, as recorded by David 
and Pittman (1893), and its occurrence does not imply a Carboniferous age. 

The Upper Devonian beds of Perry, South-eastern Maine, contain a form 
Leptophloeum rhombicum, which D. White (1905, pp. 72-73) regards as equivalent 
to Lepidodendron nothum Feistmantel and Lepidodendron australe McCoy. 

The evidence of the Upper Devonian of the South Coast of New South Wales 
naturaliy suggests that similar conditions of sedimentation prevailed in the 
adjacent district of Victoria, and that two stages of sedimentation are represented 
here also, the lower (Yalwal) stage containing only remnants of a primitive 
land flora, being of lacustrine or estuarine origin and including interbedded acid 
and basic lava flows; and the upper (Lambie) stage consisting of arenaceous 
marine sediments, without evidence of igneous activity. 


TECTONIC HISTORY AND PALAEOGEOGRAPHY. 


The examination of the Devonian rocks of the South Coast and their com- 
parison and correlation with other Devonian formations in south-eastern Australia 
has led to a consideration of the general problem of the palaeogeography and 
geological history of this portion of the continent during Devonian time. 


Professor W. N. Benson (1922, 1923) has already given a comprehensive 
account of Devonian sedimentation and tectonic structure, based on his own 
extensive researches and a careful survey of the previous literature, notably the 
work of W. B. Clarke (1860-1878), T. W. E. David (18938a, 1911, 1914), H. I. Jensen 
(1911), E. C. Andrews (1914, 19160, 1922), and many others to whom reference is 
made. 


BY IDA A, BROWN. 487 


The additional Devonian occurrences described in the present paper give 
evidence for an elaboration of the known stratigraphical succession of Upper 
Devonian rocks, and provide a means of more direct correlation of some of the 
known deposits in south-eastern Australia. 

After the deposition of Ordovician and Silurian sediments, violent earth- 
movements affected the greater part of south-eastern Australia and the rocks 
were intensely folded. The axes of folding usually run in a meridional direction 
in New South Wales and in eastern Gippsland, Victoria, but in the western part 
of Gippsland the trend is more to the north-west. The Devonian formations 
usually rest with a marked unconformity on the eroded surface of the older 
formations. 

In the Walhalla-Wood’s Point district in Victoria, however, the Centennial 
beds contain evidence of continued sedimentation from Silurian into early 
Devonian time, as shown by the work of EH. W. Skeats (1928) and W. Lang and 
I. Cookson (1930). Similar relations may obtain between the Silurian and 
Devonian at Bowning in the Yass district, New South Wales, according to 
J. Mitchell and W. S. Dun (1920). 

Otherwise Lower Devonian unconformably overlie the Silurian and older 
rocks and are represented only by igneous rocks, typically the Snowy River 
porphyries. The dacites of Mt. Macedon (Skeats, 1909; Skeats and Summers, 
1912) and elsewhere in Victoria have been regarded as Lower Devonian, but the 
recent discovery by E. S. Hills (1929) of Upper Devonian fish remains in sedi- 
ments below rhyolites “formerly believed to be Lower Devonian dacites” casts 
some doubt on the age of analogous rocks. In New South Wales the volcanic series 
of Murrumbidgee (Harper, 1909; Shearsby, 1905) are considered to be Lower 
Devonian. 

The sketch map (Text-fig. 4) shows the distribution of the known outcrops 
of Devonian rocks in Victoria and New South Wales, the information being 
taken from the State geological maps of 1909 and 1914 respectively, modified by 
reports subsequent to their publication. 

The distribution of the Lower Devonian volcanic series appears to have a 
tectonic significance, probably being related to the trough-faulting and down- 
warping that produced the narrow gulf in which the Middle Devonian sediments 
were deposited. This gulf extended in a northerly direction from Victoria into 
New South Wales, including the areas of Buchan, Bindi, Tabberabbera, Limestone 
Creek, Lobb’s Hole, and the Murrumbidgee, near Yass. 


The Middle Devonian beds consist of shales, massive limestones, tuffs and 
acid volcanic rocks. At Buchan the series rests in hollows eroded out of the 
underlying Snowy River Porphyries. In the Murrumbidgee basin a rich and 
varied fauna has been preserved, more than a hundred forms being recorded by 
W.N. Benson (1922, pp. 95-96). Mr. Dun suggests (EH. C. Andrews, 19160, p. 757) 
that detailed examination of the fossils of the Murrumbidgee beds may show 
that Lower Devonian beds pass up into Middle Devonian, the whole series 
attaining a thickness of 14,000 feet, according to L. F. Harper (1909a). 


There is some uncertainty as to the limits of the Middle Devonian gulf in 
New South Wales. Other Devonian limestones are recorded from many localities 
by Carne and Jones (1919), but no further details of their stratigraphical position 
are given, as palaeontological evidence of their age is scarce. These limestones 
occur in two main areas, one being the belt from Mudgee to near Capertee, and the 
other being in the neighbourhood of Goulburn and Tarago. 


488 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


The Devonian rocks of the Capertee district were described and mapped by 
J. E. Carne in 1903. An assemblage of typical Middle Devonian fossils was 
obtained from the limestone at the Blue Rocks (Carne, 1903, p. 125), but the 


existence of Upper Devonian beds in the locality is indicated by the presence of 


Spirifera disjuncta in boulders in the overlying Permo-Carboniferous conglomerate 
although the form has not been found in situ. 


14/6 


Wo ee Se eS SS SS = | was—eeoeoee es — —=— ota —_——_—-— 
1 
Ha 
\ | 
|'30 2 r = ee Bingara 
‘ -Barraba 
{ 
{ 
{ \ 
»Canbelego Troon | 
14 Cobar -Woolomin 
Wilcannia *Nundlé 
Ny magee 
| 


Wellington 


( 
| 
! Fifeld Mudgee 
| { . ) 
| i | N. S. W. | Parkes ee 
\ | rbGgnoblas Mr. nit if. id y, 
| | urs 
Cargo “Mt Lambie 
tat anowindra “Hartley 
sas PSS 
! BAe pecs 
| 
a! | | 
| ene vee. Rives 
a 
| { mt =. rst Yalwal @ 
' y ge d 
\ ak Creeks Mong At 
{ Kiandra ai 0 u 
136 { Bend Reed 
| 1 an roa 
{ 
! | LOCALITIES OF 
( iv i GCGNYE @ i IVaAl 
] t 
| Mansfie 5 “ye ce Panta fi OS 
] | i . 1 e 
| | sy ¢ | (3 Noa” Ee DEVONIAN ROCKS 
lee | Reenter. | \Bychan “eS 
\ Mt. Wellington. *% Pabbprabbera 3 
! ) Melbourne je long ‘a IN 
\ | WalhallXey. by call 
Reve 4 
Pw > al 
14 a 146 


148 1510 isk 


Text-fig. 4.—Sketch map of south-eastern Australia, showing localities of 
fossiliferous Devonian outcrops. 


s|4 


This area is therefore one of exceptional interest, for it seems probable that 
the relations between the Middle and Upper Devonian may be revealed in this 
locality. 

The limestones of the Goulburn-Tarago district have been classed as Devonian 
mainly by their lithological associations; the only fossils known are from the out- 
crops west of Lake Bathurst Railway Station, described by J. E. Carne and L. J 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 489 


Jones (1919, pp. 136-137). From these beds Mr. Dun has identified Receptaculites, 
Cyrtoceras, dendroid Favosites and (?) Coral, which again have a Murrumbidgean 
aspect, although Upper Devonian sediments are known to occur in the vicinity. 

There appears to be no authentic record of massive coralline limestone in the 
Upper Devonian of New South Wales, at least south or west of the Permo- 
Carboniferous basin. Some of the New England limestones are classed as Upper 
Devonian by W. S. Dun (1914, p. 292), but these are included in the Tamworth 
series of Middle Devonian by W. N. Benson (1922). 

Otherwise Upper Devonian sediments are typically arenaceous, and the 
probability of conditions suitable for the growth of corals seems remote. The 
available evidence therefore indicates that the massive Devonian limestones of 
the Mudgee-Capertee and Goulburn-Tarago districts are Middle Devonian, and 
were formed in part of the Murrumbidgean gulf. The strike directions of these 
rocks shown on the map (Text-fig. 5) are taken from the published records of 
Carne and Jones (1919). 


AREA OF 


| 


; fas DEVONIAN 


SEDIMENTATION 


a 
| 
| 
| 

{ 


Text-fig. 5.—Sketch map of south-eastern Australia, showing area of 
Middle Devonian Sedimentation. 


The distribution of the outcrops of Upper Devonian sediments (Text-figs. 6, 7) 
and the more intense folding of the Middle as compared with the Upper Devonian 
beds, indicates that the Murrumbidgean geosyncline suffered compression from 
the east at the close of the Middle Devonian, when the greater part of the former 
gulf was converted into-dry land, most of which was not covered by the Upper 
Devonian sea. 

This closing Middle Devonian orogeny is of considerable importance, inasmuch 
as it finally welded on the eastern massif to the growing Australian continent, 
and marked the close of an era of general compressive force from the east 


490 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


indicated by the pronounced meridional trend of the Lower Palaeozoic rocks of 
south-eastern Australia. The trend-lines of the newer formations show progres- 
sive change from the meridional direction to north-north-west and north-west, 
the initial variation commencing in the Upper Devonian epoch. The strong uncon- 
formity between the Middle and Upper Devonian exposed by the Mitchell River 
below Tabberabbera (Skeats, 1929) is additional evidence of late Middle Devonian 
diastrophism. 

The Upper Devonian commenced with an outburst of volcanic activity repre- 
sented by extensive rhyolitic flows of the Eden Stage along a zone nearer the 
present coastline of south-eastern Australia than the former area of Middle 
Devonian deposition. These volcanic rocks may be traced from Mt. Wellington, 
Victoria, along the coast of New South Wales from Disaster Bay to Yalwal, thence 
inland through Burragorang, west of Mt. Lambie, and towards Capertee and 


} 
| 
AREA OF 


—— UPPER DEVONIAN re 


SEDIMENTATION 


MIDDLE STAGE 


al ah ah 


Text-fig. 6.—Sketch map of south-eastern Australia showing area of 
Upper Devonian Sedimentation (Middle Stage). 


Mudgee. No centres of volcanic activity have been recognized; indeed, it seems 
more probable that the flows were due to fissure eruptions associated with faulting 
that preceded the formation of the depressed area in which the later sediments 
were deposited. 

The probable position of this zone is indicated in Text-figure 6, and it forms 
the first approximation to the development of the important geosyncline in which 
the Upper Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sediments of eastern Australia were deposited. 
The gradual movement of the axis of the geosyncline to the north and east is an 
important tectonic feature in the building of Australia, which has been recognized 
by T. W. EB. David (1893a) and EF. C. Andrews (1914, 1916b). 

The middle or Yalwal stage of the Upper Devonian followed the trend of the 
previous stage and consists of lacustrine or estuarine deposits, characterized by a 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 49] 


great development of red beds, mudstones, sandstones and grits, and contains 
fragmentary plant remains but no marine organisms. Igneous activity continued 
through the middle stage, rhyolites being interbedded with basalts allied to 
spilites. 

Continued subsidence caused marine transgression over the greater part of 
New South Wales in the upper (Lambie) stage of the Upper Devonian (Text- 
fig. 7). The marginal trough of the previous stage appears to have survived, and 
the greatest sedimentation took place in this zone; arenaceous sediments of the 
order of 1,200 feet in thickness remain in the southern part of the State. At Mt. 
Lambie the thickness was somewhat greater, although recent work by Miss G. 
Joplin, B.Se., and the writer indicates that previously the thickness of the Lambie 
series has been considerably over-estimated. 


AREA OF 


PPER DEVONIAN __,| 


t 


SEDIMENTATION 


UPPER ° STAGE 
2, : 


~<& 
H il dl ale af “ | 


Text-fig. 7.—Sketch map of south-eastern Australia showing area of 
Upper Devonian Sedimentation (Upper Stage). 
Note.—Other outcrops coloured as Devonian on the State 
Geological Map of New South Wales consist chiefly of 
unfossiliferous quartzites. 


The lithology of this stage is characteristic: coarse conglomerates, purple 
sandstones and quartzites predominate. There appear to be no massive coralline 
limestones throughout the Upper Devonian. Marine fossils are abundant in 
certain thin zones, and may form local shell-beds, but great thicknesses of sediment 
are unfossiliferous. Drift Lepidodendron australe occurs in this stage. 

Outliers of Upper Devonian rocks have been described from Molong-Canoblas 
(C. A. Siissmilch, 1906), Upper Macquarie (lL. F. Harper, 1909b), Parkes-Forbes 
(E. C. Andrews, 1910), Cobar and Canbelego (H. C. Andrews, 1913a, 19130), and 
Wellington, N.S.W. (A. J. Matheson, 1930), and other occurrences are recorded 
in Reports of the Geological Survey of the Mines Department, New South Wales. 


492 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


Probably the Lambian sea extended almost as far west as the Darling River 
(Text-fig. 7) and a veneer of arenaceous sediments was deposited over the pre- 
Devonian rocks. In the Cretaceous conglomerates west of the Darling River, 
boulders of fossiliferous Upper Devonian rocks have been found (J. B. Jaquet, 
1892; W. S. Dun, 18980), but according to E. J. Kenny (1929, 1930), probably no 
outcrops of proved Devonian sediments occur beyond 50 miles west of Cobar. 

No igneous flows are known to occur in the upper stage of Upper Devonian 
sedimentation, which was succeeded by a period of great orogenic earth-movement, 
termed by C. A. Stissmilch (1914) the Kanimbla Epoch. Folding of the Upper 
Devonian during this epoch was accompanied by the intrusion of enormous 
granodioritic batholiths in the area under consideration, and its description may 
well form a separate chapter in the geological history of the State. 


SUMMARY. 


The paper describes the occurrence of the Devonian rocks of the South Coast 
of New South Wales, between the Shoalhaven River and the Victorian Border. The 
field-relations and associations of these rocks are described from a number of 
localities, and the petrological and chemical characters of the igneous rocks are 
discussed. 

It is shown that the sediments were deposited unconformably on the older 
Palaeozoic formations, probably in a narrow geosynclinal trough, whose axis was 
inland from the present coast-line. 

The rocks belong to the Upper Devonian Series, which is represented by three 
stages on the South Coast: a lower stage of acid volcanic rocks, a middle stage 
of freshwater or estuarine sediments with contemporaneous acid and basic lavas, 
and an upper stage of marine sediments containing no igneous rocks. These are 
called the Eden, Yalwal and Lambie Stages respectively. 


The formations are correlated with a number of other occurrences of 
Devonian rocks in south-eastern Australia. 


The discussion of the tectonic history of the series has led to a consideration 
of the palaeogeography of the Devonian system in south-eastern Australia. It is 
considered that the occurrence of the Snowy River porphyries, of Lower Devonian 
age, had a tectonic significance, indicating the position of subsequent deposition of 
the Middle Devonian sediments. 


A survey of available literature suggests that the Middle Devonian gulf or 
sea was more extensive than has been supposed formerly, and that all the massive 
coralline limestones of Devonian age in New South Wales belong to the Middle 
Series. 


The relations of the Middle and Upper Series have not been recorded in New 
South Wales, although a study of the palaeogeography indicates that their 
relations may be revealed in the Mudgee-Capertee and Goulburn-Tarago districts. 
It is considered that the unconformity at Tabberabbera, Victoria, is of more than 
local significance, being additional evidence of the diastrophism which finally 
welded on the south-eastern part of Australia to the growing continental mass. 
The trends of the Upper Devonian rocks on the South Coast are directed along 
the margin of this mass, and are the earliest indication of the position of the 
geosyncline in which the Permo-Carboniferous System of eastern Australia was 
deposited. During the upper (Lambie) stage of the Upper Devonian, represented 


BY IDA A. BROWN. 493 


chiefly by arenaceous sediments, marine transgression took place over a con- 
siderable area in New South Wales. 


The paper is illustrated by a series of palaeogeographical maps, and geological 
sketch-maps and sections of the Eden-Wolumla district and of the South Coast 
between the Shoalhaven River and the Victorian Border. For the latter maps the 
parish and county maps of the Department of Lands, Sydney, were used as a 
geographical basis. Some geological information was obtained for the area 
north of Bateman’s Bay from L. F. Harper’s map of the Southern Coalfield of 
New South Wales, 1915, and from reports of the Department of Mines, New 
South Wales. The results of the published work of the writer on the igneous rocks 
of the Milton (1925), Moruya (1928) and Mt. Dromedary (1930) districts are 
incorporated. Otherwise the mapping is the result of the writer’s field-work, 
which has not been published previously. The known Devonian outcrops are 
distinguished from the older Palaeozoic sediments, and the outcrops of the granitic 
batholiths are shown more accurately than on the existing Geological Map of the 
State, although no specific reference to them has been made in the present paper. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


In conclusion, the writer wishes to thank those who have assisted in the 
preparation of this paper, especially Professor L. A. Cotton, M.A., D.Sc., in whose 
department the laboratory work was carried out, and Assistant Professor W. R. 
Browne, D.Sc., for friendly interest in the work. She is indebted also to Mr. W. S. 
Dun for assistance in palaeontology and to Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., for 
specimens of and information concerning Devonian rocks of Victoria. 


During the course of the field-work, the writer was accompanied on one 
occasion by Miss G. Joplin, B.Sc., and on another by Miss M. Turkington, B.A., 
to both of whom she tenders her thanks. Finally to residents of the South Coast, 
including Mr. and Mrs. J. R. Logan and family of ‘““Edrom’’, Twofold Bay; Mr. L. 


and Miss Mitchell of Lower Towamba; Mr. and Mrs. W. I. Swinnerton of Eden, 
and many others who willingly gave every possible assistance during the field- 
work, the writer records her sincere thanks. 


Bibliography. 


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494 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES, 


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CHAPMAN, F., 1914.—Note on the Precise Locality of the Type Specimen of Lepido- 
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Davin, T. W. E., 1893a.—Pres. Address. Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., viii (second series), 
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, 1911.—Pres. Address. Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xlv, 1911, 15-76. 

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Davip, T. W. E., and SxkeEats, E. W., 1914.—Geology of the Commonwealth, Igneous 
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Duwey, H., and Fuert, J. S., 1911.—On Some British Pillow-Lavas, ete. Geol. Mag., [v], 
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Dun, W. S., 1897.—The Occurrence of Devonian Plant-bearing Beds on the Genoa River. 
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, 1909b.—Notes on the Physiography and Geology of the North-eastern Water- 
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, 1915.—Geology and Mineral Resources of the Southern Coalfield of N.S.W. 
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BY IDA A. BROWN. 495 


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176-201. 

, 1929b.—Note on the Evidence of Age of the Dacites and associated Igneous 
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1929, 36-40. 

Howitt, A. W., 1874.—Notes on the Geology of a Part of the Mitchell River Division of 
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, 1875.—Notes on the Devonian Rocks of North Gippsland. Report of Progress, 
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, 1876.—Notes on the Geological Structure of North Gippsland. Rept. Prog. 
Geol. Surv. Vict., iv, 75-117. 

, 1877.—Notes on the Devonian Rocks of North Gippsland. Rept. Prog. Geol. 
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JAQUET, J. B., 1892.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 1892, 141. 

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Kenny, EH. J., 1929.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 1929, 94. 

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LASERON, C. F., 1908.—The Sedimentary Rocks of the Lower Shoalhaven River. Journ. 
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, 1910.— Journ. Roy. Soc. N.S.W., xliv, 222. 

MATHESON, A. J., 1930.—The Geology of the Wellington District, N.S.W. Jowrn. Roy. 
Soc. N.S.W., Ixiv, 1930, 171-190. 

McCoy, F., 1874.—Prodomus of the Palaeontology of Victoria, Dec. 1, 1874. 

MINGAYE, J. C. H., 1907.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 1907, 185. 

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N.S.W., xlv, 266-276. 

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PITTMAN, E. F., 1880.—Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 1880, 244. 

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Soc. Queensland, xxvii, No. 7. 

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————,, 1914.—- Geology of New South Wales. 


496 DEVONIAN ROCKS OF SOUTH COAST OF N. S. WALES. 


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EXPLANATION OF PLATES XXX-XXXIV. 
Plate xxx. 
1.— Cliff below the Eden Lighthouse, showing the junction between the older 
Palaeozoic sediments and the overlying columnar rhyolite of Upper Devonian Age. 
2.—Cliff section north of Tathra showing unconformity between the older Palaeozoic 


sediments and Upper Devonian rhyolite. 
3.—Cliff south of the Eden Lighthouse, showing columnar structure in the rhyolite. 


Plate xxxi. 
1.—Section at “Edrom’’, Twofold Bay, showing the eroded upper surface of the 
rhyolite overlain by basal conglomerate of the middle stage of the Upper Devonian. 
2.—Cliff section below the Convent, Eden, showing “red-beds’’ of the middle stage 
of the Upper Devonian deposited against the eroded surface of the rhyolite of the lower 


stage (see text). 
3.—Road cutting, 22 miles from Moruya towards Araluen, showing ripple-marks in 


highly-folded Upper Devonian sediments. 


Plate xxxii. 
1.—Rock-platform at Munganno Point, Twofold Bay, showing large spherulites in 


rhyolite. 
2.—Polished section of large spherulite from Munganno Point, showing central 


amygdule of banded chalcedony, concentric secondary structure of the spherulite, which 


has not entirely obliterated the original flow-lines of the rhyolite. #4 natural size. 
Photo. H. G. Gooch. 


Plate xxxiii. 
Geological Sketch Map of the Eden District. 


Plate xxxiv. 
Geological Sketch Map of the South Coast between the Shoalhaven River and the 
Victorian Border. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. IPILJNTNS) SOK, 


1. Junction between older Palaeozoic sediments and overlying rhyolite, 

Eden Lighthouse.—2. Unconformity between older Palaeozoic sediments 

and Upper Devonian rhyolite, north of Tathra.—3. Columnar rhyolite, 
south of Eden Lighthouse. 


Proc. LINN. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. IPALANIND) SOOT, 


1. Eroded surface of rhyolite overlain by conglomerate at ‘‘Edrom’’.— 
2. Red beds deposited against eroded surface of rhyolite at Hden.— 
3. Ripple-marks in Upper Devonian sediments. 


Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1931. PLATE XXXII. 


1.—Spherulites in rhyolite, Munganno Point.—2. Polished surface of 
large spherulite. 


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AN INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND LOBELIA DENTATA. I. 
MycorrH1ZA, LATEX SYSTEM AND GENERAL BIOLOGY. 
By Linian FRAsEr, B.Sc. 
(Forty-four Text-figures. ) 
[Read 25th November, 1931.] 


Introduction.—The mature plant.—The seedling stage—The root system and 
mycorrhiza.—The shoot system.—The latex system.—General biology, experiments and 
observations.— Discussion. 


Introduction. 


The investigation here reported was commenced in Adelaide early in 1916. 
Miss A. Rennie, working under the direction of Professor Osborn, began an 
examination of Lobelia gibbosa Labill., and made a study of its latex system and a 
preliminary examination of the fungus present in its roots. She also made a 
number of field notes on the growth habits of the plant, and some experiments. 
This work was not published. 

In the summer of 1929 Professor Osborn noticed that Lobelia dentata Cav. 
growing in the Sydney district had a number of interesting and peculiar features 
in common with Lobelia gibbosa; and on his advice an investigation was made of 
both species, and the work previously done by Miss Rennie was confirmed and 
extended. 

The present communication includes the results of both investigations, Miss 
Rennie having generously handed over her notes, drawings and preparations to 
the author, who wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness for them. 

Text-figures 37-40 are from drawings made by Miss Rennie. The author alone 
is responsible for any opinions expressed. 


The Mature Plant. 


Lobelia gibbosa Labill. is reported for all the Australian States, including 
Tasmania. In South Australia, where part of the work was carried out, it is 
reported by Black (1922) as occurring on Kangaroo Island, Yorke and Eyre 
Peninsulas and probably in the south-west. The material for the present work was 
collected in the scrub at Mt. Lofty, near Adelaide. 

Bailey (1900) and Ewart (1930) distinguish three varieties of this species of 
Lobelia, the one here described corresponding to var. microsperma, but Black 
(1922) gives microsperma as a synonym for gibbosa and distinguishes no varieties. 
Ewart considers that the species is composed of a complex of hybrids. 

L. gibbosa is an annual herb, growing in both sandy and elay soil, often in 
colonies. The stem is erect and usually unbranched, except sometimes in the 
region of the inflorescence. It is somewhat turgid and succulent, with a length 
underground of 2-5 cm., occasionally more. The leaves are all cauline and vary 


498 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


with the habitat, from filiform or linear in poor or exposed situations to narrow 
lanceolate in sheltered positions, and are somewhat fleshy. The inflorescence is 
a scorpioid cyme, resembling a terminal one-sided raceme, bearing numerous 
crowded china-blue flowers which conform to the general Lobelia type. Latex is 
present throughout the whole of the plant, and is especially abundant in the 
above-ground parts. 


The height of the plant was found to vary very much with its habitat, the 
average is about 47 cm., but in exposed situations it may not be more than 10 em. 
If germination takes place early, or in a sheltered position, a tall fleshy stem 
bearing well developed lanceolate leaves is formed, whereas if germination is late 
or the plant is in an exposed position, the stem of the mature plant is much shorter 
and the leaves much narrower. The quantity of anthocyanin pigment developed 
in such exposed plants is usually quite high, often giving the whole plant a distinct 
reddish tinge. 


The underground part of the stem is white, fleshy and brittle. The roots are 
whitish when young, and very brittle, relatively infrequently branched, and of a 
very uniform diameter of 1-1-5 mm. 


The feature which first attracted attention to this species was the fact that, 
at the time of flowering, the leaves, roots and lower parts of the stem are withered 
and practically dead, the root system and underground part of the stem appearing 
to serve no function beyond that of holding the plant upright in the soil. 
Another peculiar characteristic is that material collected for herbarium specimens 
continues to grow in the press, and to open its flowers, often until no buds remain 
unopened. Bailey (1900) remarked on these unusual features: “Few plants’, he 
wrote, “are as tenacious of life as this species of Lobelia. The root is most 
delicate and only seems of use to the plant up to the time of the first flower 
opening, after which it appears to die, and only by being fixed in the ground 
keeps the plant in an upright position. When preparing herbarium specimens of 
it, they must be scalded before placing in the papers, otherwise they keep 
elongating and expanding flowers until the plant is thoroughly exhausted, which 
takes frequently several weeks.” 


L. gibbosa is rare and sporadic in the Sydney district. Here a rather similar 
species, L. dentata Cav., is common on the sandstone country. It is found all 
along the coast and main divide of New South Wales and southern Queensland 
in sandy soil. 


L. dentata differs from L. gibbosa in the following features: the flowers are 
larger and deeper blue, on longer pedicels and less crowded on the axis of the 
inflorescence; the leaves are ovate and more or less deeply incised; the aerial 
stem is not fleshy, and it does not increase in length, nor do flowers open in 
herbarium folders. 

Unlike L. gibbosa, its stem may be quite frequently branched, below or above 
the ground level, as well as in the flowering region. Frequently, however, it also 
may have only a single unbranched stem. 

In the field L. dentata is found growing practically exclusively in sandy 
loam soil. 

The size and general appearance of L. dentata, like L. gibbosa, are regulated to 
some extent by its habitat; plants growing in exposed positions are typically 
smaller than more sheltered plants, and also have a considerable amount of antho- 
cyanin pigment present in their leaves. The length of the underground stem shows 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 499 


more variation in this species than in L. gibbosa; sometimes it may be only about 
2 cm., but not uncommonly it reaches 15 ecm. or even more in length. 

In general, the more favourable the position in which a plant is growing, 
the longer is its root system functional, and the longer does it remain flowering. 
In some cases plants which had opened more than twenty flowers still had a 
growing root system, whereas unfavourably situated plants usually were found to 
have a withering root system even before the first flower was opened. In the field 
it was often possible to locate plants which had healthy root systems by an 
examination of their above-ground parts. They were, as a rule, rather succulent 
in appearance, with deep-green stem and leaves, whereas plants whose root 
systems were beginning to wither had paler green, often reddish, and curled 
leaves, and thinner stems. 

The rout system, even of large plants, was not often found to extend more than 
10 cm. around the plant, and for small plants the radius was often not more than 
5 cm. The roots are exceedingly brittle and it was found to be extremely difficult 
to wash out even a small portion of the root system unbroken. The roots are 
much interwoven, often in tangled bundles, and rather infrequently branched as 
compared with the roots of most herbaceous dicotyledons. Their diameter is 
strikingly uniform, about 1-1 or 1-2 mm., except at the growing apex, where they 
taper to a short point. Even the main root is very little thicker, and frequently 
cannot be distinguished from its branches. The roots are creamy-brown when old, 
and opaque white near the apex, unless they have ceased growing, in which case 
the apex of the root is also creamy-brown in colour. 

On two occasions plants were collected which had no chlorophyll at all and 
were a watery purple colour. One had just appeared above the ground, but the 
other was nearly 8 cm. tall and fairly robust. Both were collected in sheltered 
situations. 


The Seedling Stage. 


The seeds of both these species of Lobelia are exceedingly small. Fifty seeds 
of L. dentata were measured by means of an ocular micrometer and their average 
length was found to be 0:31 mm., the maximum was 0:39 mm. and the minimum 
0-28 mm.; the width varied from 0-21 mm. to 0:29 mm., with an average of 0-25 mm. 
Their weight is correspondingly small; 100 seeds of L. dentata were found to 
weigh slightly under 1 mgm., so the average weight of a single seed would be 
slightly less than 0:01 mgm. 

To obtain thin sections of the seeds it was found necessary to adopt the 
following procedure. The seeds were first soaked in water for a day, they were 
then fixed in formalin acetic alcohol, washed and placed in 5% caustic potash 
for seven days; after this they were thoroughly washed in water and then taken 
up to paraffin. After this treatment sections 6 u thick could be cut fairly readily. 

The structure of these minute seeds is very simple; in Text-figure 1 a median 
longitudinal section is shown. There is a rugose coat of two layers, an outer one 
(O), a single layer of thick-walled cells, and an inner one (I), which is crushed 
so that its structure cannot be made out. This encloses an endosperm tissue of 
fairly large cells, packed with oil. Embedded in this endosperm, near to the 
micropylar end, is an embryo (E), which consists of much smaller cells and is 
totally undifferentiated into plumule and radicle. 

As yet germination of the seeds in the laboratory has not been accomplished. 
In nature the wastage of seeds must be great. In most years L. dentata is locally 


500 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


abundant during the summer months in sandy loam soil. Each plant produces 
1-20 or more capsules, each of which contains, on an average, in the neighbour- 
hood of 150 seeds. It is at once evident that only a small fraction of this number 
must develop into plants for next season, especially since, as will be described 
later in detail, vegetative propagation is not uncommon in this species. Because 
of this wastage, and because of the peculiar nutrition of the growing plant, it was 
not expected that, whatever the conditions necessary for germination may be, they 
will be found at once experimentally. The following description is therefore 
based on an examination of seedlings collected in the field. 

L. dentata will first be described. The youngest seedlings found were 
entirely subterranean, and the search for them was rendered doubly difficult 
by their extreme brittleness. Even when seedlings were dug up whole in sods of 
earth, and dissected out or washed out in the laboratory most carefully, the shoot 
was often damaged in the process, and in no case was a complete root system 
obtained. 

The youngest seedling found is shown in Text-figure 2; the shoot (S) is fairly 
long and somewhat twisted and bears rudimentary leaves (L), the root (R) is 
broken off short leaving only a small fragment still attached to the shoot. The 
seedling was almost transparent, so that after soaking for a short time in caustic 
potash, it was washed in water and mounted whole in glycerine jelly; the details 
of its anatomical structure could then be made out without difficulty under the 
microscope. Text-figure 3 shows an enlargement of the basal part of the plant 
shown in Text-figure 2; the root (R) is broken across at H, and on the left of the 
part of the shoot (S) which is included, is a rudimentary leaf (L); the cotyledons 
are represented only as small emergences (C), and the vascular strand (V) can 
be traced throughout the whole structure. The most interesting feature is asso- 
ciated with the hypocotyl region, a length of about 0-3 mm.; the cortical cells 
here are much elongated in a transverse direction. Associated with this 
hypocotyl region were found twisted strands of fungal hyphae (F in Text-fig. 3); 
these could not be easily freed from the root, and moreover were constantly 
found in association with the hypocotyl in numbers of other young plants 
examined. 

It was seen that where the fungus rhizomorphs came in contact with the 
plant, they spread out over its surface, forming a practically continuous, closely 
interwoven mat of hyphae; part of this is shown at F in Text-figure 4. This 
covering was only present over a short length of the plant and was always 
associated with the transversely elongated cells of the hypocotyl. 

Part of a transverse section of the hypocotyl is shown in Text-figure 5; the 
mat of fungal hyphae on the outside is fairly thick, and in places is seen to 
have forced its way into the interior. This it has done by growing down between 
the cells of the cortex (C), and it has spread throughout the cortex, remaining 
strictly intercellular in position. It is most abundant in the outer cortex, where 
it forms a wide network between the cells. The outer part of the fungal mat 
(M) is composed of narrow, thick-walled closely interwoven hyphae, but the 
inner hyphae (I) and those which invade the root are very much enlarged, thin- 
walled and densely protoplasmic. 

An examination of older seedlings shows that the root system is usually 
quite large and extensive before the young shoot has attained any great size. 
It consists of a mass of roots of even diameter, twisted and rolled together in 
strands and knots. The roots have a very smooth external appearance, and 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 501 


though exceedingly brittle, each individual fragment of root is easily freed 
from particles of soil since there are no root hairs developed at any time. 


Text-fig. 1—A longitudinal section of a mature seed of Lobelia dentata. O, 
outer layer of testa; I, inner layer of testa; F, endosperm; EH, embryo. x 140. 
Text-fig. 2.—A subterranean seedling of L. dentata. S, shoot; L, rudimentary 
leaf; H, hypocotyl; R, root. x 1:1. 
Text-fig. 3—An enlargement of the hypocotyl and part of the root and shoot 
of the seedling shown in Text-fig. 2. S, shoot; L, rudimentary leaf; R, root; 
C, rudimentary cotyledons; H, broken end of root; V, vascular strand; F, fungal 
- strands. xX 26-5. 

Text-fig. 4.—Part of the hypocotyl area of a seedling of L. dentata. F, fungus 
mat over the surface; C, transversely elongated cortical cells. x 250. 
Text-fig. 5.—Part of a transverse section of the hypocotyl of a seedling of 
I. dentata. C, cells of the cortex; M, external mat of fungal hyphae; I, 
invading fungal hyphae. x 250. 

Text-fig. 6.—A subterranean seedling of L. gibbosa. R, root; S, shoot; L, rudi- 
mentary leaf; H, hypocotyl; A, seeds of L. gibbosa drawn to the same scale. 
x< Bib), 

Text-fig. 7.—Part of the root system of a fairly large plant of L. dentata. 
S, base of underground stem with rudimentary leaves (L); M, main root; 
R, lateral roots. x 0-67. 


502 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


The smallest seedling found of L. gibbosa is shown in Text-figure 6; it is 
smaller than any of the seedlings found of L. dentata, and was discovered by 
accident during the washing out of the root system of a larger plant. It shows 
indications of a fairly large root system (R), but the shoot is still rudimentary. 
Fortunately Miss Rennie, who discovered the specimen, mounted it complete in 
glycerine jelly, and on examination of the hypocotyl region a structure was 
observed quite similar to that shown by the seedling of L. dentata in this area. 
There is a region of transversely elongated cells, the surface of which is covered 
by a fungus mat, and there is also an associated strand of fungal hyphae. 


Root System and Mycorrhiza. 


Text-figure 7 shows part of the root system of a plant of L. dentata washed 
out from sandy soil; it represents less than half of the total number of roots 
and few of the branches are intact, but it brings out clearly the uniform diameter 
of the roots, and the method and frequency of branching. 


The internal structure of the roots is quite simple; the lateral roots have 
invariably a diarch xylem, but in the main root the xylem is usually 3—4-arch, 
latex vessels are present in the phloem in the position of sieve tubes, the endo- 
dermis is unthickened and the cortex fairly wide. Secondary thickening takes 
place only in old roots and new elements are added to both xylem and phloem. 


The size attained by subterranean seedlings as compared with the size of the 
seeds from which they develop is very striking. The seedling illustrated in Text- 
figure 6 was the smallest found, but it is relatively enormous in comparison with 
the two seeds (A) drawn to scale beside it. On account of this great difference 
in size between the seed and the colourless seedling resulting from it, it was 
suspected from the beginning of the investigation that the species of Lobelia under 
discussion were mycorrhizal. Miss Rennie succeeded in demonstrating the 
presence of a fungus in the roots of L. gibbosa, but did not make a detailed 
examination of it. 


This has now been done for L. dentata and confirmed for L. gibbosa, and 
there is every reason for believing that the two species are identical in this 
respect. 

The presence of a fungus in the root tissues of Lobelia is readily demonstrated, 
but the amount found in various sections and the condition in which it was 
present, were found to be very variable, and seemed to conform to no rule. In 
some cases only a trace of mycelium was present in the outer part of the cortex; 
in other cases it was found to be more generally distributed. Finally it was 
found necessary to fix the material in the field, and to choose long complete 
pieces of root, cutting sections at intervals from the apex to the older parts. 


It was found that when material is brought into the laboratory for examina- 
tion in the living condition, changes often, though not invariably, take place, 
principally the total disappearance of all reserve food from the fungus, thus 
giving an entirely wrong impression of the condition of the fungus within the 
root as growing in the field. Sections of roots which are not actively growing 
also tend to be misleading. 


Flemming’s weak fixative was found to be best for roots and young stems, 
and its fat staining property was very useful in the case of young roots. Sections 
were stained with Gentian Violet and Orange G, or if, as was the case for young 
roots, mueh oily reserve food were present, the sections were simply stained 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 503 


with Orange G or Erythrosin; material fixed in chromo-acetic fixative was best 
stained by the iron alum haematoxylin method. 

The development of the fungus within the root.—The following description 
and figures of the development of the fungus within the root are of L. dentata; 
L. gibbosa is substantially the same and will not be separately described. 

Text-figure 8 shows part of a transverse section of a growing root taken about 
7 mm. from the apex. The cells of the stelar region (S) are as yet practically 
undifferentiated; the cells of the cortex are fairly large and there is no sign of 
root hairs. In the cortex, fungal hyphae (F') can be readily distinguished; they 
are strictly intercellular, and though many sections were examined, no sign of 


Text-fig. 8.—Part of a transverse section of a young root showing the stage of 
fungal invasion. S, undifferentiated stele; E, endodermis; C, cells of the cortex 
of the root; F, fungal hyphae. x 250. 

Text-fig. 9— Part of a radial longitudinal section of the middle cortex of young 
root showing the fungal hyphae growing down between the cells of the cortex. 
C, cortical cells; F, fungus; O, older part of root; P, pointed growing apices of 
the fungus. This was drawn from a section which was cut rather thick for the 
purpose of examining the growing points of the fungus. Those hyphae, there- 
fore, which appear to be penetrating into the cell cavity are in reality outside 
the cell wall. x 250. 

Text-fig. 10.—Part of a tangential longitudinal section of the outer cortex of a 
very young root showing cortical cells (C) with sinuous radial walls. x 250. 


504 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


haustorial organs could be discovered. A longitudinal section in this region 
(Text-figure 9) shows that the fungal hyphae are growing down from the older 
part of the root. They are fairly narrow and densely protoplasmic, with rather 
pointed growing apices (P), and they force their way down between the cells of 
the middle cortex. This may be called the region of fungal invasion. 

In a tangential section very near the apex of a growing root, and above 
the fungus, the outer cells of the cortex are seen to have curiously sinuous radial 
longitudinal walls (Text-figure 10); this curvature becomes more and more 
pronounced further from the apex. It becomes still more marked when the fungus 
grows down between the cells, and the penetrating fungal hyphae have a corres- 
pondingly sinuous course (F in Text-figure 11). In a radial section the walls 
of these cells are often cut so that they resemble a string of small cells end to 
end, sometimes with patches of mycelium between them (C in Text-figure 14). As 
seen in the radial longitudinal section shown in Text-figure 14, the tangential 
walls of these cells are occasionally slightly sinuous also (S). It is only the 
outer two or three layers of cortical cells which show this feature. The inner 
cortical cells at first have quite straight longitudinal walls (Text-figure 9), 
though they later become somewhat distorted by the intercellular growth of the 
fungus. There is no possibility of this phenomenon being the result of faulty 
fixation or embedding, since it was observed in all longitudinal sections cut, and 
in preparations of living roots. It proved to be a feature of some importance in 
the identification of small subterranean Lobelia seedlings. 


A section taken about 3 cm. from the root apex shows the next stage in the 
development of the mycorrhiza (Text-figure 12). This may be called the period 
of fungal enlargement. In a region which may be called the fungal zone, limited 
in most cases to the middle cortex, there has been a great concentration in the 
amount of fungal tissue present. The individual hyphae are much wider than in 
the region of fungal invasion, and a good deal of branching has taken place. 
The cortical cells are often forced apart, and in transverse section appear as 
practically isolated islands in the mass of fungal tissue. At this time the fungal 
hyphae stain much more darkly with osmic acid than they do in the region of 
fungal invasion. This is due to the presence in them of small darkly staining 
droplets of reserve food material. 

A tangential section of the middle cortex at this stage (Text-figure 13) shows 
the fungal hyphae forming a network between the cortical cells, branching and 
anastomosing in all directions. Text-figure 14 shows part of a radial longitudinal 
section of a root at a slightly earlier stage than that shown in Text-figure 12; 


Text-fig. 14.—Part of a radial longitudinal section of a young growing root 
during the period of fungal enlargement. FE, endodermis; I.C, inner cortex; 
O.C, outer cortex; F, fungal zone; C, the cut edges of the walls of the sinuous 
walled cells of the outer cortex; S, slightly sinuous tangential walls of the 
cells of the outer cortex. x 150. 
Text-fig. 15.—Part of a radial longitudinal section of a young growing root 
showing the final development of the fungus during the period of fungal 
enlargement. It shows the large size of the droplets of reserve food in the 
hyphae of the fungal zone as compared with those in the hyphae of the inner 
and outer cortex, and the great enlargement of the fungal hyphae in the fungal 
zone. O.C., outer cortex; I.C., inner cortex; f, fungal zone; D, droplets of 
reserve food; EH, endodermis; IF, fungal hyphae. x 270. 
Text-fig. 16.—Part of a tangential section of a young growing root in the fungal 
zone showing a dense network of fungal hyphae with large accumulations of 
reserve food. F, fungal hyphae; D, droplets of reserve food. x 435. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 


Text-fig. 11—Part of a tangential longitudinal section of the outer cortex of a 
slightly older root than that shown in Text-fig. 10, showing that the radial walls 
are even more sinuous, and that the fungal hyphae between them are corres- 
pondingly sinuous. C, cortical cells; F, fungal hyphae. x 270. 
Text-fig. 12.—-Part of a transverse section of a young growing root showing the 
commencement of the period of fungal enlargement. S, stele; P, protoxylem; 
HE, endodermis; I.C, inner cortex; O.C, outer cortex; F, fungal zone; G, small 
droplets of reserve food accumulating in the hyphae of the fungal zone. x 150. 
Text-fig. 13.—Part of a tangential longitudinal section of a young growing root 
in the fungal zone during the period of fungal enlargement, to show the forma- 
tion of a network of hyphae between the cells of the cortex. F, fungal hyphae; 
G, droplets of reserve food. x 270. 


505 


506 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


concentration of the mycelium has begun in the fungal zone (F), and small 
droplets of reserve food material are present. Both longitudinal and transverse 
sections fail to show any signs of the development of fungal haustoria into the 
root cells. These cells appear to be perfectly healthy, the nucleus shows no sign 
of distortion and is usually somewhat fusiform, cytoplasm lines the cell wall, but 
there is no sign of reserve food (Text-figs. 8, 14). 

Text-figures 15 and 16 show respectively radial and tangential longitudinal 
sections of a root showing the maximum development of the fungus in the fungal 
enlargement stage. In Text-figure 15 the differentiation of the cortex into three 
zones, outer and inner cortex and fungal zone, is clearly brought out. The fungus 
in the outer and inner cortex has much less reserve food than the hyphae in the 
middle cortex. Here the fungal hyphae are much extended by the presence 
of the reserve food which has accumulated in much larger droplets than else- 
where. Text-figure 16 shows a small part of a tangential section taken in the 
fungal zone; the mycelium forms a practically complete network and shows the 
great distortion caused by the accumulation of reserve food in its cells. 


The third stage of the mycorrhiza may be called the period of fungus 
depletion, and its progress is shown in Text-figures 17 and 19, which were taken 
respectively 4 cm. and about 6 cm. from the apex of an actively growing root. It 
will be seen at once that the cells of the inner cortex are much enlarged and 
there is scarcely any trace of fungal mycelium between them. Important changes 
are also evident in the inner part of the fungal zone; the cortical cells in this 
region have enlarged somewhat, and in the cytoplasm lining their walls are 
numerous, small droplets of a reserve food similar in staining properties to that 
of the fungal hyphae. Between these cells the hyphae appear somewhat com- 
pressed and have lost practically all their reserve food. Depletion of the fungus 
is most marked in the innermost part of the fungal zone, and the hyphae in the 
inner cortex are so crushed as to be practically invisible. The process of the 
depletion of the fungal hyphae is shown in greater detail in Text-figure 18. At A 
the fungal hyphae are much distended by the presence in them of large accumu- 
lations of reserve food, and the cortical cells between are rather distorted, but 
otherwise appear quite healthy; there is no sign of fungal haustoria. At B 
droplets of reserve food are beginning to appear in the peripheral cytoplasm of 
the cortical cells and the fungal hyphae between them are slightly narrower than 
at A, and have less reserve food. At C one can see that the fungus has lost all 
reserve food, and though still densely protoplasmic, is being gradually crushed by 
the expansion of the cortical cells. The nuclei of the cortical cells remain quite 
unaltered in shape and size during this period. 

The process of depletion of the fungal hyphae and engorgement of the cortical 
cells goes on progressively towards the outer cortex. Its progress may be traced 
in sections cut further and further from the apex of the root till finally all reserve 
food is seen to have disappeared from the fungus; during this period the cortical 
cells extend and the hyphae between them are so compressed that they are hard 
to detect. Concurrently with this change the latex vessels in the phloem come to 
contain material which stains darkly with osmic acid (Text-figs. 17, 19); from 
this it appears that the food material absorbed from the fungus by the ‘cortical 
cells is transported away at once. 

In older roots no sign of the fungus can be detected except in the outermost 
region of the cortex where a few threads of it persist, apparently in the living 
condition. Text-figure 19 shows the final stage of the fungus depletion period. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 507 


A few drops of reserve food are still present in the outermost cells of the 
fungal network (D), and the latex vessels are densely staining, evidently in the 
process of transporting away food materials. 

Throughout this description it has been emphasized that these are the changes 
which occur in an actively growing root. In roots which are growing slowly, the 
changes described may be telescoped into a much shorter length of root, and in 
the sections cut of roots which had ceased to grow, it was seen that the fungal 
hyphae were entirely devoid of food materials. 


Text-fig. 17.—Part of a transverse section of a young growing root showing 
the commencement of the period of fungal depletion. X, protoxylem ; 
L, latex vessels; E, endodermis; I.C, inner cortex; O.C, outer cortex; D, cortical 
cells of inner fungal zone showing accumulations of droplets of reserve food: in 
their peripheral cytoplasm; H, depleted fungal hyphae between these cells. 
U, unaltered hyphae in outer fungal zone. 
Text-fig. 18.—Part of the section shown in Text-fig. 17 showing in greater 
detail the process of depletion of the fungal hyphae. At A the fungal hyphae are 
unaltered and the cortical cells between them are devoid of food material. At B 
some of the reserve food has gone from the hyphae and droplets are appearing 
in the peripheral cytoplasm of the neighbouring cells. At C all reserve food 
has gone from the fungus. F, fungal hyphae; N, nucleus of cortical cell; 
C, cortical cell. x 300. 


As was previously stated, it was found that the colour of the root is a reliable 
guide to its internal condition; clean opaque white roots are in the fungus enlarge- 
ment condition, creamy roots are in the fungus depletion condition, and the fungus 
within brownish-cream roots is entirely depleted of food material. Roots with 
brownish-cream tips have ceased growth, and sections taken of these show no sign 
of the presence of reserve food material. 

Occasionally roots have been found which are rather thinner than usual, and 
nearly hyaline. These were always associated with plants which had developed 
an aerial shoot. When sections of these were examined it was found that they 


508 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


showed no trace of the fungus, and also lacked sinuous-walled cells in the outer 
cortex. A similar kind of root developed when plants brought in from the field 
were planted in pots and allowed to grow in a glasshouse under good conditions. 


Be 
ANA 


ee 
or 
6c. = 


Text-fig. 19.—Part of a transverse section of a young growing root showing 
the final stage of the period of fungal depletion. P, protoxylem; M, metaxylem ; 
L, latex vessels; E. endodermis; I.C, inner cortex; D, cortical cells in the outer 
part of the fungal zone with few peripheral droplets of reserve food; H, depleted 
and crushed hyphae between them; N, living and uncrushed, but depleted fungal 
hyphae in the outer cortex. x 150. 
Text-fig. 20.—Part of a root of L. dentata showing a number of associated strands 
of fungal hyphae (F). x 14. 
Text-fig. 21.—A longitudinal section of a fungal rhizomorph. OO, outer layer 
of hyphae; I, inner hyphae. x 270. 
Text-fig. 22.—Part of a transverse section of a root of L. dentata passing 
through the point of entry of a strand of fungal hyphae. OO, outer layer of 
hyphae; I, inner hyphae; P, invading strand; H, epidermis; C, cells of the 
cortex of the root. x 270. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 509 


On one occasion three plants from the same locality were examined and it was 
found that they had developed roots which were slightly narrower than the 
typical roots and, though white near the apex, were not quite opaque. These 
roots were evidently in a condition of active growth, and an intercellular mycelium 
was found to be present, which invaded newly-formed tissues by growing down- 
wards from the older part of the root. After invasion the fungus increased in 
amount in the inner cortex and subsequently became crushed out, just as is the 
case in a typical root. These roots differ from the typical roots in that they show 
little or no sign of the accumulation of a reserve food in the intercellular fungus 
nor of the transference of food materials from the fungus to the cells of the 
cortex of the root. On the occasion when these plants were found other plants 
were collected in the same locality whose roots showed the typical accumulation 
of oily reserve food in the intercellular fungus, and the subsequent transference of 
this to the cells of the cortex of the root. 

The invasion of the root by fungus strands growing in the soil.—Although 
numerous sections of roots were examined, no trace of an external mycelium 
could be discovered until pieces of root were examined whole under the microscope. 
It was then immediately found that associated with the roots were very narrow 
rhizomorph-like strands of fungal hyphae similar to those found in connection 
with the hypocotyl of seedlings. As a rule these did not spread out very far over 
the surface of the root (Text-fig. 20). 

The number of fungus strands per unit area of root is very variable. Some- 
times a large number are found close together, as shown in Text-figure 20, at 
other times lengths of as much as 5 cm. of root were examined and not a single 
fungus strand was discovered. The fungus strands are brown and brittle, breaking 
off close to the root very easily. Generally they are most abundant on the older 
parts of the roots, and only very rarely were any found in association with the 
first 2-3 cm. of a growing root. 

The fungus rhizomorph resembles the mat of fungal hyphae covering the 
hypocotyl in that it consists of two parts, an outer and an inner (Text-fig. 21). 
The outer layer (O) consists, as in the fungus mat, of thick-walled, narrow 
hyphae, running in a general longitudinal direction, but in places much twisted. 
This forms a continuous tissue over the core of the strand, which consists of 
one or more longitudinally running hyphae (1) which are much wider than 
those of the outer tissue, and are thin-walled, densely protoplasmic and multi- 
nucleate. 

When one of these strands grows into contact with a Lobelia root, the thick- 
walled hyphae of the outer layer spread out over the surface of the cortex, 
forming a mat which may be extensive or, more usually, is quite small. The 
cells of the core come into direct contact with the outer cells of the root. From 
this core a strand of the fungus, usually consisting of a single hypha, more rarely 
of two or more, grows down between two epidermal cells and into the cortex of the 
root crushing out the hyphae of the fungus which had grown down within the 
root from the hypocotyl. Text-figure 22 is part of a transverse section of a root 
showing the outer cortex and an associated strand of fungal hyphae which is cut 
obliquely. A single penetrating hypha (P) has grown down from the strand into 
the cortex of the root. Between the cells of the cortex two kinds of fungal hyphae 
can be distinguished: one is densely protoplasmic and evidently is connected with 
the outer hyphal strand; the other (F), the hyphae previously present in the 
root, has very little protoplasm. In Text-figure 23 a more complex and less usual 


510 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


condition is shown. Above a branched strand is penetrating the root in two 
places, Pl and P2; P2 is a complex structure consisting of several hyphae. Below 
another fungal strand is present which also has a compound penetrating strand, P3. 


Text-fig. 23.—Part of a transverse section of a root of L. dentata showing 
the entry of several strands of fungal hyphae. O, outer layer of hyphae; I, 
inner hyphae; Pl, P2, P3, invading strands of hyphae; C, cortical cells. x 250. 


Except in places where branching took place (Text-fig. 23), only one place of 
entry into the root could be found for any one fungus strand; it seems, therefore, 
probable that the growing point of the rhizomorph becomes modified and 
penetrates into the root rather than that the rhizomorph runs along the surface 
of the root, having several points of entry. 


The Shoot System. 
a. External Structure. 


Lobelia dentata.—The shoot at first grows much more slowly than the root. 
The plant illustrated in Text-figure 2 had a comparatively large root system, 
which unfortunately was damaged when it was being excavated. The shoot 
increases in diameter, becoming more and more succulent and brittle. It remains 
almost transparent, but before long a central white strand is visible: this is 
the stele. 

The general habit of the young plant appears to depend largely on the type ot 
soil in which it is growing. In light sandy loam ZL. dentata has usually a single 
straight shaft, rarely branching except in the flowering zone (Text-figs. 24, 25). 


BY LILIAN FRASER. Slik 


But seedlings were found, when excavating in heavy sandy clay, which showed a 
rather different habit of growth. Usually they were more succulent and of greater 
diameter than the first type. They occasionally have a simple unbranched shoot, 
such as shown in Text-figure 26, but more often the shoot is profusely branched 
at varying levels below the surface of the soil (Text-fig. 27). Text-figure 27 illus- 
trates an entirely subterranean seedling, and its size, compared with that of the 
seed from which it originated, is very remarkable. Nearly always these seedlings 
are gnarled and twisted (Text-figs. 27, 28). 

At this stage the latex vessels in the stem are well developed and their 
contents stain darkly with osmic acid and with iodine, but have not the milky- 
white appearance of the latex of the mature plant. If a living subterranean shoot 
be cut across, a little watery white fluid oozes out from the stele, but the greatest 
amount of bleeding is from the cut cells of the cortex. When the Lobelia shoot 
grows above the surface of the ground, leaves are expanded and become green, 
and to all appearances the young plant becomes self-supporting. The latex 
throughout the aerial and underground stem now becomes milky and abundant, 
and is evidently at much greater pressure within the vessels, since, when a cut 
is made, a copious flow at once takes place frora the region of the phloem. It is 
perhaps significant that the chlorophyll-lacking plants previously mentioned pos- 
sessed very little latex, and that this was thinner and more watery than that of 
the normal plant. This, together with the fact that subterranean seedlings as 
a rule have no typical latex, suggests that the production of milky latex is in 
some way bound up with photosynthesis. 


A frequent feature of the large seedlings which develop in heavy soil is that 
the aerial shoot is at first much more slender than the underground part (Text- 
figs. 26, 30). This is not so noticeable in the young plants which develop in 
light sandy soil. The length of time elapsing between the first appearance 
of the plant above ground and the opening of the first flower is entirely variable, 
as is also the length of the flowering season. Both depend directly on the position 
in which the plant is growing and to a smaller extent on its initial size before 
coming above the ground. Plants in favourable situations may take three or four 
weeks till flowering and continue flowering for a month or more. By “favourable” 
is meant a moderately shaded position, and moist cool soil. Exposed plants flower 
more quickly and for a shorter period. 


Plants in full flower, which were dug up and brought into the laboratory and 
abundantly supplied with water, formed new roots to replace those which had been 
damaged. They continued to flower for 4 to 6 weeks and individual flowers 
remained open 7 to 10 days. Two plants which had finished flowering in the 
field, when brought into the laboratory, developed fresh lateral shoots and opened 
several flowers. 

A large underground seedling usually ensures a fairly large mature plant even 
in dry situations; but of two plants which have an equal underground part, one 
in a favourable position will almost invariably give rise to a larger plant than 
one growing under more exposed conditions. On the other hand, a small under- 
ground seedling in an exposed situation usually means a small mature : plant, 
sometimes only 5 or 6 cm. tall, with 4 or 5 small leaves and a single flower. 
But this is by no means the case in favourable positions. In this case quite a 
slender seedling may ultimately grow into a flourishing plant (see Text-fig. 25, 
in which the plant illustrated has a very short underground stem). 

J 


512 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


In the case of dwarfed plants growing in unfavourable positions, it is prac- 
tically always found that the root system commences to decay before flowering, 
but in the case of those in favourable situations, actively growing or at least 
living roots are always present until flowering has commenced, and often 
afterwards. 


In L. dentata a method of vegetative reproduction was discovered which proved 
to be quite common. This was the production of shoots from buds developed on 
old roots. Text-figure 29 shows a fragment of the root system of a large plant 
and on it two young shoots have arisen. Text-figure 30 shows a relatively large 
plant arising adventitiously from a secondary root, quite close to the main plant, 
which in this case is still quite young. 


Before or during flowering the root system and the base of the aerial shoot 
commence to die. Occasionally this is irregular so that isolated fragments of un- 
withered root occur between lengths of withered dead root. The decaying root 
system may become entirely isolated from the shoot, but often a plant can be 
excavated which shows the dying remnants of its root system still adhering to it. 
The above-ground parts of the plant represented in Text-figure 31 were practically 
dead, and most of the root system had decayed away, but two fragments of living 
root still remain attached to it. In several instances plants whose aerial shoots 
were quite dead and dry were excavated and in two cases such fragments, though 
withered at each end, had given rise to small healthy shoots (Text-fig. 32). 


Lobelia gibbosa.—As a rule seedlings of L. gibbosa (Text-fig. 33) have shorter 
subterranean stems than do seedlings of L. dentata, but their root systems are 
equally extensive as compared with the size of the shoot. The young plant grows 
rapidly and at an early stage the aerial stem becomes fairly thick and succulent 
(Text-fig. 34), becoming more and more so until the inflorescence is produced. 
Text-figure 35, a plant just before flowering, shows the relatively great thickness 
of the stem as compared with that of L. dentata at a comparable stage of develop- 
ment (cf. Text-fig. 25). The stem begins to dry and die away from the root 


Text-fig. 26.—A young seedling of L. dentata from hard sandy clay showing 
increased diameter and crookedness of the shoot. S, shoot; R, root; L, 
rudimentary leaf. x 0:44. 

Text-fig. 27.—A subterranean seedling of LZ. dentata from hard sandy clay 
showing twisted branching shoot. S, shoot; R, root; L, rudimentary leaf. x 0-7. 
Text-fig. 28.—A subterranean seedling of LL. dentata from hard sandy clay 
showing much twisted shoot. S, shoot; R, root; L, rudimentary leaf. x 0-7. 
Text-fig. 29.—Young shoots of ZL. dentata arising adventitiously on the root 
system of a large plant. S, shoot; R, root. x 0:8. 

Text-fig. 30.—A large branched plant of ZL. dentata from hard sandy clay soil 
showing a number of shoots (A) arising adventitiously from the one point on a 
lateral root (L.R.). S, shoot of the main plant; R, main root of the plant S; 

GL, ground level. x 0:6. j 
Text-fig. 31.—The lower part of the stem (S) of an old plant of L. dentata 
showing the decaying root system and fragments of living root (R). UL, 

rudimentary leaf; A, axillary shoot. x 0:72. 
Text-fig. 32.—An adventitious shoot (S) arising from an isolated piece of living 
root (R). x 0-44. 
Text-fig. 33.—A young seedling of L. gibbosa showing the short length of the 
underground stem (SS). AS, aerial shoot; R, root; GL, ground level. x 0:4. 
Text-fig. 34.—An older plant of L. gibbosa showing fleshy aerial stem. AS, 
aerial stem; SS, subterranean stem; R, root; GL, ground leyel. x 0:4. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 513 


upwards and the leaves wither about the time of flowering, and during the 
flowering period the aerial stem shrinks gradually in diameter (Text-fig. 36). 


vb. Internal Anatomy. 

Lobelia dentata.—A transverse section of the shoot of a subterranean seedling 
shows the structure illustrated in Text-figure 37. The pith which is moderately 
wide and consists of large rounded cells, is not shown completely. It will be seen 
at once from an examination of the figure that the cortex (C) is unusually wide, 
and the cells are very turgid. There are usually a very large number of primary 


Text-fig. 24.—A young subterranean seedling of L. dentata from light sandy soil. 
S, shoot; R, root; L, rudimentary leaf. x 0-48. 
Text-fig. 25.—A young plant of L. dentata from light sandy soil showing the 
straight unbranched stem. AS, aerial stem; SS, subterranean stem; R, root; 
GL, ground level. x 0:4. 


514 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


xylem groups (X) arranged fairly close together in a wide ring, and the phloem 
(Ph) forms.a practically continuous ring outside them. Sieve tubes appear very 
small in transverse section, and in longitudinal section cannot always be dis- 
tinguished from the parenchyma. Seedlings which develop in light sandy soil 


Text-fig. 35.—A plant of L. gibbosu just before flowering, showing the great 
size of che aerial stem (AS) as compared with that of the underground stem 
(SS). R, root; GL, ground level. x 0:4. ; 
Text-fig. 36.—A flowering plant of L. gibbosa showing the withering of the root 
(R), and the lower part of the stem, and the leaves, and the decrease in thick- 
ness of the aerial stem (AS). SS, subterranean stem; GL, ground level. x 0-4. 
Text-fig. 37.—Part of a transverse section of a very young underground stem. of 
ZL. dentata. Ep, epidermis, C, cortex of large distended cells;,H, endodermis ; 
Ph, phloem; L, latex tubes; X, primary xylem; M, medulla. x 125. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 515 


may not have so wide a cortex as figured, but seedlings which develop in hard 
sandy clay often have an even wider one. ac 

If sections are taken of the young aerial shoot of a seedling which has 
developed in heavy soil, the reason for the diminished diameter of its aerial stem 
is at once apparent. Text-figure 38 shows part of a transverse section of a fairly 
young aerial shoot; the width of the cortex is much less than in the under- 
ground stem, both in number and in size of eells, and becomes more so as we 
proceed upwards, but the diameter of the pith remains fairly constant. The 


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Text-fig. 38.—Part of a transverse section of a young aerial stem of L. dentata. 
Ep, epidermis; C, cortex; E, endodermis; CL, latex tubes in the cortex; Ph, 
phloem; L, latex tubes in the phloem; X, xylem. x 150. 

Text-fig. 39.—Part of a transverse section of a fairly old underground stem of 
L. dentata showing a small portion of the stele. H, endodermis; Ph, phloem; 
L, latex tubes; X, secondary xylem; PX, primary xylem. There is no sign of 
an active cambium, so that ‘secondary growth has evidently ceased. x 150. 
Text-fig. 40.—Part of a transverse section of the underground stem of a plant 
of L. dentata which has just begun to flower. Ep, epidermis; C, cortex; E, 
. endodermis; L, latex tubes; Ph, phloem; Ca, cambium; X, secondary xylem. 

x 150. } 


516 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


activity of the cambium which commences very early in the aerial stem, spreading 
later to the subterranean parts, soon tends to equalize this difference of diameter. 
The greatest amount of secondary thickening takes place at the ground level, 
the amount of secondary xylem diminishing both upwards and downwards so 
that the stem usually tapers in both directions from the soil level (Text-fig. 25). 
Secondary xylem consists mainly of fibres and sclerized parenchyma with few 
vessels. There is little secondary phloem, but in the oldest stems the latex 
system may be much enlarged (Text-fig. 39). 


The underground part of the stem up till the appearance of the first flower 
bud, or perhaps a little before, is almost transparent, and one can see the stele 
as a slender white strand in the centre. But with the commencement of secondary 
growth it becomes less and less so and is finally a uniform opaque white. This 
may be due to the great shrinking in diameter of the cortex, and to the increase 
in the amount of the latex. In Text-figure 40 is seen part of a transverse section 
of a fairly old underground stem which shows the commencement of this shrinkage 
of the cortex; this shrinkage is certainly not entirely due to the amount of 
secondary growth taking place in the stele, since at this time only a little 
secondary wood may have been added. It seems rather to be due to a loss 
of water from the cortex to the latex system, since, as was previously pointed out, 
if an old stem be cut across little fluid oozes out from the cortex, but a good 
flow of latex takes place from the phloem, whereas if a stem such as shown in 
Text-figure 27 be cut across very little sap oozes out from the phloem, most of 
it coming from the cut cells of the cortex. 


The anatomy of the root and underground stem of L. gibbosa is not sufficiently 
different from that of L. dentata to need a separate description. The main differ- 
ence is in the aerial stem, which, as we have seen, is much thicker and more 
succulent than in L. dentata. A section of a young stem at about the stage shown 
in Text-figure 32 shows that the reason for this is that the cortex is very wide, 
wider even than it is in the subterranean part of the stem. Text-figure 41 is part 
of a transverse section taken in this region, and it can be seen at once that the 
cells of the cortex are very large and turgid and resemble rather the cells of the 
cortex of the young subterranean stem of L. dentata than those of the young 
aerial stem. 


The Latex System. 


The latex system is similar in both species, and will only be briefly described, 
since Ydrac (1905) has given a fairly full description of the latex system of the 
Lobelias. Ydrac found that there were two kinds of latex tubes in this genus: 
(1) The main latex vessels in the phloem, which run more or less vertically and 
result from the breaking down of end walls between superimposed rows of cells, 
and are therefore true latex vessels, and (2) branches which originate as out- 
growths of these, and form connecting links between the vessels, and also ramify 
in a winding fashion through the cortex. 


There is no essential difference in the latex system of the two species under 
discussion and that described for the Lobelias by Ydrac, save that there were 
no latex vessels developed in the pith or xylem at any place. One point noticed 
by Ydrac is especially conspicuous in these two species: this is that the latex 
tubes are confined to the phloem in the root and the underground part of the 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 517 


stem, but in the aerial stem branches ramify through the cortex, first having 
forced their way out from the stele between the cells of the endodermis. 

As we have already seen, latex vessels develop early in the young root (Text- 
fig. 19), and are at first small and few in number; they later enlarge considerably 
and branch so that a fairly extensive network is formed. When secondary thicken- 
ing occurs new phloem elements are added, and some of these become latex 
vessels and link up with the primary latex vessels by means of outgrowths of their 


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KO 


Text-fig. 41.—Part of a transverse section of a young aerial stem of L. gibbosa. 
Cu, cuticle; Ep, epidermis; C, cortex; Cl, cortical latex tubes; E, endodermis; 
L, latex tubes in the phloem; Ph, phloem; Ca, cambium. x 52. 
Text-fig. 42.—Part of a transverse section of an old main root of L. dentata 
showing portion of the stele. E, endodermis somewhat stretched by the forma- 
tion of secondary xylem; Ph, phloem; L, latex tubes which have increased 
considerably in size and number (cf. Text-fig. 19); X, secondary xylem. x 150. 
Text-fig. 43.—Surface view of part of a leaf of L. dentata as seen after soaking 
in 5% caustic potash for five days, showing the course of the latex tubes in the 
mesophyll. V, veins; LV, latex tubes accompanying the veins; M, short 
branches of the latex tubes which ramify through the mesophyll. x 150. 
Text-fig. 44.—Part of a transverse section of a young leaf of L. dentata. S, 
stomate; HE, epidermis; M, mesophyll; B, vascular bundle; VL, latex tubes accom- 
panying the vascular bundle; L, latex tubes in the mesophyll. x 150. 


518 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


walls. Text-figure 42 shows part of a transverse section of an old root; when this 
is compared with Text-figure 19, it is evident that the latex system has enlarged 
very considerably. Similarly in the young stem (Text-figure 37) the latex tubes 
are small and not very numerous, but in a section of an older stem they are much 
enlarged (Text-fig. 39). In transverse sections of the aerial stems of both L. 
dentata (Text-fig. 38) and L. gibbosa (Text-fig. 41) the latex cells can be seen 
ramifying through the cortex. They are also abundantly present in the leaf, 
several vessels accompanying each vein, and giving rise to branches which follow 
a sinuous course through the mesophyll (Text-figs. 43, 44). Latex vessels are 
also’ present in all parts of the flower. 


General Biology, Experiments and Observations. 


Experiments were made by Miss Rennie during the summers of 1917-18 
and 1918-19 on the growth of shoots of L. gibbosa when dug up and allowed to dry. 
Measurements were made at intervals of the length of the plants from a marked 
point on the stem to the apex, and each plant was weighed. Comparable results 
were obtained in both cases. The data obtained from the 1918-19 experiment 
are combined in the accompanying graph. 


5 ae 
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3 
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ABMS BOKNAR — A=1-19 TH19 10-14-19 151-19 21-119 AT 1+19 Gell 


Graph showing loss of weight and increase in height. Average loss of weight 

(5 plants) 1:17 grm. in 38 days; max. loss 1:93 grm.; min. loss 0:75 grm. 

Average increase in height (5 plants) 3-85 cm. in 38 days; max. increase 6-4 cm. ; 
min. increase 2-8 cm. ‘ 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 519 


Five plants were weighed and measured and the results averaged. The 
curves representing increase in height and loss in weight are very similar; the loss 
in weight is at first fairly sharp and then becomes less, rising again towards the 
end of the experiment. After an initial spurt, increase in height became gradually 
less till it ceased with the opening of the last bud at the end of the experiment. 


There is no evidence that either loss of weight or increase in height was 
influenced, during this period, to any marked extent by the external environment, 
since, while the experiment was in progress, there was a period of heat with a 
maximum shade temperature of 106-8° on 5th January and two spells of fairly 
cool weather, which caused no noticeable variation. 


In contrast to this behaviour, plants of L. dentata were found to wilt in 
two or three days if the soil in which they were growing were allowed to dry 
out, and plants which were dug up and allowed to dry wilted and died at once. 
Even plants with large underground stems could not withstand a much longer 
period of dryness. 


The reserve food in the fungus in growing roots.—The droplets of reserve food 
in the fungal hyphae during the fungal enlargement period and the droplets which 
appear in the cortical cells of the root during the subsequent period of fungal 
depletion stained at first dark brown with 1% osmic acid. When hand sections 
so stained were mounted in glycerine jelly, in a few days the brown colour 
diffused out from the sections leaving the droplets stained a dense black. In 
material which was fixed in Flemming’s fixative and embedded in paraffin, the 
droplets appear black, the brown staining material having evidently been washed 
out, probably in alcohol. This reserve food is entirely soluble in chloroform, and 
stains in Sudan III, and in sections of fresh material, collects in droplets around 
the section. It is probably an oily material, mixed with a diffusible alcohol- 
soluble proteinaceous substance. 


Reserve food in the subterranean stem of L. dentata.—Positive tests for sugar 
in the cortex of subterranean seedlings of L. dentata were obtained by the alpha 
naphthol test, and by Mayer’s method (Haas and Hill, 1928). The Osazone test 
(Mangham, 1915) showed more clearly in which part the sugars were most 
abundant, and also gave some indication of the type of sugar involved. In very 
young stems the sugar is distributed throughout the cortex fairly evenly. In about 
six weeks after treatment of sections of young stems by this method the sugar 
commences to crystallize in large clusters from droplets of a golden-brown liquid, 
and from the shape of the crystals and their manner of formation it is probable 
that the sugar involved is maltose. 


In older stems, the sugars become restricted to the middle and inner cortex, 
and at the same time become abundant in the latex. In still older stems no 
sign of sugars can be found in the cortex, and they finally become much less 
abundant in the latex also. 


The staining reactions of the latex with 1% osmic acid and with potassium 
iodide-iodine suggest the presence of oily and proteinaceous substances but no 
starch. Partial solubility of the latex in 5% alcoholic solution of tartaric acid 
(Haas and Hill, 1928) suggests the presence of an alkaloid. 


520 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, i, 


Discussion. 
a. Germination and the Young Seedling. 

The seed before germination is packed with oil, but even so, so small a seed 
could not give rise to a very large seedling unaided by photosynthesis or some 
other means, and, as we saw, a relatively enormous subterranean seedling develops 
from it. It seems, therefore, undoubted that the fungus which is invariably 
associated with the seedling must provide the necessary food for such growth, and 
that we must regard Lobelia dentata and Lobelia gibbosa as holoparasites on the 
fungus, at least in the subterranean stage of their growth. 

The following is a description of what is believed to occur in germination. 
It has been deduced from an examination of fairly large seedlings, and must be 
confirmed by experiment before it can be entirely accepted. The embryo starts 
to grow at the expense of the endosperm, producing a small, probably undifferen- 
tiated, protocorm-like structure; the testa becomes thrown off and the endosperm 
cells remain for a time as broken fragments on the outside. This is a critical 
period and probably the time when most loss of life occurs. The plant has used 
up all its reserve food and is still far below the surface of the soil, with no chance 
of becoming self-supporting. It is therefore imperative that an association with 
the fungus should take place. This appears to come about as follows: in 
the soil there are present rhizomorph-like strands of fungal hyphae; one of these 
grows into contact with a young Lobelia embryo, the strand spreads out over the 
surface of the embryo, forming a practically continuous mat several cells deep; 
it is evidently attracted there by some chemical substance. Wedges of mycelium 
are pushed in between the epidermal cells and into the cortex, remaining, however, 
strictly intercellular. The young plant is able to extract carbohydrate and 
nitrogenous food from the fungus, and enlarges rapidly so that the ceils of the 
cortex become much stretched tangentially. A shoot then grows upwards bearing 
rudimentary leaves, and a root grows downwards, which is from the beginning 
infected by the fungus. 

It seems rather extraordinary that germination should as a rule take place 
so far below the surface of the soil. Such small seeds, however, might be fairly 
easily washed down into crevices and covered up; a rather favourite place for 
germination is in accumulations of soil washed up against rocks or the bases of 
tree trunks in which seeds could readily become buried. Possibly also, the fungus 
necessary for germination is not present in the upper layers of the soil. 

The form of seedlings which commence growth in heavy soil can probably be 
ascribed to the physical conditions of their surroundings. Such seedlings would 
naturally find a greater barrier to their upward growth than seedlings growing 
in light sandy soil. It is therefore reasonable to expect that they would take 
longer to reach the surface, and so there would be a longer period for food to 
accumulate in them. This would account for their large size and might possibly 
induce the formation of branches. Especially hard patches in the soil or frag- 
ments of stone would cause the seedling to become twisted. 


b. Mycorrhiza. 


A number of interesting points in connection with the mycorrhiza have 
emerged during the investigation of L. gibbosa and L. dentata. 

It appears to be the first instance noted of the obligate association of an 
annual herb with a mycorrhizal fungus, though obligate associations of annual 
parasitic plants with their hosts are not uncommon. It is considered justifiable 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 521 


to regard these two species of Lobelia as obligate parasites on the fungus, 
because germination invariably takes place at such depths below the surface of 
the soil as to make it impossible for the young seedling to become self-supporting 
at once, and because all root systems examined showed the presence of the fungus. 

A comparison of this type of mycorrhiza with other known types (Rayner, 
1927) makes it evident that it cannot be grouped satisfactorily with any of them. 
First we have a two-phase mycorrhiza in Lobelia; the root system of a plant is 
infected from the beginning of its growth by the fungus which invades the 
hypocotyl, this fungus keeping pace with the growing root by invading the newly- 
formed tissues; it then builds up a reserve of food material within its cells and 
later loses this to the cells of the cortex of the root; but the root system is also 
subject to more or less numerous local reinfections from the soil by isolated 
rhizomorphs of the same fungus. 

Secondly, the behaviour of both sets of mycelium within the root is unusual 
in that the hyphae are at all times strictly intercellular. Thirdly, the mechanism 
of extraction of food materials by an intercellular mycelium from the cells between 
which it grows is extraordinary in a mycorrhiza, and rare even in fungal parasites 
of higher plants. The ensuing extraction of food from the fungus by the cells 
of the cortex is no less unusual. It seems to be due to changes in relative 
permeability on the part of the cells of both the mycelium and the root cortex. 
In the first place food material accumulates in the hyphae, some of it possibly at 
the expense of the root. Subsequently these food materials disappear from the 
fungus and at the same time reappear as minute drops in the peripheral cytoplasm 
of the neighbouring cortical cells. The osmotic exchanges involved must take 
place through two sets of semipermeable membranes and the adjacent cell walls, 
those of the fungus and the cortical cells. But the nature of the changes which 
take place in the cells of these two organisms is not known, nor even the 
condition in which the food stuffs are transferred. 

There is not a great deal of similarity between ectotrophic mycorrhiza and 
the mycorrhiza of Lobelia. Ectotrophic fungi, though mainly intercellular, are 
occasionally intracellular; they are usually limited to the outer cortex of the root 
and the mycelium forms a thick mat over the surface of the root and penetrates 
into it at all points; whereas in the case of the Lobelia mycorrhiza, each 
rhizomorph has a single point of entry into the root, and the mycelium penetrates 
throughout the cortex. 

There is even less in common between the Lobelia mycorrhiza and the endo- 
trophic types which produce “arbuscules”, for in this case also the arbuscules are 
intracellular and become digested by the cells they invade. 

In the case of the orchid mycorrhiza also the behaviour of the fungus within 
the plant has no similarity to that of the Lobelia mycorrhiza. In the orchid the 
fungus is entirely intracellular and forms clumps of hyphae within the cells and 
these are digested later by the higher plant. 

There is some similarity between the germination of orchid seeds and what is 
believed to be the case in Lobelia. In both cases fungal infection comes from the 
soil, in orchids it is obligate except under artificial conditions, and in Lobelia 
successful germination in the field seems undoubtedly to depend on fungal infec- 
tion. Whether the similarity is more than superficial cannot be determined until 
Lobelia seedlings have been cultivated under controlled laboratory conditions. It 
has been shown that some orchids are entirely free of mycorrhizal fungus in the 
adult condition and that they evidently behave as autotrophic plants. For Lobelia 


522 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L. DENTATA, 1, 


also there is evidence that, once able to conduct photosynthesis, the plant, if 
favourably situated, can support itself. 


The invasion of roots of L. gibbosa and L. dentata by separate strands of 
fungal hyphae finds its nearest comparison in the mycorrhiza of the orchid 
Gastrodia elata, which is described by Kusano (1911) as forming an obligate 
association with the rhizomorphs of the fungus Armillaria mellea, but the likeness 
ceases with the external appearance, since Armillaria commences by making a 
parasitic attack which is countered by the orchid, and its hyphae become intra- 
cellular and are ultimately digested by the cells of the orchid. 


It may be of some importance that the nuclei of the cells of the cortex of the 
root of Lobelia never at any stage become enlarged and distorted as is commonly 
the case in the development of other mycorrhizal associations. 


It must be admitted that the method of nutrition of L. gibbosa and L. dentata 
is not yet fully elucidated, nor can it be until plants can be grown from seed under 
controlled conditions. 


Without evidence to the contrary it seems as if the subterranean seedling 
must rely for its entire food supply on those fungal strands from the soil which 
make connections with its roots, since the hyphae which grow down from the 
hypocotyl within the root have no direct connection with the outside medium. 
But a careful examination of numerous roots showed that though the external 
strands: were occasionally very abundant, they were often very infrequent. Though 
they may be present in sufficient numbers to supply the growing plant with all 
its food requirements, it is not considered justifiable to assume that this is always 
the case. The function of the fungus which develops within the root is at present 
obscure. It is possible that it may utilize soluble organic substances absorbed in 
the soil solution by the root, and convert these into a material which is available 
to the plant. Unless this is the case, this phase of the fungus, once the seed has 
germinated, seems to be of the nature of a parasite which is kept in check by the 
higher plant. 


ec. Latex System. 

Latex systems of plants have been classified according to their origin into two 
groups, latex cells which grow through the plant body after the manner of fungal 
cells and are non-septate throughout their length, and latex vessels which result 
from the breaking down of end walls between superimposed rows of cells. In 
Lobelia the latex system combines features of both types, the main latex tubes 
in the phloem belong to the second category, but the irregular anastomoses, and 
the ramifying branches in the cortex are almost certainly due to outgrowths 
of parts of the walls of the main latex vessels, and therefore eome into the first 
class. This is also probably the case for the finer tubes in the mesophyll of the 
leaf, whereas the main latex tubes of the leaf which accompany the veins, not 
infrequently show traces of transverse walls in sections of very young leaves. 


The function of the latex system in the roots and stem seems to be undoubtedly 
that of conduction; in support of this there is the fact that as the fungus at the 
root tips becomes depleted, the latex tubes become filled with food material. Also, 
in the underground stem, sugar gradually disappears from the cortex and at the 
same time the latex becomes more and more abundant. Both in the root and in 
the stem the number and size of the sieve tubes are very insignificant. It seems 
also to be important that the chlorophyll bearing tissue of both stem and leaves 


BY LILIAN FRASER. : 523 


is intersected and tapped by latex tubes very abundantly; here it seems very 
likely that the latex tubes serve to carry away the products of photosynthesis. 


d. General Biology. 


Whilst the seedlings of Lobelia are subterranean, there is no doubt that they 
are wholly dependent on the fungus associated with their roots, both for nitro- 
genous and carbohydrate foods; but as soon as the plant comes above ground 
it is at least partly self-supporting, since it develops an abundance of chlorophyll 
and occasional thin absorbing roots. 

Though the method of nutrition of the two species is fundamentally the 
same, there are important differences in their behaviour. JL. gibbosa has been 
shown to behave as a succulent in that it continues to grow in length and open 
flowers, at the same time slowly losing weight, even when removed from the 
soil and supplied with no water. JL. dentata, on the other hand, is a much less 
robust plant, and in spite of the fact that it frequently has a great length of 
subterranean stem, which in the young plant may contain considerable quantities 
of water, this species has none of the characteristics of a succulent. 

In the case of L. dentata, though the development of an aerial shoot is of 
advantage in that it ensures a more reliable source of food, it introduces a danger 
to which the subterranean seedling was not subjected, namely, that of transpira- 
tion. It is very evident that L. dentata is unable to cope with conditions of rapid 
transpiration; plants growing in open sunny situations are practically always 
much dwarfed as compared with shaded plants. This is very probably the direct 
result of the structure of their root system, which even a superficial examination 
will show to be eminently unsuited for rapid water absorption, being devoid of 
root hairs and composed of roots which are too thick to form close contact 
with soil particles. This explains why plants of L. dentata show symptoms of water 
shortage in positions where other plants, whose root systems are more efficient 
in the absorption of water, can flourish. It also explains why dwarfed plants 
whose flowering period was over, when transplanted into pots and abundantly 
supplied with water, develop fresh lateral shoots and new roots. 


Summary. 


Lobelia gibbosa and Lobelia dentata are annual herbaceous plants whose 
manner of growth shows several points of interest. 


L. gibbosa is widely distributed throughout Australia. Its average height 
is about 47 cm., but specimens growing in exposed positions are usually much 
shorter. The above-ground stem is succulent. At the time of flowering the root 
and underground part of the stem and the lower leaves are withering or dead, 
the plant evidently living on the stored materials in the stem. 


L. dentata is limited to the coast and adjacent highlands of New South Wales 
and southern Queensland. It is on the whole a smaller and less robust plant than 
L. gibbosa, and its aerial stem is not succulent. The underground part of the 
stem may be 15 cm. or more long, in contrast with L. gibbosa, whose under- 
ground stem averages about 5 cm. in length. When the plant is young the cortex 
of the subterranean part of the stem is wide and succulent and a good deal of 
sugar is present. As the plant increases in size the sugar becomes transferred to 
the latex vessels and transported away, and the cortex shrinks, evidently losing 


524 INVESTIGATION OF LOBELIA GIBBOSA AND L, DENTATA, i, 


water as well as sugar. As is the case with L. gibbosa, plants growing in exposed 
positions are much smaller than more favoured plants. 

In both species germination usually takes place at a distance below the 
surface of the soil, and at first the seedling is entirely subterranean. Successful 
germination, therefore, depends on an early infection by a fungus, since the seeds 
are very small and do not contain sufficient reserve food material to provide for 
much growth. 

Strands of fungal hyphae are always found associated with the hypocotyl 
region of young seedlings; they spread out forming a mat over its surface and 
in places penetrate into the cortex by pushing down between the epidermal cells. 
In the cortex they remain strictly intercellular, and in transverse section are seen 
to be most abundant in the outer cortex, probably because the hyphae which 
penetrate into the inner cortex are quickly crushed out. This intercellular fungus 
evidently infects the young primary root as soon as it commences growth, and 
keeps pace with it as it grows, also infecting all lateral roots and their branches. 

The apex of a young growing root is free from fungal hyphae. Behind this 
area three stages in the association of the fungus and the cells of the root can 
be distinguished: 

1. The period of fungal invasion.—In a longitudinal section near to the apex of 
a young growing root, the invading hyphae can be seen growing down between 
the cortical cells, and are evenly distributed throughout the whole cortex. At this 
time the fungal hypae are narrow and densely protoplasmic. 

2. The period of fungal enlargement.—Sections taken successively further and 
further from the apex of a young growing root show that the fungus becomes 
concentrated in the middle cortex forming a definite fungal zone. In this 
region the fungal cells become much enlarged by the accumulation of droplets 
of reserve food of an oily nature within them, and the cortical cells become 
forced apart. The fungal hyphae in the inner and outer cortex are not only 
less numerous, but also thinner and contain less reserve food. 

3. The period of fungal depletion.—Sections cut behind the region showing 
fungal enlargement show that changes take place in the fungal zone resulting in 
the disappearance of all reserve food from the fungal hyphae and the accumula- 
tion in the peripheral cytoplasm of the neighbouring cells of very numerous small 
droplets of reserve food with similar staining reaction. The depletion of the fungus 
commences in the inner fungal zone and continues outward until there is no 
reserve food remaining in the fungus. During this period the cells of the outer 
cortex increase in size, gradually crushing the fungus till none remains except 
a few living threads in the outer cortex. Food material is evidently extracted 
by the fungus from the cortical cells and later by the cortical cells from the 
fungus by osmosis, since no signs of haustorial organs could be found. As the food 
material is extracted from the fungus it is transported across the cortex to the 
latex vessels and thence to the growing stem. 

Strands of fungal hyphae similar to those associated with the hypocotyl of 
seedlings are also found associated with the roots. The outer part of the strand 
consists of a number of narrow thick-walled hyphae, somewhat intertwined but 
with a general longitudinal course. These are closely bound together so as to 
form a continuous tissue protecting the core of the strand which consists of one 
or more wide, thin-walled, densely protoplasmic hyphae, whose course is strictly 
longitudinal. 


BY LILIAN FRASER. 525 


Where these strands grow into contact with a root of Lobelia the outer layer 
spreads out over the surface forming a mat which may be extensive or very 
narrow. From the core a strand of hyphae grows down into the cortex of the 
root, penetrating between the epidermal cells and growing through the intercellular 
spaces of the cortex. 

The main points of importance of the latex system are described. In the 
roots and underground stem the latex system is confined to the phloem and consists 
of large vessels with numerous anastomosing branches. The vessels result from 
the breaking down of end walls between rows of superimposed cells, and the 
branches are probably prolongations of the cell wall. In the aerial stem the 
main part of the latex is in the phloem, and is similar to that of the under- 
ground stem, but a characteristic feature is that branches grow out from the 
main vessels, and penetrate between the cells of the endodermis and ramify 
between the chlorophyll-bearing cells composing the cortex. In the leaf several 
latex vessels accompany each vein and numerous branches grow out between the 
mesophyll cells. Latex vessels are also present in all parts of the flower. It is 
concluded that in L. gibbosa and L. dentata the latex system functions mainly 
in transport of food materials. 

L. gibbosa behaves as a succulent when deprived of water, but L. dentata 
under similar conditions dies at once in spite of the considerable development of 
the cortex in the underground stem, which in the young plant contains much 
water. 

From its general structure the root system of the two species appears to 
be an inefficient organ for the rapid absorption of water, and it is for this reason 
that plants in fairly exposed situations do not flourish, though other plants whose 
root systems are not modified, grow well and show no signs of water shortage 
under the same conditions. 


In conclusion the author wishes to express her thanks to Professor T. G. B. 
Osborn of the Department of Botany, Sydney University, who suggested the 
problem, for his helpful criticism and advice. 


Literature Cited. 


BAILEY, F. M., 1900.—Flora of Queensland, Pt. iii, p. 916. 

Buack, J. M., 1922.—Flora of South Australia, p. 547. 

Ewart, A. J., 1930.—Flora of Victoria, p. 1061. 

Haas, P., ane Hiuu, T. G., 1928.—An Introduction to the Chemistry of Plant Products. 
Vol. i. 

KusAno, S., 1911.—Gastrodia elata and its Symbiotic Association with Armillaria mellea. 
Journ. Coll. Agric. Tokyo, iv, pp. 1-66. 

MancuHam, S., 1915.—Observations on the Osazone Method of Locating Sugars in Plant 
Tissues. Anz. Bot., xxix, pp. 369-398. 

RAYNER, M. C., 1927.—Mycorrhiza. 

Yorac, F.-L., 1905.—Sur L’Appareil Laticifere des Lobéliacées. Journal de Botanique, 
xix, pp. 12-20. 


FLETCHER MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1931. 
THE ANIMAL MIND AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR BIOLOGY. 


By W. EH. Acar, F.R.S., 
University of Melbourne. 


[Delivered 9th November, 1931.] 


It cannot be denied that some explanation is required of a biologist who chooses 
as a subject for a lecture a theme which could, from nearly every point of view; 
clearly be treated better by a professional psychologist than by a biologist. Never- 
theless, granting this, as we certainly must, there still seems room for its treat- 
ment by a biologist to biologists, and, therefore, it is, perhaps, not an unsuitable 
subject for me to choose for your Fletcher Memorial Lecture, which you have 
done me the honour of inviting me to deliver this year. 

The history of science shows two opposite tendencies. Including at first the 
whole range of nature, natural science in the not so distant past was thought to 
be a proper subject for a University Chair. But the mere growth of knowledge 
made it necessary to subdivide the field for purposes of practical study. Later 
still, as knowledge increases still further, the boundaries of these subdivisions 
spread out till they overlap again, and regions are established which have to use 
the discoveries and concepts of different branches of scientific discipline. Of 
recent years the region common to physics and chemistry has been very prominent. 
The common ground of biology and chemistry has grown enormously in the last 
generation. The contact between zoology and psychology is less well established. 
The fact that the vital processes, such as morphogenesis, or physiological regula- 
tion, have a physico-chemical aspect has been thoroughly appreciated for many 
years; that they may have a psychical aspect will be much less universally 
admitted, though it may be equally true. , 

There is another aspect of animal psychology, however, in which every biologist 
is bound to be professionally interested, and that is the evolutionary aspect. His 
conception of organic evolution is obviously incomplete if he ignores the evolution 
of mind. He will be lucky indeed if he arrives at a correct conception of the 
process and course of evolution if all consideration of the evolution of the most 
characteristic of all animal functions is left out of the picture. 

It is convenient to begin by distinguishing the two main subdivisions of 
animal behaviour recognized by nearly all animal psychologists. Firstly, there is 
that type of behaviour which is determined by the innate organization of the 
animal, that is to say, reflex and instinctive behaviour. This type of behaviour 
is the outcome of the organization of the animal as this has been developed by 
the ordinary processes of embryonic development, often with post-embryonic 
maturation (as in the case of the sex instinct). 

Secondly, we must recognize that type of behaviour which is determined by 
the animal’s own previous experience; actions which the animal has learnt by 


BY W. E. AGAR. 527 


experience to be appropriate to certain situations. This type of behaviour is 
intelligent behaviour. The bird builds its nest instinctively; a dog recognizes 
intelligently that the sound of the dinner bell means food. 


Let us consider briefly the nature and relations of these two types of behaviour. 
Instincts are sometimes looked upon as compound reflexes, but McDougall has 
stressed the necessity for distinguishing sharply between these two modes of 
action. A reflex action is a reaction to a stimulus as such, without reference to the 
source of the stimulus. Instinctive action, however, is a reaction not merely to 
the stimulus itself, but to the object or situation which the stimulus means or 
signifies to the animal. Flash a bright light on to a dog’s eye. It will blink— 
a reflex action to the stimulus itself. But if the image of a rabbit falls upon its 
retina, it will react, not merely to the stimulus of the optic nerve, but to the 
rabbit, which the stimulus signifies to the animal. 


Thus, while the reflex act merely involves the touching off of a preformed 
mechanism, like putting a penny in an automatic machine, an instinctive act 
involves a striving towards a goal. Instinctive action, therefore, implies cognition 
and conatioh. Moreover, as McDougall also points out, the same instinctive action 
may employ different motor mechanisms on different occasions. 


We know from our own experience that reflex action is not usually a con- 
scious action. Instinctive action, on the other hand, is accompanied in our own 
case, and, therefore, presumably in the case of animals, by conscious experience 
of the type called emotion, according to McDougall’s terminology. The operation 
of the instinct of escape is accompanied by the emotion of fear, and so on. 


It seems clear that in order to be effective, only the simplest instinctive actions 
can be absolutely determined in every detail by the organization of the animal. 
Only the impulse to the action and the general course of the action can be thus 
determined, because the exact situation and, therefore, the exact means to be taken 
to attain the goal, can hardly ever be the same on any two occasions. Of course, 
the animal is guided in its movements by its sense organs, and by this means no 
doubt the spider is able to fix its web to the appropriate supports and shape the 
whole to the space at its disposal. The power to do that is included in 
the definition of the instinct. But animals in the performance of their 
instinctive acts are bound to come up against all sorts of minor obstacles, the 
appropriate way of dealing with which could not be part of the instinctive 
equipment of the animal, unless this included an enormous number of latent 
specific cognitive and conative dispositions which might not need to be brought 
into operation once in scores of generations. The way in which the details of the 
action can be suited to the minor features of the special case is a very simple one, 
but very important for the understanding of animal behaviour, and of mental 
evolution. It is the principle of trial and error. 


It appears to be a fundamental attribute of animals to vary their previous 
activity (or inactivity) when they come into any situation which causes them 
pain or dissatisfaction—and this situation arises automatically when any animal 
receives a check when making for its instinctive goal. When this happens, the 
animal continues to make movements of the same general nature as those usually 
appropriate to attain the goal, but varies them in detail. Movements which 
fail to give it relief (in the case of the checked instinctive action, to bring it 
nearer its goal) are discontinued and others substituted, until one is found which 


kK 


528 FLETCHER MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1931, 


gives the animal satisfaction; the stimulus to further change of activity no longer 
exists, and the present movement or state of rest is continued. 

Thus it is that motile microscopic organisms, such as Paramecium, placed in 
a trough of water, one end of which is kept at an uncomfortably high tempera- 
ture and the other end at normal temperature, will eventually congregate in the 
cool end. The uncomfortably high temperature causes them to dart about at 
random; those directions of movement which fail to give relief—i.e., fail to take 
the animal out of reach of the heat—are quickly discontinued, and the animal 
turns in a new direction. Sooner or later, it chances to move in a direction which 
takes it out of the hot area into the cool. There being now no incentive to further 
activity, the animal stays where it is. In this way, the animals gradually all 
find their way to the cool end. 

There is nothing unfamiliar to us in this procedure. As long as we ourselves 
are comfortably situated, we feel no incentive to alter our condition, but when 
we experience discomfort or pain we get restless and try various ways of obtaining 
relief. 

It is even possible to relate the frequency of change of action with the degree 
of discomfort or pain which evokes it. In one of my own experiments, water 
mites (Hylais) were placed in a horizontal glass tube about 60 cm. long, so 
arranged that it could be maintained at a constant temperature. In such a tube 
the animal swims up and down, sometimes reversing its direction after a short 
distance, sometimes after a long one. Hach animal was left in the tube for an 
hour, and its track up and down the tube recorded. The average length of 
run between reversals of direction was as follows (compulsory turns at the ends 
of the tube not being counted). At a temperature of 6:5° C., the average run was 
747 mm.; at 12:5°, 1,932 mm.; at 22:5°, 1,761 mm.; at 32°, 460 mm.; and at 
37°, 72 mm. 

It will be seen that at the “normal” temperatures, 12:5° and 22-:5°, the reversals 
of direction are at much longer intervals than at higher or lower temperatures; 
and, indeed, one is led to the generalization that the rate of change of action 
is roughly proportional to the degree of injury and discomfort experienced during 
its performance. This seems to be the basis of the principle of trial and error. 

This trial and error principle is the essential preliminary to intelligent 
behaviour. No intelligence is involved in the Paramecium’s behaviour. That 
would appear if, in a second experiment with the same animals, their previous 
experience led them to turn away from the hot end and swim into the cool end 
of the trough, instead of chancing on the cool end by random movements— 
and we may be confident that this intelligence would not be displayed. 

As an example of intelligence in this sense of learning by trial and error, 
let us take one of the earliest—if not the earliest—exact experiment on this 
subject. 

Thorndike put a hungry cat in a cage, food being placed outside. The cage 
was provided with a sliding door to which was attached a string passing over 
a pulley and ending in a weight. The door was kept shut by a bolt, the withdrawal 
of which allowed the door to rise. To the bolt was fastened a string which, passing 
over a pulley and through the bars of the roof, ended in a ring hanging in the 
middle of the cage. Pulling on the ring would, therefore, cause the door to open. 

The cat on being put into the cage tries to escape by biting and clawing 
at the bars and attempting to squeeze between them. Sooner or later it chances 


BY W. E. AGAR. 529 


to claw or bite on the ring; it then finds itself at liberty. On successive occasions 
the cat gradually eliminates more and more of the preliminary useless efforts, 
and concentrates on the essential act of pulling the ring. One particular eat 
took the following times (in seconds) to pull the ring, and so gain its liberty, 
in twenty-four successive trials: 160, 30, 90, 60, 15, 28, 20, 30, 22, 11, 15, 20, 12, 10, 
14, 10, 8, 8, 5, 10, 8, 6, 6, 7. j 

Biting the ring or pulling on it with its claw is, no doubt, an act of the 
general kind which a cat instinctively uses in efforts to escape from confinement. 
But animals will also learn to perform acts which can have no understandable 
relation to the result. For instance, in other experiments Thorndike opened the 
cage door himself whenever the cats licked themselves, and they soon learnt 
to do this immediately they were put into the cage. Similarly, a chicken learnt 
to free itself by preening its feathers. 

The power of learning by experience (and, therefore, according to definition, 
intelligence) has been demonstrated in all classes of vertebrates and in many 
invertebrate phyla. 

Passing over certain equivocal evidence in the case of the Protozoa, and fairly 
strong evidence for the earthworm (Yerkes), Garth and Mitchell (1926) may be 
said to have proved it in the case of a land snail. The enormous and specialized 
phylum of the Arthropoda has been much experimented upon from this point 
of view. In this phylum my own experiments (1927) have failed to produce 
any evidence of intelligence in water mites (Hydrachnidae). The apparatus 
employed was a Y-shaped trough, supported on a pedestal in a dish containing 
water. The depth of the water in the dish was so adjusted that the trough 
contained only sufficient water to allow the animal to struggle along in it, half 
swimming, half crawling. The animal was introduced into the base of the stem 
of the Y; by the right hand arm it could escape into the deep surrounding water; 
escape from the left arm was prevented by a piece of clear glass. In one out of 
many experiments, in which the penalty for entering the wrong arm was not 
only failure to escape from the confinement and shallow water, but also the 
reception of an electric shock, the animal failed to show any signs of learning 
even after 800 trials. 

This inability to learn a simple right or left hand choice is in marked 
contrast to the powers of another Arthropod, the freshwater crayfish, which will 
master this task very easily. It seems possible to correlate this difference of 
intelligence with the modes of life of the two creatures. The crayfish leads a 
life where some power of profiting by experience must clearly be of value—it 
searches for its food, attacks other animals, and defends itself against its enemies. 


Water mites feed on Daphnia or other small Crustacea, but they catch them 
in a manner which affords no apparent scope for intelligence. They are animals 
of ceaseless activity, swimming rapidly round and round, up and down the 
vessel in which they are contained. If a water mite (Hylais) is placed in a 
small vessel with a few Daphnias, it seems quite unconscious of their presence, 
even at a distance of a millimetre. But when in its tireless travelling it chances 
to collide with one, it makes a rapid movement to seize its prey. If successful, the 
Daphnia is killed and its juice is sucked; if the mite fails to hold the Daphnia 
it circles once or twice round the spot and by so doing may strike the Daphnia 
again. If not, it soon resumes its general random activity. That mites find 
their prey by chance collisions with them is also indicated by the following experi- 


530 FLETCHER MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1981, 


ment. Mites were put singly into small cylindrical vessels, containing about 
25 c.c. of water. Into one series of vessels, one Daphnia was placed; in a second 
series, two; in others, four, eight and sixteen respectively; and the time taken 
by the mite to catch one was noted. It was found that the time varied inversely 
as the number of Daphnias present. Thus the average time taken to catch a 
Daphnia when there were four present was approximately eighteen minutes; when 
eight were present, eleven minutes; and when there were sixteen, four minutes. 
Such a result could not have been obtained in the case of an animal tracking 
down its prey by its sense organs; it is apparent that ability to learn by experience 
could find little scope in such a process. 


Many experimenters have demonstrated intelligence in the higher Crustacea 
and Insecta. I may perhaps again instance some experiments of my own on the 
Australian freshwater crayfish or yabby, Parachaeraps bicarinatus (unpublished 
data). The crayfish, placed in a box with two openings, will quickly learn always 
to escape by the right or left one, especially if the penalty for attempting 
the wrong one is not only failure to escape, but also an electric shock. On the 
other hand, I have never succeeded in getting them to form an association between 
an illuminated opening and an electric shock. If one of the two openings, irregu- 
larly or alternatively the right and left, is illuminated and at the same time 
electrified, they will not succeed—at least, not in 600 lessons—in learning to avoid 
this opening and escape by the unilluminated opening (or vice versa). One 
specimen which was given 440 lessons in such an apparatus, and failed com- 
pletely to form any association between the light and the shock (or at any rate 
to regulate its movements thereby) was rested for three days at the end of the 
experiment (which had extended over 176 days). It was then tried again in 
the same apparatus, only this time there was no difference of illumination between 
the two exits, but the left hand opening was left permanently electrified and the 
right hand one free. (In the 440 trials of the first experiment, this animal had 
gone rather more often to the left than to the right opening.) The animal was 
given 80 trials at its new task, six a day. It made five errors in the first ten 
trials, four in the second ten, and only three in the remaining sixty. 


While such experiments as these demonstrate the power of learning, they 
certainly suggest that it is very poorly developed. But laboratory experiments 
of this type can only demonstrate intelligence; they cannot measure it. It can 
hardly be doubted that animals will learn much more readily from the kind of 
experiences which they encounter in their natural modes of life. It seems extra- 
ordinary that a crayfish should learn so quickly by which of the two openings 
it has to escape from confinement, as long as that opening is always the same 
one, and yet shown no signs, even after 600 lessons, of learning that the attempt 
to escape through an illuminated opening is fruitless and attended by a painful 
sensation. But it may be that the crayfish, although (as can easily be proved) it 
sees the light, does not see it as part of the confinement-escape situation in the 
way that the experimenter does. 

These experiments, in short, indicate a general capacity for learning the results 
of certain actions and movements. Obviously, very many of our own skilled 
actions have been acquired by this method of trial and error, though so much 
of this acquisition has come about gradually in our childhood that we are not 
conscious of the fact. A baby even learns how to put its finger in its mouth 


BY W. E. AGAR. 531 


by trial and error. And, indeed, the play of young animals must result in the 
accumulation of great stores of experience in this way. The most intelligent of 
animals—the mammals—hegin life with a considerable period during which they 
are supported and protected by their parents. Thus they have time to make 
innumerable little experiments and gain a great amount of experience of the 
results of all sorts of actions before they are called upon to use these actions in 
matters of life and death. An animal such as an insect which has to fend for 
itself from the moment it appears on the scene cannot afford to experiment. 
It has no time for play. Its instincts must be specialized, and its actions 
practically perfect the first time they are performed. 


How can we pass from mere intelligent to rational behaviour? The cats in 
Thorndike’s experiment may be said to perceive that pulling the ring was 
followed by liberty. But it is not necessary to suppose that they understand why 
pulling the ring set them free. A man placed in a similar situation, if he had 
no previous experience at all of mechanical devices, would probably in the first 
instance have to discover the method of opening the door by trial and error like 
the cat. He would simply pull and pull at everything he could get his hands on to. 
But having once pulled the ring and found the door slide up, he would never have 
to go through all the random efforts again. This is because he would examine 
the connection between the ring and door; as the result of his examination he 
would understand why pulling the ring set him at liberty. Moreover, if he were 
now put into another cage in which the door was operated by a lever instead 
of a ring and pulley, he would immediately set about looking for some indirect 
way of opening the door, and would soon discover the lever. 


This would be rational behaviour. The man is reasoning. This seems to 
involve power of analysis and abstraction. The man’s perception is not confined to 
a perception of the relation between his total action and the total result. He can 
see the relation between the various parts of his action and parts of the result, 
and can abstract certain general qualities or properties from the objects exhibiting 
them. According to McDougall, “the essential feature of reasoning is reaction to 
some aspect or quality of an object which marks it as appropriate for the 
purpose of the moment”. | 

McDougall, though willing to allow to animals mental processes more like 
those of man than many psychologists are prepared to do, yet considers that it is 
difficult to point to behaviour that clearly implies reasoning in any animals lower 
than the apes. But it appears that the rudiments of this higher type of behaviour, 
even if not sufficiently developed to be called reasoning, can be traced further down 
than the apes. Thorndike found that cats trained to open a cage by pulling on a 
ring, when placed in a similar cage in which the door had to be opened by 
depressing a lever, learnt the new lesson more quickly than cats which had not 
the previous experience. McDougall relates how his dog learnt to open a puzzle 
box containing food. Before opening the lid (by depressing a lever) it was 
necessary to turn a horizontal button and push down a hinged board. It would 
perform these two preliminary operations, sometimes with its paw, and sometimes 
with its nose, and not always in the same order. Such behaviour seems to imply 
more than mere formation of associations between certain acts and the pleasure 
or pain of their results. 

Do animals have ideas involving memory images of past experiences and 
the basing of plans for future action on them? Even the simplest forms of learning 


532 FLETCHER MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1931, 


must involve memory, of course, but this does not necessarily mean that the 
animal has conscious recollection of its previous experiences. Let us take the 
example of an animal trained to escape from a box by the less brightly illumin- 
ated of two openings. Before training it escaped by either opening indifferently. 
But as a result of experiencing a painful electric shock whenever it went to the 
brighter opening, it now always chooses the other. This does not necessarily mean 
that it consciously remembers its previous experiences, and bases its action on this 
memory. It may be that it simply perceives the situation now differently from 
the way in which it did before its training. It now confronts the two openings 
with a dread of the bright opening, and possibly an attraction towards the darker 
one, without necessarily actually forming a memory image of its previous 
experiences. ; 

A consideration of instinct indicates that the fact that the animal has come 
to dread the bright opening does not necessarily imply that it has conscious 
memory of its past experiences. We can compare the dread of the bright opening 
with the instinctive fear which many animals have of their natural enemies, 
or that nearly all higher vertebrates experience when they find their movements 
restricted; and here there is no question of memory, at any rate on the first occasion 
on which the fear is felt. And this suggests an extremely interesting problem, 
of which we can only conjecture the answer—what mental states accompany the 
first performance of an instinctive act? When a bird starts out to build its first 
nest, has it any idea of what the result of its activity will be? When an Ammophila 
wasp sets out to search for its first caterpillar, has it any idea of the appearance 
of the object of its search? Or when it has sighted one, has it any sort of expecta- 
tion or premonition of what the rest of its action towards it is going to be? 

McDougall believes that every instance of instinctive behaviour involves a 
knowing of some thing or object, a feeling in regard to it, and a striving 
towards or away from that object. He maintains that a bird has innate repre- 
sentation of the form of the nest which it is going to build. 


Lloyd Morgan (1913) will allow less than this. He considers that at its 
first performance of an instinctive act the animal has only a vague feeling of 
interest in what is coming, rather than a perception (or “‘preperception”) of the 
goal. 

We can only guess at the mental state of the animal about to perform an 
instinctive act for the first time, not only because of our general ignorance of the 
mental states of the lower animals, but also because of our own lack of specialized 
instincts, involving the performance of long and complicated action; we can, there- 
fore, draw little analogy from our own experiences. All our actions, except such 
simple instinctive ones as hitting a man when we are angry, or running away from 
danger, have been learnt, and we, therefore, have a memory image to act as goal 
for our activities. It is interesting to speculate on the different form that .the 
science of psychology might have taken had human beings been endowed with 
even one complicated mode of instinctive action, involving a long series of 
actions like those of a solitary wasp stocking its nest with paralysed prey, or a 
bird building its nest. 

Although it seems absurd to question the presence of anticipatory images 
where previous experience is involved, the consideration of instinct makes it 
more difficult to be sure that memory images are also present. But it is possible 
to produce experimental evidence upon this point. This is provided by the “delayed 


BY W. E. AGAR. 533 


reaction” type of experiment. The animal is shown, by a light, from which of a 
number of compartments food can be obtained. At varying intervals after the 
extinction of the light the animal is released and the percentage of correct 
reactions is recorded. All mammals experimented on show the ability to choose 
the correct compartment after short intervals, but in some cases this depends 
upon the animal being allowed to maintain its orientation during the interval. 
On seeing the light (the association between light and food having been produced 
by preliminary training) the animal points its head in that direction, and on 
release it follows up that direction. Dogs and raccoons, however, do not require this 
aid. The evidence from the delayed reaction type of experiment is conveniently 
summarized by Washburn (1926). 


In his fascinating book on the mentality of apes, Kohler gives many instances 
of the chimpanzee’s ability to think of absent objects. 


Consider this account of the behaviour of the solitary wasp, Pompilus scelestus 
(Peckhams, 1905). The wasp arrived at her nest with a spider, which proved 
too big to go into the hole. She pushed it out again, and carried it away 
to a place of safety among some clover blossoms. “She then washed and brushed 
herself neatly, and took several little walks, so that it was fully fifteen minutes 
before she began to enlarge her nest.” During that interval she must have 
carried in her mind the idea of enlarging the nest to receive the spider. 


However, we are getting into those regions of animal psychology which are 
furthest from the ordinary conceptions with which the zoologist works. Let 
us turn to those aspects which make closest contact with the general biologist. 


What about the evolutionary aspect of the various grades of mental develop- 
ment which we find in the animal kingdom? Can the higher modes of mental 
life be derived by mere elaboration from the lower, or have we to postulate the 
appearance of something really new during the course of evolution? And the 
same problem occurs lower down. Are vital processes, such as embryonic develop- 
ment, of the same nature, fundamentally, as the behaviour of the organism as a 
whole in relation to its external environment, having, therefore, a psychical as 
well as a physical aspect? A full consideration of the second point would lead 
us very far into a discussion of the relation of the three great categories, inorganic 
processes, vital processes and conscious behaviour, and it would clearly be impos- 
sible to tack on such a discussion to the end of an evening’s lecture. But it is 
worth recalling that many psychologists see no difficulty in uniting the last two 
eategories. To quote McDougall again, ‘according to this view, then, not only 
conscious thinking, but also morphogenesis, heredity and evolution are psycho- 
physical processes” (1911). i 


It is easier to relate vital processes to instinctive than to intelligent behaviour. 
No valid evidence seems to be forthcoming that learning by experience occurs in 
vital processes. It is clear, of course, that these may adapt themselves to circum- 
stances—as in the development of a partial embryo into a complete adult, or 
the development of appropriate buttresses in bones subjected to unusual stresses. 
Roux, indeed, distinguished two phases even in normal development. A first stage 
in which organs develop irrespective of functioning, and a second in which 
they complete their development in response to functioning. But there is 
no valid evidence to show that such adaptations occur more readily or more 
perfectly as a result of experience; that is to say, as a consequence of the discovery, 


534 FLETCHER MEMORIAL LECTURE, 1981. 


by trial and error, that certain modes of growth gave more favourable results 
than others. ° : 


The result (as distinguished from the process) of learning by experience is a 
disposition to act in a certain manner when confronted with a certain object or 
situation; and once it has been formed, a learnt disposition seems to differ in 
no essential way from an innate disposition or instinct, except that it is usually 
less enduring. Are we then to suppose that instincts are the result of learning 
in past generations? This is, on the face of it, such a. plausible way of accounting 
for specific instincts that psychologists have always tended to a belief in 
Lamarckian inheritance. McDougall’s well-known experiment (still in progress) 
on inheritance of training in rats would seem to afford support to this view. It will 
be recalled that he trained rats to escape from a tank of water by the less 
brightly illuminated of two exits, and found a progressive decline in the average 
number of repetitions required to learn the lesson as the number of generations 
of training increased (McDougall, 1930). It would be unsafe to build any super- 
structure of theory on the result of his experiment before it has been repeated 
and confirmed, but, taken at its face value, the result of this experiment certainly 
seems to be in accord with the ideas of those who look upon instincts as inherited 
habits. 


There are, however, very serious difficulties in the way of accepting such a 
theory as a general explanation of the relation between innate and iearnt dis- 
positions. There seem to be many instincts for which such an origin could not 
be postulated; for instance, actions which are performed only once in a life-time 
(such as cocoon-spinning in insects) and often after the germ cells are already cut 
off from organic connection with the body (many cases of copulation and 
oviposition). 


Nor is it easy to conceive how increased facility in forming a specific 
mental disposition by association between certain actions and the consequent 
pleasure or pain could eventually result in its formation by the cell differentiations 
and cell movements which constitute embryonic development. This difficulty 
(inherent in all Lamarckian explanations) is surmounted by McDougall in a 
manner which few biologists would have the courage to suggest. He suggests 
(1911) that the structure of the germplasm may not be the only link between 
generations, but that there may be an enduring psychic existent of which the 
lives of individual organisms are but successive manifestations. 


Whatever view one may hold as to their genetic relations, the fact that mental 
dispositions may be innate or formed as the result of experience is of the deepest 
significance to biological theory. 


References. 


AGAR, W. E., 1927.—Jowrnal Comp. Psych., vii. 

GarTH, T. R, and MircHELL, M. P., 1926.—Jowrn. Comp. Psych., vi. 
KOHLER, W., 1925.—The Mentality of Apes. 

McDoucGauL, W., 1911.—Body and Mind. 

, 1923.—An Outline of Psychology. 

—,1930.— British Journ. Comp. Psych., 20. 

MorGaan, C. Luoyp, 1913.—Instinet and Hxperience. 

PECKHAM, G. W. and FE. G., 1905.—Wasps, Social and Solitary. 
THORNDIKE, #. L., 1911.—Animal Intelligence. 

WASHBURN, M. F., 1926.—The Animal Mind. 

YERKES, R. M., 1912.—Jouwrn. Animal Behaviour, 2. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MEBERTING. 
25th Marcu, 1931. 

Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., President, in the Chair. 

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(26th November, 1930) amounting to 20 Volumes, 217 Parts or Numbers, 13 
Bulletins, 11 Reports and 76 Pamphlets, received from 112 Societies and Institu- 
tions and 1 private donor, were laid upon the table. 


PAPERS READ. 

1. Petrology of the Hartley District. i. The Plutonic and Associated Rocks. 
By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc. 

2. The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. x. The Phallales. Part i. By G. H. 
Cunningham, Ph.D. 

3. Notes on Australian Diptera. xxvii. By J. R. Malloch. (Communicated 
by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING. 
29th Aprin, 1931. 
Mr. E. Cheel, Vice-President, in the Chair. 
The Chairman announced that the Council had elected Mr. H. J. Carter, 


Dr. W. R. Browne, Dr. H. S. H. Wardlaw and Mr. EH. Cheel to be Vice-Presidents, 
and Dr. G. A. Waterhouse to be Honorary Treasurer for the current Session. 


The Chairman also announced that the Council had elected Mr. T. C. 
Roughley to fill the vacancy on the Council caused by the resignation of Mr. 
G. M. Goldfinch. 


The Chairman reminded members that the official opening ceremony of 
Science House will take place on Thursday, 7th May, at 3.30 p.m., when the 
building will be declared open by His Excellency the Governor. 

The Chairman informed members that the Council had again given its 
support to a movement by the Killara Community Service Club to have the 
proclamation protecting certain wild flowers extended for another year. 


The Chairman drew the attention of members to the fact that the ccloured 
illustration of the Waratah, which was issued as a plate with Part 1 of the 
PROCEEDINGS, is available for sale printed on postcards. 


The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(25th March, 1931) amounting to 27 Volumes, 200 Parts or Numbers, 10 Bulletins, 
3 Reports and 13 Pamphlets, received from 87 Societies and Institutions and 3 
private donors, were laid upon the table. 


XXxXii. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


PAPERS READ. 


1. The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. i. Tallong-Bungonia. 
By Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 


2. Further Notes on the Orchids of the South Maitland Coalfields, with 
Description of a New Dendrobium from Bullahdelah. By Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. 


3. Contributions to: our Knowledge of the Actinomycetales. i. A Case of 
Hereditary Variation in the Genus Actinomyces. By H. L. Jensen, Macleay 
Bacteriologist to the Society. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Mr. David G. Stead referred to an extraordinary example of the effect of 
wind and current following the recent wreck of the M.S. Malabar at Long Bay, 
a little to the south of Sydney Heads. Within a period of 36 to 40 hours following 
the bursting open of the ship’s sides a butcher’s block (wood) brought up on the 
coast at Newcastle—a drift of about 60 miles. The main current on this coast is 
a broad, deep south-flowing one, but close inshore are a series of back-flowing eddies 
which work to the north. Small vessels take advantage of this northerly “set’’ 
when moving in a northerly direction along the coast. Immediately following 
the wreck of the Malabar there was a continued southerly breeze. 


Dr. G. A. Waterhouse exhibited specimens of both sexes of Papilio dardanus 
cenea from Natal, South Africa, and drew attention to the great differences in 
the females, which are so unlike the males. 


Mr. W. W. Froggatt exhibited (1) normal male and female galls of Apiomorpha 
maliformis Fuller on twigs and foliage of Blackbutt, Hucalyptus patens, from 
Western Australia; (2) abnormal female galls growing out of the stem on the 
same Eucalyptus from Western Australia; and (3) the great coconut-palm 
longicorn, Xixuthus costatus Montrz., from the Solomon Islands. This beetle is 
figured and noted in “Pests and Diseases of the Coconut Palm”, by W. W. 
Froggatt (Third Edition, 1914). 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MERTING. 
27th May, 1931. 


Mr. E. Cheel, Vice-President, in the Chair. 

Mr. Harold W. Hamilton, Burwood, was elected an Ordinary Member of the 
Society. 

The Chairman announced that Professor W. EH. Agar, of the University of 
Melbourne, had accepted the Council’s invitation to deliver the Fletcher Memorial 
Lecture for 1931. The lecture will be delivered on Monday, 9th November. 

The Chairman called the attention of members to the proposal by the 
Hawkesbury Agricultural College Old Boys’ Union for the institution of a memorial 
to the late Mr. H. W. Potts. 

The Chairman brought to the attention of members the booklet, “Tree 
Planting on the Farm”, published by the Department of Agriculture, which is 
available from the Department at a small charge. 

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(29th April, 1931) amounting to 6 Volumes, 130 Parts or Numbers, 10 Bulletins, 
6 Reports and 6 Pamphlets, received from 76 Societies and Institutions and 1 
private donor, were laid upon the table. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXiil. 


PAPERS READ. 
1. On Baridiinae (Curculionidae), mostly from New Guinea. By A. M. Lea, 
F.E.S. 


2. The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xi. The Phallales. Part ii. By 
G. H. Cunningham, M.Se., Ph.D. 


3. The Life-history of Calliphora ochracea Schiner (Diptera, Calliphoridae). 
By Mary BE. Fuller, B.Sc. 

4. A Note on the Systematic Position of Mycobacterium coeliacum Gray and 
Thornton. By H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Mr. David G. Stead sent for exhibition two immature examples of the Dart, 
Trachinotus botla (Shaw). This edible fish is commonly a northern species and 
is not often taken so far south as Port Jackson. The two specimens shown are 
of particular interest because of their small size (198 mm. and 178 mm. 
respectively). They were portion of a large shoal of similar size in the lower 
part of Port Jackson on 21st May. During the winter of 1907 several hundreds 
from 300 mm. to 375 mm. in length were taken in Botany Bay. In tropical waters 
this species is very abundant; also in Malayan waters, where it is known by the 
Malay name of Jkan Nyior-Nyior. 

Dr. W. L. Waterhouse exhibited plants resulting from crossing “Bunyip” 
wheat and “Rosen” rye. These have proved sterile in all cases. Even back-crossing 
with each of the parents has not given grain. The Fl plants resulting from 
crossing the vulgare wheat “Gullen” with the emmer known as “Khapli” were also 
shown. By pollinating the flowers with pollen of “Gullen” it has been possible 
to obtain a number of grains, many being plump and apparently normal. Similar 
results on a somewhat smaller scale were reported when the varieties “Bunyip’’, 
“Canberra”, “Exquisite” and “Geeralying’’ were used as the vulgare parents in 
place of “Gullen”’. 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING. 
24th JuNr, 1931. 


Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 


The Chairman referred, with regret, to the death of Dr. A. Eland Shaw, who 
had been a member of the Society since 1922. 

The Chairman, on behalf of members, offered congratulations to Professor 
T. T. Flynn on his appointment to the Chair of Zoology of the Queen’s University, 
Belfast. 

The Chairman drew the attention of members to a tree planting ceremony on 
Saturday, 25th July, at 2 p.m., inaugurating a scheme for beautifying Ball’s Head 
Reserve. 

The Chairman announced to members that it is proposed to hold a Special 
General Meeting immediately before the next Monthly Meeting on 29th July to put 
forward a proposal for the admission of Associates to the Society. 

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(27th May, 1931) amounting to 14 Volumes, 123 Parts or Numbers, 5 Bulletins, 
5 reports and 15 Pamphlets, received from 74 Societies and Institutions, were laid 
upon the table. 


XXXiv. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


PAPERS READ. 
1. Trichopterygidae of Australia and Adjacent Islands. By C. Deane. 


2. Notes on the Biology and Morphology of the Eurymelinae (Cicadelloidea, 
Homoptera). By J. W. Evans, M.A., F.L.S. (Communicated by Dr. R. J. Tillyard.) 


3. The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. ii. Nerrimunga Creek. 
By F. A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 


4. The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. iii. Bulee Ridge. By 
F. A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 


5. Three new bats, of the genera Pteropus, Nyctimene, and Chaerephon, from 
Melanesia. By EH. Le G. Troughton. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Dr. W. L. Waterhouse exhibited specimens of Fl wheat plants showing the 
“dwart’ or “grass clump” character, together with flag smut infection. These 
have occurred in two of the crosses made last season. Dominance-of susceptibility 
to flag smut has been shown in the Fl generation of a large number of crosses 
between vulgare wheats examined season after season, and this has been borne out 
by examinations of the F2 and F3 generations of the cross “Canberra” x “Red 
Rock.” But the present instances are the first found in which dwarfs have been 
infected with flag smut. 


Mr. G. P. Whitley remarked upon an interesting eighteenth-century systematic 
work on the Australian fauna. This was the Systematische-Summarische 
Uebersicht der neuesten Zoologischen HEntdeckungen in Neuholland und Afrika by 
F. A. A. Meyer, published at Leipzig in 1793, a copy of which had been consulted 
in the Mitchell Library, Sydney. Apart from its historic interest, this booklet 
merited attention because binomial names were given therein to the mammals, 
birds, reptiles, fishes and arachnida described in the works of Phillip and White. 
Meyer seems to have been the first writer to give a scientific name to the Port 
Jackson Shark (Squalus Portus Jacksoni). What appears to be our loeal Soldier 
Crab was named Cancer brachyurus in Meyer’s index, and the remaining groups 
of animals would perhaps repay study by taxonomists. 


SPECIAL GENERAL MEETING. 
29th JuLy, 1931. 


Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Se., F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 


On the motion of Mr. A. F. Basset Hull, seconded by Mr. D. G. Stead, the 
adoption of the proposed new Rule x14, as follows, was carried unanimously: 


xIIA.—The Council may admit persons, not more than twenty-five 
years of age, as Associates. Such persons may attend all or any 
General Meetings of the Society, but shall not be entitled to vote; they 
shall be entitled to use the library and reading-room, but not to borrow 
books; and they shall receive a copy of the Abstract, but not the 
Proceedings. Application for admission as an Associate shall be in 
writing, addressed to the Secretary, and shall contain the applicant’s 
full name, address, and date of birth. Upon being notified of admis- 
sion, the applicant shall pay a subscription of Ten Shillings for the then 
current year, and the same amount annually thereafter. Upon reach- 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXYV. 


ing the age of twenty-five years every Associate must resign, or apply 
for admission as an Ordinary Member; provided that in special cases 
the Council may extend the term of Associateship for such period as 
the Council may think fit. 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MERTING. 
29th Jury, 1931. 


Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 

A letter was read from Mrs. Shaw, thanking the Society for sympathy extended 
to her on the death of her husband. 

The President drew attention to the expected arrival of an expedition from 
Harvard University, under the leadership of Professor W. M. Wheeler, to collect 
entomological, zoological and ornithological material in Australia. 


The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(24th June, 1931) amounting to 39 Volumes, 262 Parts or Numbers, 10 Bulletins, 
15 Reports and 6 Pamphlets, received from 108 Societies and Institutions and 2 
private donors, were laid upon the table. 


PAPERS READ. 

1. On a new Bopyrid Parasite from the Coast of New South Wales. By 
Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc. 

2. Notes on Australian Diptera. xxviii. By J. R. Malloch. (Communicated 
by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 

3. The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xii. The genus Scleroderma. By 
G. H. Cunningham. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Dr. C. Anderson, on behalf of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, exhibited 
a cast of the brain case of the Pekin Man, Sinanthropus pekinensis. The original 
was found in December, 1929, in a cave at Chou Kou Tien, near Pekin, by Mr. 
W. C. Pei, a young Chinese geologist. It belongs to the oldest Pleistocene and is of 
practically the same age as the Ape Man of Trinil, Java (Pithecanthropus erectus), 
and the Piltdown Man (Hoanthropus dawsoni) of Sussex, England. These are the 
three most primitive human types known, and the new find links the two older 
discoveries in an important manner, proving that Pekin Man was intermediate 
between the other two though generically distinct from both. 


Mr. W. W. Froggatt exhibited blooms of Acacia spectabilis, which Mr. Cambage 
had called the Blue Wattle; a better name would be the Blue-stemmed Wattle. 
The seed was collected in the Pilliga Scrub where it grows as a shrubby spreading 
bush. Seeds planted some four years ago have sprung up into tall willowy trees, 
with slender stem up to fifteen feet in height, in the good clay soil of Croydon. 
It has a very beautiful bloom and foliage but on account of its height and slender 
stem is easily blown over, so it should be planted in a sheltered corner about 
Sydney. 

Mr. A. H. S. Lucas showed (1) formalin specimens of Avrainvillea papuana 
grown on the sandy floor of the Lagoon, Low Island, with the long column of 
rhizoids stiffened by sand grains, (2) formalin specimens of Trichodesmium 
scoboideum Lucas, obtained from the open sea between Townsville and Mackay. 


XXXVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Dr. W. L. Waterhouse exhibited specimens of “Nodak,” an American variety of 
Triticum durum, which was found growing in the Sydney University plots infected 
by Tilletia tritici, an organism causing “bunt” in wheat. This appears to be a 
first record of a durum wheat infected with bunt, and may indicate the advent 
of a new physiologic form of the causal organism. 


Mr. A. N. Colefax exhibited (1) a specimen of Lophiomus laticeps, related to 
the Angler-fishes, and very rare along the New South Wales coast, but recorded 
from Queensland coast. This is apparently the second record for New South 
Wales, the first being by Mr. G. P. Whitley of a specimen trawled off the coast of 
New South Wales in 40 fathoms of water in March, 1927. The present specimen 
was trawled up by the Red Funnel trawler “Bar Ha Mul’ in January, 1911, off 
Eden in 70 fathoms and has subsequently been taken again in the same spot; (2) a 
specimen of Burrowing Crab (Ranina ranina), trawled by the trawler “Bar Ea 
Mul” in 35 fathoms. It is not often found in these waters, being a definite tropical 
form. The tribe to which it belongs, the Oxystomata, generally live in sandy 
regions and burrow into the substratum. In correlation with the burrowing habit 
they exhibit many remarkable modifications to ensure that the stream of water 
taken into the gill chamber shall be free of sand grains. In this specimen the 
chelae are peculiarly modified and bear a thick line of bristles along their inner 
margins; they are held closely against the carapace which also bears bristles and 
the water is strained through these, reaching the gills in an uncontaminated 
condition. The flattened ends of the last walking legs are also suited to the burrow- 
ing habit. 

In connection with the exhibit of the specimen of Ranina or Frog Crab, Mr. 
David G. Stead mentioned that a specimen which he had observed (and which had 
been captured by line off South Head in 60 fathoms of water) had progressed in ' 
two separate leaps in a frog-like manner when placed on a grass lawn. 

The President (Professor T. G. B. Osborn) gave a short account (illustrated 
with lantern slides) of the work carried on at the Koonamore Vegetation Reserve. 


SPECIAL GENERAL MEETING. 
26th AucustT, 1931. 


Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 


It was unanimously resolved that the adoption of the proposed new Rule x4, 
which had been unanimously carried at the Special General Meeting of 29th July, 
1931, be confirmed. 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING. 
26th AucustT, 1931. 

Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 

Mr. William J. Lawrence, Carlton, was elected an Ordinary Member of the 
Society. 

The President announced tke receipt of a letter from the Under-Secretary for 
Lands notifying the gazettal of a National Recreation Reserve at Point Lookout 
embracing an area of 42,190 acres. 

The President also announced that representatives of the Society had joined 
with representatives of other Societies in extending a welcome to members of the 
Expedition from the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard who arrived in 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVii. 


Sydney on Tuesday, 18th August. The members of the Expedition left Sydney for 
Western Australia on 25th August, but it is hoped that we may have the pleasure 
of their attendance at a meeting of the Society on their return to Sydney. 

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(29th July, 1931) amounting to 27 Volumes, 175 Parts or Numbers, 19 Bulletins, 
2 Reports and 7 Pamphlets, received from 87 Societies and Institutions and 3 
private donors, were laid upon the table. 


PAPERS READ. 

1. On the Autecology of Stipa nitida: a Study of a Fodder Grass in arid 
Australia. By T. G. B. Osborn, J. G. Wood and T. B. Paltridge. 

2. The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xiii. The Genus Pisolithus. By G. H. 
Cunningham. 


3. Notes on Australian Diptera. xxix. By J. R. Malloch. (Communicated by 
Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Dr. A. B. Walkom exhibited the specimens and slides of Clepsydropsis australis, 
from Mt. Tangorin and Lyndon, near Eccleston, which had been described and 
figured by Professor Sahni (Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Ser. B., Vol. 217, p. 1). 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING. 
30th SEPTEMBER, 1931. 
Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 
The President announced that the Council is prepared to receive applications 
for four Linnean Macleay Fellowships tenable for one year from ist March, 1932, 
from qualified candidates. Applications should be lodged with the Secretary, who 


will afford all necessary information to intending candidates, not later than 
Wednesday, 4th November, 1931. 

The President reminded members that the Fletcher Memorial Lecture for 
1931 is to be delivered on Monday, 9th November, by Professor W. E. Agar, of 
the University of Melbourne. 

The President referred to the death of Mr. A. A. Lawson, who had been a 
member of the Society since 19238. 

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(26th August, 1931) amounting to 20 Volumes, 175 Parts or Numbers, 9 Bulletins, 
3 Reports and 9 Pamphiets, received from 74 Societies and Institutions, were laid 
upon the table. 


PAPERS READ. 

1. Contributions to our Knowledge of the Actinomycetales. ii. The Definition 
and Subdivision of the Genus Actinomyces, with a Preliminary Account of Aus- 
tralian Soil Actinomycetes. By H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. 

2. Revision of Australian Lepidoptera——Supplementary. By A. Jefferis 
Turner, M.D., F.E.S. 

3. The Wing-venation of the Order Isoptera. i. Introduction and the Family 
Mastotermitidae. By R. J. Tillyard, M.A., Sc.D., D.Se., F.R.S. 


XXXVIll. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Dr. I. V. Newman exhibited some twigs of Acacia Baileyana bearing flowers 
that had been infected by an insect parasite. The flowers had not opened, but the 
petals had been stimulated to develop to such an extent that single flowers appeared 
to be the size of a normally unopened flower-head, the sepals remaining unaffected. 
The larva destroys the young carpel and the stamens before entering the pupal 
stage. The emerging fly often leaves the old skin protruding from the flower. The 
petals of the flower become very thick and remain green, with a tendency to be 
yellow at the tips. These infected flowers have remained on the tree, in a green 
condition, for more than six weeks after normal flower-heads had fallen off. The 
insect concerned is a species of Cecidomyia, a genus that attacks Acacias in many 
ways. 


Mr. W. W. Froggatt exhibited a new coccid belonging to the Lecanium group, 
which had been sent to him by Mr. R. Veitch, of the Department of Agriculture, 
Brisbane. The coccid was found on the brigalow in Western Queensland, and it 
is a remarkable form that does not fit in with any of the known genera of the 
group. 

Dr. A. B. Walkom exhibited (i) fertile specimens of the Mesozoic fern Todites 
from Turrimetta Head, Narrabeen, collected by Mr. S. W. Carey. This constitutes 
the first record of this genus from the Narrabeen Series. (ii) A very fine example 
of a winged seed collected by Mr. G. H. Blakemore at Sichon, on the west coast of 
Siam. The spread of the wings is just more than 6% inches, and it probably 
belongs to one of the Bignoniaceae. 


The President (Professor T. G. B. Osborn) gave a short account, illustrated 
with lantern slides, of some of the vegetation types shown on the new Vegetation 
Map of Australia compiled by Professor Prescott of Adelaide. 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MEETING. 
28th OctToper, 1931. 


Mr. E. Cheel, Vice-President, and afterwards Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., 
F.L.S., President, in the Chair. 

Mr. Alan Burges, Croydon, Mr. Paul S. Hossfeld, Canberra, and Mr. H. K. C. 
Mair, Collaroy Beach, were elected Ordinary Members of the Society. 

Candidates for Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1932-33, were reminded that 
Wednesday next, 4th November, is the last day for receiving applications. 

The President reminded members that the Fletcher Memorial Lecture for 
1931 will be delivered on Monday, 9th November, by Professor W. EH. Agar of the 
University of Melbourne, the subject being ‘““‘The Animal Mind”’. 

A letter was read from Mrs. A. A. Lawson and family, returning thanks for 
sympathy. 

The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(30th September, 1931) amounting to 3 Volumes, 62 Parts or Numbers, 2 Bulletins, 
1 Report and 4 Pamphlets, received from 51 Societies and Institutions, were laid 
upon the table. 


PAPERS READ. 


1. The Reaction of Viminaria denudata to increased Water Content of the 
Soil. By Lilian Fraser, B.Sc. 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Ox 


2. The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. vi. Nerriga. By 
F. A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geography. 


3. Notes on Australian Marine Algae. vi. By A. H.S. Lucas, M.A., B.Se. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Mr. E. Cheel exhibited fresh specimens of the following species of Callistemon: 
C. linearifolius DC., C. pallidus Bonpl., C. viminalis (Sol.) Cheel, C. lilacinus 
Cheel, C. lilacinus var. carmina Cheel, C. paludosus F.v.M., C. paludosus var. 
roseus (Hort.), C. lanceolatus x C. acuminatus; and C. acwminatus Cheel for 
comparison with the above-mentioned hybrid. Specimens of two forms or species 
at present undescribed were also shown, together with examples of seedlings 
raised from the latter. 

Mr. Cheel also exhibited specimens of Leptospermum microphyllum F.v.M., 
raised from seeds received from Victoria four years ago, which up to the present 
had not flowered. Although originally described as a distinct species, it is 
included as a synonym under L. lanigerum by Bentham. Flowering and fruiting 
specimens, received from Victoria, as well as the foliage characters of the cultivated 
plant which are distinctly odoriferous and identical with the parent plant, show 
that it is abundantly distinct and should be regarded as a separate species. 


ORDINARY MONTHLY MERTING. 
25th NovEMBER, 1931. 


Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc., F.L.S., President, and afterwards Mr. HE. Cheel, 
Vice-President, in the Chair. 


The President announced that the Council had reappointed Miss Ida A. Brown, 
B.Se., and Mr. Frank A. Craft, B.Se., to Linnean Macleay Fellowships in Geology 
and Geography respectively for one year from ist March, 1932; and had appointed 
Dr. H. Claire Weekes, D.Se., and Miss Lilian R. Fraser, B.Se., to Linnean Macleay 
Fellowships in Zoology and Botany respectively for a period of one year from 
ist March, 1932. 


The Donations and Exchanges received since the previous Monthly Meeting 
(28th October, 1931) amounting to 8 Volumes, 119 Parts or Numbers, 16 Bulletins, 
4 Reports and 7 Pamphlets, received from 70 Societies and Institutions, were laid 
upon the table. 


PAPERS READ. 
1. A Classification of the Gall-making Coccids of the Genus Apiomorpha. By 
W. W. Froggatt, F.L.S. 


2. The Stratigraphical and Structural Geology of the Devonian Rocks of the 
South Coast of New South Wales. By Ida A. Brown, B.Sec., Linnean Macleay 
Fellow of the Society in Geology. 

3. Notes on New South Wales Orchids. By Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. 

4. Note on the Leaf-buds of Angophoras. By Gladys Carey, B.Sc. 


5. An Investigation of Lobelia gibbosa and Lobelia dentata. i. Mycorrhiza, 
Latex System and General Biology. By Lilian R. Fraser, B.Sc. 


xl. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 


NOTES AND EXHIBITS. 


Miss J. Vickery exhibited specimens of Drosera peltata Sm. which showed 
adventitious buds developing from the lamina of ordinary leaves. Some of these 
shoots had well developed foliage leaves, and “droppers” were growing towards the 
ground, so that they would almost certainly.be capable of establishing themselves 
as separate plants. Specimens of Drosera auriculata Backh. were also exhibited, 
which had been growing in small patches of moss on steeply sloping rocks. Their 
“droppers” had grown downwards completely out of the soil, and their growing 
points had given rise to a group of foliage leaves in place of the usual tuber. 


Dr. W. L. Waterhouse exhibited specimens of Thalictrum flavum and 
T. dipterocarpon showing the aecidial stage of Puccinia triticina. In tests extending 
over ten years this is the first season in which germination of the teleutospores has 
been obtained, and the successful infection of the alternate host opens up a new 
avenue of work dealing with the specialization of the rust. YT. dipterccarpon is 
apparently a new record as a host of the rust. 


Mr. E. Cheel exhibited specimens of TYelopea oreades F.v.M., collected at 
Bombala, which are identical with the original specimens collected at Nangutta 
Creek and Weatherhead, Victoria. It is figured in Ewart’s “Plants Indigenous to 
Victoria’, Vol. ii, 1910, p. 10, Pl. 72, and in Curtis’s “Botanical Magazine’, 1916, 
tab. 8684. The Braidwood, N.S.W., specimens figured as 7. oreades by Maiden in 
his “Forest Flora of New South Wales’, Vol. v, 1913, p. 69, Pl. 163 (except the 
large leaf, fig. “N’’ from Gippsland, Victoria), are quite distinct from the typical 
species and, although somewhat approaching the Tasmanian species, TJ'elopea 
truncata R.Br., appear to be sufficiently distinct from both 7. oreades and T. 
truncata, and worthy of specific rank. Further investigations are being made (and, 
if possible, fresh flowers obtained during the present month, which is the flowering 
period) with a view of defining the differential characters of the three forms, all 
of which are distinct from the eastern T. speciosissima. 


Mr. Cheel also exhibited fresh flowering specimens of Leptospermum micro- 
phyllum F.v.M., cultivated at Ashfield, raised from seeds collected at Lower 
Gellibrand River, Victoria, by the late H. B. Williamson in November, 1925. Fresh 
young foliage of this plant was exhibited at the October meeting, without any 
flower buds being visible. The rapid development of the buds and flowers is note- 
worthy, especially when compared with six years’ period from seed germination 
to flowering stage. This species has also been collected at Studley Park, Victcria. 
Specimens of L. lanigerum Sm. were exhibited for comparison. 


Mr. E. Cheel exhibited specimens of a Eucalypt with buds, flowers and fully 
developed fruits (the latter from last year’s flowers) taken from a tree cultivated 
at Ashfield. The plant is one of several raised from seeds collected at Wyndham 
in June, 1916, which was cut in September, 1927, at four feet from the ground, the 
sapling measuring 19 feet 6 inches in length. From the stump two additional 
saplings were allowed to grow, which were again cut in September of this year. 
The length of the taller of the two saplings produced since September, 1927 (four 
years) measured 27 feet 5 inches, and the diameter just below the cut (i.e., the 
original stump) measured 10% inches. The plant is a “Stringybark” form of 
Eucalyptus, determined by the late Mr. J. H. Maiden as HL. eugenioides, but has 
larger fruits than the typical EH. eugenioides found in the neighbourhood of Hurst- 
ville, Homebush, and other localities in the Port Jackson district. Mr. A. R. 
Penfold, Economic Chemist and Curator of the Technological Museum, has distilled 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xli. 


the essential oil from the leaves of the cultivated plant taken in September, 1927, 
and again in September, 1931, as well as from plants at Wyndham, and finds that 
the odour is pleasant and quite aromatic, whereas that from the Port Jackson 
plants is rank and not by any means pleasant. It is also interesting to note that 
a plant cultivated at Hill Top, on the Main Southern Line, 78 miles from Sydney, 
at an elevation of about 2,000 feet, from the same batch of seedlings is 
still alive, but is barely 2 feet high. The leaves are much smaller and retain the 
character of the seedling stage or reversionary shoots, but have the same charac- 
teristic odour as the mother plant from Wyndham and the seedling plants grown 
at Ashfield. The soil at Hill Top, however, is of an acid sandstone nature and is 
apparently quite unsuitable for this particular form of Eucalypt to thrive, and 
clearly shows the need for special study in connection with the soil requirements 
of certain forms of plants. 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 
Received during the period 27th November, 1930, to 25th November, 1931. 
(From the respective Societies, etc., unless otherwise mentioned.) 


ABERYSTWYTH.—Welsh Plant Breeding Station, University College of Wales. 
Imperial Bureau of Plant Genetics: Herbage Plants, Bulletin, No. 3; Leaflet 
Series S, No. 2; “The Welsh Journal of Agriculture”, vii (1931). 


AcckA.—Geological Survey of the Gold Coast. Report on the Geological Survey 
Department for the Financial Year 1929-30 (1930). 


ADELAIDE.—Department of Mines: Geological Survey of South Australia. Annual 
Report of the Director of Mines and Government Geologist for 1929 (1930); 
Mining Review for Half Year ended December 31st, 1930 (No. 53) (1931); 
Bulletin, No. 15 (1931).—Field Naturalists’ Section of the Royal Society of South 
Australia and South Australian Aquarium Society. “The South Australian 
Naturalist”, xii, 1-4 (1930-1931).—Public Library, Museum and Art Gallery of 
South Australia. Forty-seventh Annual Report of the Board of Governors, 
1930-31 (1931); Records of the South Australian Museum, iv, 3 (1931).—Royal 
Society of South Australia. Transactions and Proceedings, liv (1930).—South 
Australian Ornithological Association. “The South Australian Ornithologist”, 
xi, 1-4 (1931) —University of Adelaide. ‘The Australian Journal of Experimental 
Biology and Medical Science’, vii, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); viii, 1-8 (1931).—Woods 
and Forests Department. Annual Report for the Year ended June 30th, 1930 
(19381). 


ALBANY.—New York State Library, University of the State of New York. New 
York State Museum Bulletin, Nos. 285, 286 (1930, 1931); New York State 
Museum Handbook 10 (1931). 


AteER.—Institut Pasteur d@ Algérie. Archives, vii, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) (1929); vili, 1-4 
(T.p. & c.) (1930).—Société d@ Histoire Naturelle de lV Afrique du Nord. Bulletin, 
xxi, 1930, 6-9 (T.p. & ec.) (1930); xxii, 1-7 (1931). 


xlii. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


AMSTERDAM.—WNederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging. Entomologische Berich- 
ten, viii, 175-180 (1930-1931); Tijdschrift voor Entomologie, Ixxiii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930) ; Ixxiv, 1-3 (1931); Verslagen van de Vergaderingen der Afdeeling Neder- 
landsch Oost-Indie van der Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereeniging, i, 1-2 
(1981). 


ANN ArRBoR.—University of Michigan. Contributions from the Museum of Palaeon- 
tology, iii, 8 (1930); Miscellaneous Publications of the Museum of Zoology, Nos. 
20-22 (1930-1931); Occasional Papers of the Museum of Zoology, Nos. 215, 
T.p. & c. for Nos. 198-215 (Vol. ix) (1930); 216-227 (1930-1931); Papers of the 
Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters, xiii-xiv, 1930 (1931). 


AUCKLAND.—Auckland Institute and Museum. Annual Report, 1930-31 (1931). 


BALTIMoRE.—Johns Hopkins University. Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, 
xlvii, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xlviii, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1931); xlix, 1-4 (1931); 
University Circular, N.S. 1906, Nos. 6, 8 (1906); 1930, 10-12 (1930); 1931, 1-2, 4-9 
(1931).—Geological Laboratory. General Report of the Maryland Geological 
Survey, xii (1928); Maryland Geological Survey, Baltimore County, with Maps in 
portfolio (1929). 


BANDOENG.—Opsporingsdienst Dienst van den Mijnbouw in Nederlandsch-Indeé. 
Bulletin of the Netherlands East Indian Volcanological Survey, Nos. 35-48 (1930- 
1931); Publications of the Mining and Geological Survey Department in the 
Dutch East Indies during 1910-1930 (April, 1931); Wetenschappelijke 
Mededeelingen, Nos. 16-18 (1931). 


BARCELONA.—Junta de Ciencias Naturals de Barcelona. Cataleg de les Publicacions 
(1930) —Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de Barcelona. Boletin, vi, 2 (930): 
Memorias, xxii, 2-16 (1930-1931); Nomina del Personal Academico, 1930-1931 
(1930). 


Baravisa.—Natuurwetenschappelijke Raad voor Nederlandsch-Indié te Batavia 
(Netherlands Indies Science Council). Publication No. 4 (Mei, 1931). 


BERGEN.—Bergens Museum. Arbok, 1930, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1931); Arsberetning, 1929- 
1930 (1930). 


BERKELEY.—University of California. Publications: Botany, xi, 19-20 (1930); xii, 
9-15 (T.p. & c.) (19380-1931); xvi, 4-10 (1930-1931); Entomology, v, 9-13 (1930- 
1931); Geological Sciences, T.p. & c. for xviii; xix, 12-19 (T.p. & ce.) (1930-1931) ; 
xx, 1-10; xxi, 1 (1931); Physiology, vii, 14-15 (1930-1931); Public Health, i, 7 
(1931); Zoology, xxxii, 8 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931) ; xxxiii, 21-22 (T.p. & c.) (1930- 
1931); xxxvi, 1-10 (1930-1931); xxxvii, 1-4 (1931). 


BERLIN.—Botanische Garten und Museum. Notizblatt, xi, 101-103 (1930-1931) .— 
Deutsche Entomologische Gesellschaft, E.V. Deutsche Entomologische Zeitschrift, 
1930, 2-4 (1930-1931); Mitteilungen, i, 7-10 (T.p. & c.) (1930); ii, 1-5 (1931).— 
Notgemeinschaft der Deutsche Wissenschaft. “Flora”, Neue Folge, xxv, 1-2 
(1930-1931) .—Zoologische Museum. Mitteilungen, xvi, 3-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 
xvii, 1-3 (1931). 


Bern.—Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Mitteilungen ad. Jahre 1930 (1931); 
Verhandlungen, 111, Jahresversammlung (1930). 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xliii. 


BIRMINGHAM.—Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society. List of 
Members, 1931, and Annual Report, 1930; Proceedings, xvi, 2 (1931). 


BLOEMFONTEIN.—Nationale Museum. Paleontologiese Navorsing, i, 2 (1931). 


Botocnsa.—Laboratorio di Entomologia del R. Instituto Superiore Agrario di 
Bologna. Bollettino, iii (1930). 


BomBay.—Bomobay Natural History Society. Journal, T.p. & c. for xxxiv, Nos. 1-2 
(1931); xxxiv, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (19380-1931); xxxv, 1-2 (1931). 


Bonn.—Naturhistorische Verein der Preussische Rheinlande und Westfalens. 
Sitzungsberichte, 1929 (1931); Verhandlungen, Ixxxvi, 1929 (1930). 


Boston.—American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Proceedings, lxiv, 7-12 
(T.p. & c.) £1930); Ixvi, 1-9 (1930-1931).—Boston Society of Natural History. 
Proceedings, xxxix, 6-7 (1930). 


BRISBANE.—Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of 
Science (formerly Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science). 
Report of the Twentieth Meeting, Brisbane, 1930 (1931).—Department of Agvi- 
culture. Queensland Agricultural Journal, xxxiy, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xxxv, 
1-6 (T.p. & c.); xxxvi, 1-5 (1931).—G@reat Barrier Reef Committee. Reports, iii 
(1931) —“Queensland Government Mining Journal’ (from the Editor), xxxi, 
Dec., 1930 (T.p. & c¢.) (19380); xxxii, Jan.-Nov., 1931 (1931).—Queensland 
Naturalists’ Club and Nature-Lovers’ League. ‘The Queensland Naturalist’, vii, 
6 (1931).—Royal Society of Queensland. Proceedings, xlii, 1930 (1931). 


Brno.—Prirodovedecka Fakulta, Masarykovy University. Spisy (Publications) 
(Botanical only), Cis. 128 (1930). 


BrooKLyn.—Botanical Society of America. “American Journal of Botany’, xvii, 
8-10 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xviii, 1-7 (1931) —Brooklyn Institute of Arts and 
Sciences: The Museum. Science Bulletin, iv, 1 (1930). 


BRUSSELS.—Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux-Arts de 
Belgique. Annuaire, 97e Année (1931); Bulletin de la Classe des Sciences, 1930, 
3-12 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 1931, 1-2 (1931) —Musée Royal @ Histoire Naturelle de 
Belgique.—Bulletin, vi, 5-21 (1930); Mémoires, 41-43, 45, 46 (1930); Hors Série 
(Résultats Scientifiques du Voyage aux Indes Orientales Néerlandaises), ii, 2-5; 
lii, 1-3; v, 1 (1930); “Notes Preliminaires sur les Opilions, etc.” by L. Giltay 
and “Notes Preliminaires sur les Phasmides” and “Notes Preliminaires sur les 
Mantides” by F. Werner (From Bull. and Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 1xix, 1929 and 1xx, 
1930) .—Société Entomologique de Belgique. Bulletin and Annales, Ixx, 9-12 
(T.p. & c.) (19380); Ixxi, 1-8 (1931); Mémoires, xxiii, 1, 4-5 (T.p. & c.) (1930- 
1931). —Société Royale des Sciences de Liége. Mémoires, 3e Série, xv (1930).— 
Société Royale Zoologique de Belgique. Annales, Ix, 1929 (1930). 


Bupaprest.—Musée National Hongrois. Annales Historico-Naturales, xxvi, 1929 
(1930). 


BuENoSs ArREs.—Museo Nacional de Historia Natural. Anales, xxxvi (1929-1931) .— 
Sociedad Argentina de Ciencias Naturales. Revista ‘“Physis’”, x, 35-36 (1930- 
1931). 


xliv. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


BUITENZORG.—Department van Landbouw, Nijverheid, en Handel. Bulletin du 
Jardin Botanique, Serie iii, xi, 2 (1931); “Treubia’, xii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) and 
Supplement (1930-1931); xiii, 1-2 (1931). 


CaEn.—Société Linnéenne de Normandie. Bulletin, 7e Série, ix, 1926 (1928); 
- 8e Série, ii, 1929 (1930); Mémoires, Nouvelle Série, Section Géologique, i, 1 
(1930). 


Catcurra.— Geological Survey of India. Memoirs, lvi (19380); - Wwiii (1931) ; 
Memoirs, Palaeontologia Indica, N.S. ix, 2, Pts. 4-5 (1931); xi, 2 (1931); xv, 1-8 
(1930) ; xvii (1931); xix (1931); Records, Ixiii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.); lxiv (1930); Ixv, 
1 (1931). —Indian Museum. Memoirs, ix, 5; xi, 1 (1930); Records, xxiii, 2 
(1931); xxxi, Appendix and T.p. & c. (1930); xxxii, 2-4, Appendix and T.p. & c. 
(1930-1931) ; xxxiii, 1 (1931). 


CAMBRIDGE, England.—Cambridge Philosophical Society. Biological Reviews and 
Biological Proceedings, vi, 1-3 (1931); Transactions, T.p. & c. for xxiii, 1923-1928 
(19381). 


CAMBRIDGE, Mass.—Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. Annual 
Report of the Director for 1929-1930 (1930); Bulletin, lv, 6 (T.p. & c.) (1921); 
Ixxi, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); Ixxii, 1 (1931); Revised Price List of Publica- 
tions (February, 1931). 


CANBERRA.—Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. Official Year Book, 
No. 23, 1930 (1930).—Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Fourth 
Annual Report for the Year ended 30th June, 1930 (1930). 


Canton.—Botanical Institute, College of Agriculture, Sun Yatsen University. 
“Sunyatsenia”, i, 1 (1930).—G@eological Survey of Kwangtung and Kwangsi. 
Annual Report, ii, 2, 1928-1929 (1929); iii, 1929-1930, 1 (1930); Palaeontological 
Memoir, i, 1-2 (1930); Special Publication, No. 6 (1930). 


Care Town.—Royal Society of South Africa. Transactions, xix, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930-1931) —South African Museum. Annals, xxix, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1931); 
Report for the Year ended 31st December, 1930 (1931). 


Cuicaco.—Field Museum of Natural History. “Abyssinian Birds and Mammals”, 
painted from life by Louis Agassiz Fuertes (32 reproductions in portfolio) 
(1930) ; Leaflet: Botany, 15-16 (1930); Geology, 9 (1927) ; Publications: Botanical 
Series, iii, 3 (T.p. & c.) (1930); T.p. & ec. for iv; vii, 2-3, viii, 1-5 (1930-1931); ix, 
1-2; x; xi, 1 (1930-1931); Geological Series, iv, 4 (1925); Report Series, viii, 
2 (T.p. & c.) (19381); Zoological Series, v-vi (1904-1905); vii, 1-13 (T.p. & c.) 
(1905-1912) ; viii-ix (1907-1909); x, 1-16 (T.p. & c.) (1909-1923); xi (1912); xii, 
1-7 (1917-1924); xiii, pt. 2, Nos. 1-2; pt. 3 (1918-1919, 1924); xiv, 2 (1924); xvii, 
7 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); xviii, 2-4 (1931).—John Crerar Library. xxxvith 
Annual Report for the Year 1930 (1931). 


CHRISTCHURCH.—Canterbury Museum. Records, iii, 6 (1931). 


CINCINNATI.—Lloyd Library. Bulletin, Nos. 28-30 (1928, 1930, 1931); Circular, 
Nos. 1-5 (no date—1925) ; Letter, Nos. 6, 9-69 (1905-1919); Puff Ball Letter, No. 5 
(1905); “Synopsis of the Genus Fomes” and “Synopsis of the Cordyceps of 
Australasia” by C. G. Lloyd (1915):; Title page only to Bibliographical Contribu- 
tions, Vol. iii, Nos. 1-7 (1917-1918) ; Index of the Mycological Writings, Vols. i-vii 
(1898-1925). 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xlv. 


CLuJ.—Gradina Botanica. Bulletin, x, Appendix 1 (1930). 


CormBra.—Universidade de Coimbra: Museu Zoologico. Arquivos da Seceao de 
Biologia e Parasitologia, i, 1-2 (1929-1930); Memorias e Estudios, Serie i, 1, Fasc. ° 
5; 29, Fasc. 2; 38-40 (1929). 


CoLp Spring HArsor.—Depariment of Genetics: Carnegie Institution of Washington. 
Annual Report of the Director, 1929-1930 (Extracted from Year Book No. 29, 
1929-1930) (1930). 


Cotomso.—Colombo Museum. Spolia Zeylanica (Ceylon Journal of Science, 
Section B—Zoology and Geology), xvi, 2 (1931). 


CoLUMBUS.—American Chemical Society. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 
xxii, 11-12 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xxiii, 1-10 (1931); Analytical Edition, iii, 1-4 
(T.p. & c.) (1931); News Edition, viii, 21-24 (Index) (1930); ix, 1-20 (1931).— 
Ohio Academy of Science. “Ohio Journal of Science’’, xxx, 5-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 
xxxi, 1-4 (1931).—Ohio Biological Survey. Bulletin 23 (T.p. & ec. for Vol. iv, 


Bulletins 16-23) (1928-1930) (1930); 24 (1930).—Ohio State University. Bulletin, 
xxxv, 11 (1931). 


CoPENHAGEN.—Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. Biologiske Med- 
delelser, ix, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); x, 1-2 (1930-1931). —Zoological Museum of the 
University. The Danish Ingolf-Expedition, iii, 11 (1931). 


DusBLin.—Royal Dublin Society. Scientific Proceedings, N.S. xix, 40-47 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930-1931); xx, 1-12 (1931)—Royal Irish Academy. Proceedings, xxxix, 
Section B, 16-28 (1930-1931); xl, Section B, 1-3 (1931). 


East Lansine.—WMichigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science. 
“Brucellosis. i.” by I. F. Huddleson and H. W. Johnson (From Journ. Amer. 
Med. Asscn., 94, 1930, pp. 1905-1907) (1930); “Studies in the Pathology of Avian 
Coccidiosis” by H. J. Stafseth (From Journ. Amer. Vet. Med. Asscn., 1xxviii, 
N.S. 31, No. 6, June, 1931); Reports of the Veterinary Division for the Years 
ending June 30, 1929, and June 30, 1930 (no dates). 


EDINBURGH.—Royal Botanic Garden. Notes, xvi, 78 (1931); Transactions and 
Proceedings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, xxx, 3 (Session 1929-1930) 
(1930).—Royal Physical Society. Proceedings, xxi, 5 (T.p. & c.) (1929); xxii, 1 
(1931).—Royal Society of Edinburgh. Proceedings, 1, 3-4 (T.p. & ce.) (1930-1931) ; 
li, 1 (1931); Transactions, lvi, 3 (T.p. & c.) (1931). 


FRANKFURT A. M.—Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. Abhandlungen, 
xlii, 3-5 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); xliii, 1 (1931); Natur und Museum, Ix, 9-12 
(T.p. & c.) (1930); lxi, 1-8 (1931). 


GENEVA.—Société de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle—Compte Rendu des Séances, 
xlvii, 3 (T.p. & c.) (19380); xlviii, 1-2 (1931). 


Grnova.—Museo Civico di Storia Naturale. Annali, liv (1930).—Societa Entomo- 
logica Italiana. Bollettino, lxii, 8-10 (T.p. & c.), Suppls. to Nos. 7 and 8 (Memorie, 
viii, 1929, 2 and ix, 1930, 2) (1930); Ixiii, 1-7 (1931). 


GRANVILLE.—Denison University. Journal of the Scientific Laboratories, xxv, pp. 
165-299 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xxvi, pp. 1-142 (1931). 


Hairax.—Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Proceedings and Transactions, xvii, 
4, Session 1929-30 (T.p. & c.) (1930). 
c 


xl vi. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


HaLiLe.—K aiserliche Leopoldinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforsche zu Halle. 
Nova Acta, c-cvi (1915-1922); eviii-cx (1926-1928). 


Hanecuow.—Bureau of Entomology of Chekiang Province. Miscellaneous Publica- 
tion, Nos. 1-6 (1930). 


Hartem.—Société Hollandaise des Sciences. Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences 
exactes et naturelles, Series iiiC (Archives Néerlandaises de Physiologie de 
homme et des animaux), xv, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xvi, 1-3 (1931); Archives ~ 
Néerlandaises de Phonetique experimentale (Organe officielle de la Société 
internationale de Phonetique experimentale), vi (1931); “A Dictionary of Plant- 
Names” by H. L. Gerth van Wijk. Vol. ii (Index) (1916). 


HEERLEN.—Geologisch Bureau voor het Nederlandsche Mijngebied. Jaarverslag, 
1926, 1927, 1929 (1927, 1928, 1930); “Flora en Fauna van het Nederlandsche 
Karboon. i.’ (1928); Three separates by W. J. Jongmans from Congrés de 
Stratigraphie Carbonifére, Heerlen, 1927. “Stratigraphische untersuchungen 
im Karbon von Limburg (Niederlande)’”; “Congrés pour l'étude de la Strati- 
graphie, etc.”; “Geschichte, Hinrichtung, etc.’ (1928). 


HELSINGFORS.—Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica. Acta Botanica Fennica, vi-vii 
(1930); Acta Zoologica Fennica, x-xi (1931); Memoranda, v, 1928-1929: (1929) .— 
Societas Scientiarum Fennica. Arsbok-Vuosikirja, viii, 1929-1930 (1930); Bidrag 
till Kannedom af Finlands Natur och Folk, Ixxxiii, 6 (1930); Commentationes 
Physico-mathematicae, v, 1-14 (1929-1930).—Societas Zoolog-botanica Fennica 
Vanamo. Annales, x-xi (1930). 


HirosHimMa.—Hiroshima University. Journal of Science, Series B, Div. 1, i, 1-4 
(1930-1931) ; Div. 2, i, 1-3 (1930-1931). 


Horarr.—Royal Society of Tasmania.—Papers and Proceedings for the Year 1930 
(1931). 


HonoLuLu.—Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. Bulletins 74-82 (1930-1931); List of 
Publications, No. 8 (January, 1931); Memoirs, xi, 4 (1930); Occasional Papers, 
ix, 1-13 (1930-1931) ; Special Publication, 16 (1930).—Pan-Pacific Union. Bulletin, 
N.S. Nos. 115, 126, 127 (1929-1930); 129-141 (1930-1931); “Journal of the Pan- 
Pacific Research Institution’, iii, 2 (1928); vi, 1-4 (1931). 


INDIANAPOLIS.—Indiana Academy of Science. Proceedings, xxxix, 1929 (1930). 
IrHAcA.—Cornell University. 47 Separates (Nos. 835, 841-842, 844-859, 861, 864-868, 
870-890) (1921-1930); “An Economic Study of Chinese Agriculture’ by Chi Yu 


Tang (1924); The George Fisher Baker Non-Resident Lectureship in Chemistry, 
Vols. vii-viii (1930). 


InKuTSK.—Geological-Prospecting Service of the East Siberian Region of U.S.S.R. 


Records of Geology and Mineral Resources of East-Siberia, Nos. 1-4 (1930-1931). 


JAMAICA PLain.—Arnold Arboretum. Journal, xi, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xii, ‘183 
(1931). 


JOHANNESBURG.—South African Association for the Advancement of Science. South 
African Journal of Science, xxvii (1930). 


Kimw.—Société des Naturalistes. Mémoires, xxv, 1 (1915); xxvii, 4 (1929). 


Kyoro.—Kyoto Imperial University. Memoirs of the College of Science, Series B, 
vi, 1-4 (1931). 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xlvii. 


La JoLtLta.—Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the University of California. 
Bulletin, Technical Series, ii, 10-12 (T.p. & ec.) (1930-1931); iii, 1-2 (1931). 


La PLiara.—Museo de La Plata. Anales, Segunda Serie, iv, 1 (1930); Notas Pre- 
liminares, i, 1 (1931); Obras completas y Correspondencia Cientifica de Floren- 
tino Ameghino, Vol. viii (1918). 


LEWEN.—Rijks Herbarium. Mededeelingen, Nos. 59-61 (1930). 


LENINGRAD.—Académie des Sciences de 1U.R.S.S. Annuaire du Musée Zoologique, 
Index, xxix (1928); T.p. & c. for xxx (1929); xxxi, 1-4, 1930 (1930-1931) ; Bulletin, 
Série vii, 1931, 1-5 (1931); Faune de 1’U.R.S.S. et des Pays Limitrophes, Pan- 
topodes. Livr. 2 (1930); Flora Sibiriae et Orientis extremi. 5. Filices (1-14) 
(1930); Travaux du Musée Botanique, xxii-xxiii (1930-1931).—Geological and 
Prospecting Service, U.S.S.R. Bulletin, xlix, 1930, 8-10 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 1931, 
13-32, 34, 36, 38, 39, 41, 43, 44 (1931); General Geological Map of the European 
Part of U.S.S.R. Sheet 108 (1931); Two-Geological Maps of the Caucasus 
(January, 1929); Mineral Resources of the U.S.S.R. Nickel. By A. Smuroff 
and A. Glaskowsky (1931); Transactions, Fasc. 1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12-28, 31-33, 36, 44, 
46-49, 53, 59-62, 64, 66, 70, 116, 123 (1930-1931).—Lenin Academy of Agricultural 
Sciences in U.S.S.R.: Institute for Plant Protection (formerly Institute of 
Applied Botany and New Cultures). Bulletin of Applied Botany, of Genetics and 
Plant-Breeding, xxiii, 1, 1929-1930 (1930); Bulletin of Plant Protection. 
Entomology, i, 1-2 (1930-1931); “The Institute for Plant Protection. Its Prob- 
lems and Structure” by N. V. Kovalov (1930); Bureau of Applied Entomology 
and Zoology, Nos. 12, 14 (1930); Reports on Applied Entomology, iv, 2 (1930).— 
Société Entomologique de Russie. Revue Russe d’Entomologie, i-ii (complete) 
(1901-1902); iii, 2-6 (T.p. & ec.) (1903); v-vi (complete) (1905-1906); xi, 2 
(1911); T.p. & c. for xx (1926); xxi, 3-4 (1927); xxiv, 1-4 (1930).—Société Russe 
de Minéralogie. Mémoires, lix, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (1930). ; 


LIVERPOOL.—Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine. Annals of Tropical Medicine 
and Parasitology, xxiv, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xxv, 1-2 (1931). 


Lonpon.—British Museum (Natural History). ‘Diptera of Patagonia and South 
Chile”, Pt. 5, Fasc. 1, by M. C. van Duzee (1930); Pt. 6, Fasc. 1, by H. Schmitz 
(1929); Index Animalium, Sectio secunda, Pts. xx-xxii (1929-1930); Insects of 
Samoa and other Samoan Terrestrial Arthropoda, Pt. vi, Fase. 5 (1930) — 
Entomological Society of London. Proceedings, v, 2-3 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931) ; 
vi, 1 (1931); Transactions, Ixxviii, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1930); Ixxix, 1-2 (1931).— 
Geological Society. Quarterly Journal, Ixxxvi, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); Ixxxvii, 
1-3 (1931). —Linnean Society. Journal: Botany, xlviii, 324-325 (T.p. & c.) (1930- 
1931); Zoology, xxxvii, 252-254 (1931); List, 1930-1931 (1930); Proceedings, 
142nd Session, 1929-1930 (1931); Transactions, 2nd Ser. Zoology, xix, 2 (1931).— 
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Journal, xxxvii, 8-12 (T.p. & c.) (1930- 
1931); xxxviii, 1-7 (1931) —Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Bulletin of Miscel- 
laneous Information, 1930 (1930); Appendix iv, 1930 (1930); Hooker’s Icones 
Plantarum, Fifth Series, ii, 2 (1930)—Royal Microscopical Society. Journal, 
Series iii, 1, 4 (T.p. & ec.) (1930); li, 1-3 (1931).—Royal Society. Philosophical 
Transactions, Series B, ccxviii, B 461 (T.p. & c.) (1930); cexix, B 462-466, 468 
(1930-1931) ; Proceedings, Series B, evii, B 750-754 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); eviii, 
B 755-759 (T.p. & ¢.) (1931); cix, B 760-761 (1931).—Zeological Society. List of 
Fellows (January, 1931); Proceedings, 1930, 3-4 (T.p. & ec. for pp. 549-1080) 


xIviil. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


(1930-1931); 1931, 1-2 (T.p. & c. for pp. 1-605) (1931); Transactions, xxi, 3 
(1931). 


Los Banos.—University of the Philippines: College of Agriculture. ‘The Philip- 
pine Agriculturist’”, T.p. & c. for xviii (1930); xix, 7-10 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931) ; 
xx, 1-5 (1931). 


Lunp.— Kungliga Karolinska Universitetet. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift (Acta 
Universitatis Lundensis), Ny Foljd, Avd. 2, xxvi (1930). 


Lyon.—Société Linnéenne de Lyon. Annales, Nouvelle Série, Ixxv, 1929 (1930). 


Mapison.—Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Transactions, xxv 
(1930). 


Mapripv.—Junta para Ampliacion de Estudios e Investigaciones Cientificas. Trabajos 
del Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Serie Botanica, No. 25 (1931); Serie 
Geologica, No. 37 (1930); Serie Zoologica, Nos. 46, 55 (1930) —Real Sociedad 
Espanola de Historia Natural. Boletin, xxx, 4-10 (T.p. & c.) (19380); xxxi, 1-4 
(1931); Memorias, xiv, 2 (1930). 


MANCHESTER.—Conchological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. “Journal of 
Conchology”, xix, 3-5 (1930-1931)—Manchester Literary and Philosophical 
Society. Memoirs and Proceedings, Ilxxiv, 1929-30 (1930).—Manchester Museum. 
Museum Publications 99-100 (1930). 


ManuHATrAN.—American Microscopical Society. Transactions, xlix, 4 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930); 1, 1-3 (1931). 


ManiLa.—Bureau of Science of the Government of the Philippine Islands. Twenty- 
eighth Annual Report for Year ending December 31, 1929 (1930); ‘Philippine 
Journal of Science”, xliii, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xliv, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1931); xlv, 
1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1931); xlvi, 1-3 (1931). 


MARSEILLE.—Faculté des Sciences de Marseille. Annales, 2e Série, iv, 2 (1930).— 
Musée ad’ Histoire Naturelle de Marseille. Annales, xxiii (1930). 


MELBOURNE.—“Australasian Journal of Pharmacy’, N.S. xi, 131-132 (Index) (1930) ; 
xii, 133-142 (1931). (From the Publisher).—Council for. Scientific and Indus- 
trial Research. Bulletin, Nos. 46-52 (1930-1931); Journal, iii, 4 (1930); iv, 1-3 
(1931); Pamphlets, Nos. 18-22 (1931).—Department of Agriculture of Victoria. 
Journal, xxviii, 11-12 (1930); xxix, 1-10 (1931) —Field Naturalists’ Club of 
Victoria. “The Victorian Naturalist”, xlvii, 8-12 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); xlviii, 
1-7 (1931).—Public Library, Museums and National Gallery of Victoria. Report 
of the Trustees for 1930 (1931).—Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ Union. 
“The Emu”, xxx, 3-4 (T.p. & c.); xxxi, 1-2 (1931) —Royal Society of Victoria. 
Proceedings, N.S. xliii, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1931). —University of Melbourne. Calendar, 
1931 (1930). ~ 


MExico.—Instituto Geologico de Mexico. Anales, iv (1930); Boletin, No. 49 (1929) ; 
Cartas Geologicas y Mineras de la Republica Mexicana, No. 1 (1931). 


MILWAUKEE.—Public Museum. Bulletin, x, 2-3; Field Guide No. 1, Botanical 
Series; Year Book, ix, 1929 (1931). 


Monaco.—Institut Océanographique de Monaco. Bulletin, Nos. 561-565 (T.p. & c. 
for Nos. 548-565) (1930); 566-582 (1931). 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. xlix. 


MontrREAL.—Laboratoire de Botanique de VUniversité de Montreal. Contributions, 
Nos. 16-18 (1930-1931); “Some Evidences of Evolution in the Flora of North- 
eastern America’ by Frere Marie-Victorin (Reprinted from Journ. Bot., June, 
1930). 


MuncHEN.—Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Abhandlungen, Neue Folge, 
1930, 7 (1930); Sitzungsberichte, 1930, 2-3 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 1931, 1 (1931). 


NANKING.—Science Society of China. Contributions from the Biological Labora- 
tory, vi, 4-10; 4-6 (Botanical Series) (1930-1931); vii, 2-3 (Zoological Series) 
_ (1931); “The Science Society of China: Its History, Organization and Activities” 
(January, 1931). 


NANTES.—Société des Sciences Naturelles de lOuest de la France. Bulletin, 4me 
Série, ix, 1929, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1930). 


Napies.—Stazione Zoologica di Napoli. Pubblicazioni, x, 3 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xi, 
1 (1931). 


New HaAven.—Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Transactions, T.p. & c. 
for xxx (1930); xxxi, pp. 1-191 (1930). 


New York.—American Geographical Society. “Geographical Review”, T.p. & ec. 
for xx (1930); xxi, 1-4 (1931).—American Museum of Natural History. Bulletin, 
xXlix, 1923-1924 (1923-1924); 1, 1924 (1924); liv, 1927 (1927); lvi, 1926-1929 
(1930); Ix, 1930 (1930); “Natural History’, xxx, 6 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xxxi, 1-5 
(1931) ; The Bashford Dean Memorial Volume. Archaic Fishes. Art. i-iii (1930- 
1931).—New York Academy of Sciences. Annals, T.p. & c. for Vols. xxv, xxviii, 
xxix, xxx and xxxi; xxxii, pp. 1-220 (1930). 


Omsk.—Siberian Institute of Agriculture and Forestry. ‘Trudi (Transactions), 
xiii, 2 (1930). 


Orrawa.—Department of Agriculture. Circulars, Nos. 74, 75; Pamphlets, N.S. 
Nos. 111, 117, 119, 120, 123; Report of the Dominion Horticulturist for the Year 
1929 (1930).—Department of Mines: Geological Survey of Canada. Bulletin, 
No. 67 (1931); Economic Geology Series, No. 8 (1930); Memoirs, 163, 164 (Text 
and Figures), 166, 167 (1930-1931) ; Report of the Department of Mines for Fiscal 
Year ending March 31, 1930 (1931); Summary Reports, 1928, pt. C; 1929, pts. 
A-C (1930).—Royal Society of Canada. Transactions, Third Series, xxiv, Sections 
iv and v, pt. 1 (1930); xxv, List of Officers, ete. (1931). 


PALO Atro.—Stanford University. Contributions from the Dudley Herbarium, i, 4 
(1930); Stanford University Publications, University Series, Biological Sciences, 
T.p. & c. for Vol. v; vi, 2 (1930). 


Paris.—‘Journal de Conchyliologie’, Ixxiv, 4 (T.p. & c.); Ixxv, 1-2 (1931) (From 
the Publisher) —Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle. Archives, 6me Série, 
v-vi (1930); Bulletin, 2e Série, ii, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930).—Société Entomologique 
de France. Annales, xcviii, 1929, Supplément (1930); xcix, 4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 
c, 1-2 (1931); Bulletin, 1930, 15-21 (T.p. & c.) (1930); 1931, 1-4 and Supplément, 
5-14 (1931). 


Pavia.—Instituto Botanico della R. Universita di Pavia. Atti, Ser. iv, i, 1929 
(1930). 


PEIPING.—Fan Memorial Institute of Biology. Bulletin, i, 10-14 (1930); Second 
Annual Report for the Year 1930 (1931).—WNational Geological Survey of China. 


Il DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


Geological Bulletin (being the continuation of the Bulletin), Nos. 14-16 (1930- 
1931); Palaeontologia Sinica, Series D, vii, Fasc. 2 (1931); “Notice of the 
Recovery of a second Adult Sinanthropus Skull Specimen” by Davidson Black 
(From Bull. Geol. Soc. China, ix, 2, 1930).—National Library of Peiping. Annual 
Report for the Year ending June, 1930 (1930).—Peking Society of Natural 
History. Peking Natural History Bulletin, v, 2-4 (1930-1931). 


Perm.—Institut des Recherches Biologiques @ VUniversité de Perm. Bulletin, vii, 
6 (1931); Travaux, iii, 2-4 (1930-1931). 


PrertH.—Department of Agriculture of Western Australia. Journal, 2nd Series, vii, 
4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); viii, 1-3 (1931); “Enumeratio Plantarum Australiae Occi- 
dentalis. A Systematic Census of the Plants occurring in Western Australia’, 
by Charles A. Gardner (1931).—Geological Survey of Western Australia. Annual 
Progress Report for the Year 1930 (1931).—Government Statistician, Western 
Australia. Quarterly Statistical Abstract, Nos. 259-262 (1930-1931). 


PHILADELPHIA.—Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Proceedings, 1xxxi- 

; Ixxxii, 1929-1930 (1930-1931); Year Book, 1929, 1930 (no date, 1931).—American 
Philosophical Society. Proceedings, lxix, 6-8 (T.p. & c.) (1930); Ixx, 1 (1931).— 
University of Pennsylvania. Contributions from the Zoological Laboratory, 
XXVili-xxix, 1929/30-1930/31 (1930-1931); One thesis—“Water Exchange through 
the Egg Membrane of Fundulus’, by Elizabeth M. Yagle (From “Protoplasma”, 
ix, 2, 1930). —Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology. ‘The Journal of Experi- 
mental Zoology”, lvii, 2-3 (T.p. & c.) (19380); lviii (complete) (1931); lix, 1-3 
(T.p. & c.) (1981); lx, 1-3 (1931).—dZoological Society of Philadelphia. 59th 
Annual Report of the Board of Directors (1931); Report of the Laboratory and 
Museum of Comparative Pathology in conjunction with the 59th Annual Report 
of the Society (1931). 


PIETERM ARITZBURG.—Natal Museum. Annals, vi, 3 (1931). 
PITTSBURGH.—Carnegie Museum. Annals, xix (bound, complete) (1929-1930). 


PLrymMoutTH.—Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. -Journal, N.S. 
xvii, 2 (1931). 
Prac.—Deutsche Naturwissenschaftlich-medizinische Verein fiir BOhmen “Lotos” in 


Prag. Naturwissenschaftliche Zeitschrift “Lotos’, lxxviii, 1-2 (1930) —Societas 
Entomologica Cechosloveniae. Acta, xxvii, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (19380). 


PRINCETON.—Princeton University. Reports of the Princeton University 
Expeditions to Patagonia, 1896-1899, Vols. i-viii and Supplement Vol. viii (1901- 
1928) (except Vol. vii, pt. 2). 


Pusa.—Agricultural Research Institute. Catalogue of Indian Insects, Pts. 18, 21, 
22 (1930-1931); Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, Botanical 
Series, xvii, 5-6 (T.p. & c.); xviii, 5, 7-9 (T.p. & c.); xix, 1-2 (1930-1931) ; 
Entomological Series, xii, 1-2 (1931); Scientific Reports, 1929-1930 (1931); “The 
Indian Journal of Agricultural Science”, i, 3 (1931). 

RENNES.—Société Géologique et Minéralogique de Bretagne. Bulletin, ix, 1928, 1-4 
(1930). 

RicHMOND.—Hawkesbury Agricultural College. H.A.C. Journal, xxvii, 11-12 (Index) 
(1930); xxviii, 1-10 (1931). 

Rio DE JANEIRO.—Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. Memorias, xxiv, 1-4 (T.p. & ce.) (19380); 
xxv, 1-2 (1931). 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. li. 


RIVERSIDE.—University of California: Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture and 
Citrus Experiment Station. Papers, Nos. 141, 172, 207-231, 233, 235-237, 239, 240 
(T.p. & c. for Vols. vi-ix) (1929-1931). 


San Dieco.—San Diego Society of Natural History. Transactions, vi, 4-21 (1930- 
1931). 


San FRANCISCcO.—California Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, Fourth Series, 
T.p. & ¢. for xvii (1928-1929); xviii, 17-18 (T.p. & c.) (1929-1930); xix, 1-10 
(1930). 


SEATTLE.—Pugei Sound Biological Station. Publications, vii, pp. 289-412, 417-519 
(T.p. & c.) (1930-1931). 


SENDAI—Tohoku Imperial University. Science Reports, 2nd Series, xii, 2A; xiv, 
2A; xv, 1 (1931); 4th Series, v, 3-4 (T.p. & ce.) (1930); vi, 1-3 (1931). 


SHAaNGHAL—Academia Sinica: National Research Institute of Geology. Contribu- 
tions, No. 1 (1931); Memoirs, Nos. 9-10 (1930); “The Academia Sinica and its 
National Research Institutes’ (1931). 


SHARON.—Cushman Laboratory for Foraminiferal Research. Contributions, vi, 4 
(1930); vii, 1-3 (1931). 


Sor1a.—Société Botanique de Bulgarie. Bulletin, iv (1931). 
Sr. Louis.—Missouri Botanical Garden. Annals, xvii, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xviii, 
2 (19381). 


StockHoLM.—Centralanstaltens Entomologiska Avdelning Experimentalfaltet. Med- 
delanden, Nos. 382, 384, 388, 390, 391, 396, 397, 401 (1930-1931).—Kungliga Svenska 
Vetenskapsakademien. Arkiv for Botanik, xxiii, 1-4 (T.p. & ¢.) (1930-1931); 
Arkiy for Kemi, Mineralogi och Geologi, x, 3 (1931); Arkiv for Matematik, 
Astronomi och Fysik, xxii, 1-3 (1930-1931) ; Arkiv for Zoologi, xxi, 3-4 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930); xxii, 1-4 (T.p. & c.) (1931); Arsbok, 1930 (1930); Handlingar, Tredje 
Serien, viii, 2 (T.p. & c.) (1930); ix, 1-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); x, 1 (T.p. & c.) 
(1931); Skrifter i Naturskyddsarenden, Nos. 15-19 (1931). 


SypneEY.—Anthropological Society of New South Wales. “Mankind”, i, 1-2 (1931) .— 
Australasian Antarctic Expedition, 1911-14. Scientific Reports, Series C, ix, 3 
(1931) —Australian Museum. Annual Report of the Trustees for the Year ended 
30th June, 1930 (1931); Australian Museum Magazine, iv, 5-8 (1931); Records, 
xvii, 10 (T.p. & c.) (1939); xviii, 2-5 (1931).—Australian National Research 
Council. “Australian Science Abstracts’, x, 1-4 (1931).—Australian Veterinary 
Association. “Australian Veterinary Journal’, vi, 4 (Index to Vols. v and vi) 
(1930-1931); vii, 1-3 (1931).—Botanic Gardens. “A Critical Revision of the 
Genus Hucalyptus”’ by J. H. Maiden, I.S.0., lately Government Botanist, etc., viii, 
5 (1931).—Department of Agriculture, N.S.W. “Agricultural Gazette of N.S.W.” 
xli, 12 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xlii, 1-11 (1931); Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 167 (‘Tree 
Planting on the Farm” by R. H. Anderson) (1931); Science Bulletin, No. 37 
(1931) and Veterinary Research Report No. 6 (1931) (Sent by Veterinary 
Research Station, Glenfield, N.S.W.).—Depariment of Mines. Annual Report for 
the Year 1930 (1931).—Department of Public Health. Report of the Director- 
General of Public Health for the Year 1929 (1930).—Education Department. 
“Education Gazette’, xxiv, 12 (Index) (1930); xxv, 1-11 (1931).—Drug Houses 
of Australia, Ltd. “Australasian Pharmaceutical Notes and News”, N.S. x, 4-11 
(1931) —Forestry Commission, N.S.W. Report for the Year ended 31st December, 


lii. DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


1930 (1931); “The Australian Forestry Journal’, xiii, 4 (Index) (1930); xiv, 1 
(1931) .—Institutes of Surveyors in Australia (formerly published in Brisbane). 
“The Australian Surveyor”, iii, 1, 3 (1931).—Naturalists’ Society of New South 
Wales. “The Australian Naturalist”, viii, 5 (1931).—Public Library of New 
South Wates. Annual Report of the Trustees for the Year ended 30th June, 
1930 (1930).—Royal Society of New South Wales. Journal and Proceedings, Ixiv, 
1930 (1931).—Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales. “The Australian 
Zoologist”, vi, 4 (T.p. & c.); vii, 1 (1931).—State Fisheries, Chief Secretary's 
Department. Annual Report of the Fisheries of N.S.W., for the Year 1929 
(1930).—Technological Museum. Six Separates from Journ. Proc. Roy. Soc. 
N.S.W., Ixiv (1931).—‘The Medical Journal of Australia’, 1930, ii, 22-26 
(T.p. & c.) (1980); 1931, i, 1-26 (T.p. & ec.) (1931); 1931, ii, 1-21 (1931) (From 
the Editor) .—University of Sydney. Calendar for the Year 1931 (1931); Journal] 
of the Cancer Research Committee, ii, 4 (T.p. & c.); iii, 1-3 (1931); Reprints, 
Series ix (Medical Sciences—Non-clinical), ii, 13-38 (T.p. & c.) (1930). 


TASHKENT.—Université de Uv Asie Centrale. Acta Universitatis Asiae Mediae, Series 
ib, 2; ic, 1-3; iva, 2; ivb, 2; va, 3-5; vi, 4; viid, 1-2; viiia, 11; viiib, 10-13; ix, 15; 
x, 2; xi, 4; xiia, 3 (1929-1930); Bulletin, Livr. 18 (1929); Catalogue of the 
Publications of the University of Central Asia Press, i, 1922-1929 (1930). 


Toxyo.—I/mperial University of Tokyo. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Section 
iii, Botany, iii, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (1930-19381); Section iv, Zoology, ii, 3 (1931).— 
National Research Council of Japan. Japanese Journal of Botany, v, 2-4 
(T.p. & c.) (1930-1931); Japanese Journal of Geology and Geography, viii, 1-4 
(T.p. & c.) (1980-1931); Japanese Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, xi, 1 
(1931); Japanese Journal of Zoology, iii, 3-5 (1930-1931); Proceedings of the 
Third Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Tokyo, 1926, Vols. i-ii (1928); Report Nos. 
4-5, April, 1924-March, 1926; 6-7, April, 1926-March, 1928 (1930).—Zoological 
Society of Japan. Annotationes Zoologicae Japonenses, xiii, 1-2 (1930-1931). 


Toronto.—Royal Canadian Institute. Transactions, xvii, 2 (1930). 


TouLouss.—Société d'Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse. Bulletin, lix, 1930, 1-2 
(T.p. & c.); Ix, 1930, 1-2 (T.p. & c.) (1930). 


TRING.—Zoological Museum. Novitates Zoologicae, xxxvi, 1-3 (1930-1931). 


'TRoNDHJEM.—Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab. Forhandlinger, iii, 
1930 (1931); Skrifter, 1930, ii (1931); Museet: Arsberetning, 1929 (1930); 
Oldsaksamlingens Tilvekst, 1929 (1930). 


Tunis.—Institut Pasteur de Tunis. Archives, xix, 3-4 (T.p. & c¢.) (1930); xx, 1-2 
(1931). 


UpsaLa.—University of Upsala. Bulletin of the Geological Institution, xxi (1930) ; 
Zoologiska Bidrag fran Uppsala, xii (1930). 
Urnsana.—University of Illinois. ITlinois Biological Monographs, xii, 2-3 (1929). 


VieNNA.—Naturhistorische Museum in Wien. Annalen, xliv (1930).—Zoologisch- 
botanische Gesellschaft in Wien. Verhandlungen, Ixxix, 1929, 2-4 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930); Ixxx, 1930, 1-4 (T.p. & ©.) (1930-1931). 


Warsaw.—Panstwowe Museum Zoologicene (Polish Museum of Zoology).—Annales 
Musei Zoologici Polonici, ix, 6-8, 11-14 (1930-1931); Fragmenta Faunistica, i, 8-11 


DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. liii. 


(1930-1931); Three Separates by Dr. T. Wolski on Cladocera and Corophium 
curvispinum (1914, 1927, 1930).—Societas Botanica Poloniae. Acta, vii, 2-3 
(1930). 


WASHINGTON.—Bureau of American Ethnology. Annual Reports (xlvth-xlvith), 
1927/1928, 1928/1929 (1930); Bulletins, 97, 100 (1931)—Carnegie Institution of 
Washington. Publications, Nos. 404 (1930); 413 (1931); Year Book, No. 29 
(1930).—WNational Academy of Sciences. Proceedings, xvi, 11-12 (T.p. & c.) 
(1930); xvii, 1-10 (1931).—WNational Research Council. Report for the Year, 
July 1, 1929-June 30, 1930 (1931).—Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report of 
the Board of Regents for the Year ending June 30, 1929 (1930).—U.S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey: Department of Commerce. Special Publication, 170 (1930) ; 
171 (1931).—U.S. Department of Agriculture. Year Book, 1931 (1931); Bureau 
of Entomology, Circulars, Nos. 145, 157, 165, 168, 172, 175-176 (1930-1931) ; 
Farmers’ Bulletins, Nos. 1623, 1642, 1651, 1654, 1655, 1657, 1665, 1668 (1930-1931) ; 
Report of the Entomologist for 1927-1928 (1928); Technical Bulletins, Nos. 176, 
206, 215, 230, 231, 233, 242, 252, 253, 255 (1930-1931); Ten reprints from Journal 
of Agricultural Research, xli, 3-5, 8-9 (1930); xlii, 7, 9 (1931); xliii, 1 (1931).— 
U.S. Geological Survey. Fifty-first Annual Report of the Director for Fiscal Year 
ended June 30, 1930 (1930); Bulletins, T.p. & c. for 810, 813A, D (T.p. & c.), 814, 
815, 817, 819, 820, 821A-C (T.P. & c.), 822A, C (T.p. & c.), 823, 824A, 825, 826 
(1930-1931) ; Professional Papers, 100, 155, 159, 160, 165D-E (T.p. & c.) (1929- 
1931); Water Supply Papers, 620, 622, 623, 628, 630, 631, 633-635, 637B, C, 641, 
643-650, 655 (1930-1931).—U.S. National Museum. Bulletins, 82, Vol. i, pt. 3; 
100, Vol, xi; 154, 155 (1931); Proceedings, Ixxvii, 5-6 (Nos. 2828-2829); 12-20 
(T.p. & c.) (Nos. 2835-2843) (1930); Ixxviii, 1-23 (Nos. 2844-2866) (1930-1931) ; 
Ixxix, 3, 5, 7-9, 12 (Nos. 2869, 2871, 2873-2875, 2878) (1931); Report for the Year 
ended June 30, 1930 (1930). 


WELLINGTON.—Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Geological Survey 
Branch. Palaeontological Bulletin, No. 13 (1931).—Dominion Museum. “New 
Zealand Journal of Science and Technology”, xii, 2-6 (T.p. & c.) (1930-1931) ; 
xiii, 1 (1931).—New Zealand Institute. Transactions and Proceedings, Ixi, 3-4 
(T.p. & c.) (1930); Ixii, 1-2 (1931). 


WELTEVREDEN.—Geneeskundig Laboratorium. Six Separates: “Notes on the 
Sarcoptes found in a case of Scabies crustosa and in a case of Scabies in a 
Monkey” by S. L. Brug and J. Haga (From Meded. Dienst Volks. in Ned.-Indié, 
1930, pt. 2, 1930); “Filariasis in Nederlandsch-Indie. iii.” by S. L. Brug (From 
Genees. Tijd. Nederl.-Indié, 71, 3, 1931); “Anopheles incognitus, n. sp.” by S. L. 
Brug (From Genees. Tijd. Nederl.-Indié, 71, 2, 1931); “Culiciden der Deutschen 
Limnologischen Sunda-Expedition” and “New Culicidae from Sumatra” by S. L. 
Brug (From Archiv f. Hydrobiol. Suppl. Bd. ix, Trop. Binnengewasser ii, 1931 
and Tijd. voor Ent., |xxiv, pp. 245-250, 1931); “Fauna Sumatrensis (Bijdrage 
No. 68) Culicidae (Diptera)” by S. L. Brug and F. W. Edwards (From Tijd. 
voor Ent., xxiv, pp. 251-261, 1931) —Koninklijke Natuurkundige Vereeniging in 
Nederl.-Indié. Natuurkundig Tijdschrift, xc, 3 (T.p. & c.) (1930); xci, 1-2 (1931). 


Woops Horte.—Marine Biological Laboratory. Biological Bulletin, lix, 2-3 
(ips & ic) (930)is ix, 1-3 (ip: & c:) (93) 3 ixin 1-2 G4931)- 


WoRMLEY.—The Hill Museum. Bulletin, iv, 2 (1930). 


live DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES. 


PRIVATE Donors (and Authors, unless otherwise stated). 


Davies, WILLIAM C., Nelson, New Zealand.—Tidal-flat and Salt-marsh Studies in 
Nelson Haven. Part i.” (Reprinted from New Zealand Journal of Science and 
Technology, xii, 6, pp. 338-369, 1931). 


JANET, CHARLES, Voisinlieu-les-Beauvais, France.—“Considérations sur la Structure 
du Noyau de l’Atome” (Decembre, 1929); “Concordance de l’Arrangement 
quantique, de Base, des Electrons planetaires, des Atomes, avec la Classification 
scalariforme, helicoidale, des Elements chimiques” (Novembre, 1930). 


JENSEN, H. L., Sydney.—“‘The Microbiology of Farmyard Manure Decomposition in 
Soil. Pts. 1-2.” (Reprinted from Journ. Agric. Sci., xxi, 1, Jan., 1931). 


Meyrick, H., B.A., F.R.S., Marlborough, Wilts, England.—‘Exotic Microlepidop- 
tera”, iii, 18-20 (Index) (1930). 


Mitrorp, Humpurey, Oxford University Press, London (donor).—‘“‘Spencer’s Last 
Journey’’, edited by R. R. Marett and T. K. Penniman (Oxford, 1931). 

Ossorn, Professor T. G. B., D.Sec., F.L.S., Sydney—‘‘The Livingstone Lectures. 
1930. Plant Life in the Sydney District” (1930). 


Streap, Davin G., Sydney (donor).—U.S. Department of the Interior: National Park 
Service. Annual Report of the Director for Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1930 
(1930). 


Storey, H. H., Durban, South Africa (donor).—“The Transmission of Streak 
Disease between Maize, Sugar Cane and Wild Grasses” by H. H. Storey and 
A. P. D. McLean (Reprinted from Annals of Applied Biology, xvii, 4, Nov., 1930). 


VANDERBILT, W. K., 230 Park Avenue, New York, U.S.A. (donor).—Bulletin of the 
Vanderbilt Marine Museum, Vols. ii-iii (1930). 


WATERHOUSE, G. A., D.Se., B.E., F.E.S., Sydney (donor).—“The Macrolepidoptera 
of the World. Part ii, Exotic Fauna’, by Prof. Dr. A. Seitz, Vols. v-xvi (not all 
complete). 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 19531. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS. 


1927 *Albert, Michel Francois, ‘‘“Boomerang’’, Elizabeth Bay, Sydney. 


1929 
1905 
1906 
1922 
1899 
1929 


1927 
1912 


1913 


1888 
1925 


1919 


1907 


1920 
1929 
1923 
1926 
1912 
1927 
1912 
1923 
1921 
1924 
1911 
1931 
1920 


1921 
1910 
1910 
1926 


1901 
1927 
1930 
1905 


1903 
1899 
1924 
1901 


Allan, Miss Catherine Mabel Joyce, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

Allen, Edmund, c/o Mulgrave Mill, Gordonvale, Queensland. 

Anderson, Charles, M.A., D.Se., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

Anderson, Robert Henry, B.Sc.Agr., Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 

Andrews, Ernest Clayton, B.A., F.G.S., 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue Hill. 

Angell, Herbert Raleigh, Ph.D., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 
Canberra, F.C.T. 

Armstrong, Jack Walter French, “Callubri’, Nyngan, N.S.W. 

Aurousseau, Marcel, B.Sc. 


Badham, Charles, M.B., Ch.M., B.Se., Bureau of Microbiology, 98 Macquarie Street, 
Sydney. 

Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent, Cheltenham. 

Barnard, Colin, M.Se., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Division of 
Plant Industry, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. 

Barnett, Marcus Stanley, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd., O’Connell Street, 
Sydney. 

Benson, Professor William Noel, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., University of Otago, Dunedin, 
N.Z. 

Blakely, William Faris, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 

Boardman, William, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

Bone, Walter Henry, 6 Deans Place, Sydney. 

Branch, Kenneth James Fergus, B.Sc., 99 North Steyne, Manly. 

Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc., Department of Education, Box 33A, G.P.O., Sydney. 

Bredero, William Adrien Lewis, Box 127, Post Office, Orange, N.S.W. 

Brewster, Miss Agnes A., 481 Alfred Street, North Sydney. 

Brough, Patrick, M.A., B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., ‘“Kinross’’, Billyard Avenue, Wahroonga. 

Brown, Horace William, 871 Hay Street, Perth, W.A. 

Brown, Miss Ida Alison, B.Se., Geology Department, The University, Sydney. 

Browne, William Rowan, D.Sc., Geology Department, The University, Sydney. 

Burges, Alan, 35 Wetherell Street, Croydon. 

Burkitt, Professor Arthur Neville St. George Handcock, M.B., B.Sc., Medical School, 
The University, Sydney. 

Burns, Alexander Noble, “‘Meringa’’, Fuchsia Street, Blackburn, Victoria. 

Burrell, Harry, 19 Doncaster Avenue, Kensington. 


-Burrell, Mrs. Harry, 19 Doncaster Avenue, Kensington. 


Buzacott, James Hardie, Meringa (private bag), via Cairns, North Queensland 


Campbell, John Honeyford, I.S.0., M.B.E., Royal Mint, Ottawa, Canada. 
Campbell, Thomas Graham, ‘“‘Burrandong’’, 101 Lauderdale Avenue, Manly. 
Carey, Miss Gladys, B.Se., 32 Rawson Street, Epping. 

Carne, Walter Mervyn, Senior Plant Pathologist, Division of Economic Botany, 
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, c/o Department of Agriculture, 
Perth, W.A. 

Carter, Herbert James, B.A., F.E.S., ‘““Garrawillah’’, Kintore Street, Wahroonga. 

Cheel, Edwin, Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 

Chisholm, Edwin Claud, M.B., Ch.M., Comboyne, N.S.W. 

Cleland, Professor John Burton, M.D., Ch.M., The University. Adelaide, S.A. 


* Life Member. 


}vi. 


1930 


1931 
1908 


1928 
1900 
1925 


1929 


1885 


1930 


1929 
1925 
1928 


1881 
1927 
1921 
1926 


1920 


1931 
1930 
1914 


1908 
1927 
1930 
1911 
1886 
1930 


1912 
1911 


1910 
1901 


1911 
1925 
1919 
1897 
1885 
1928 
1931 
1922 


1917 
Usual 
1930 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Cochran, William Manning Patrick, B.A., c/o Messrs. W. R. Carpenter & Co., Ltd., 
Rabaul, New Guinea. 

Colefax, Allen N., B.Sc., Department of Zoology, Sydney University. 

Cotton, Professor Leo Arthur, M.A., D.Se., Geology Department, The University, 
Sydney. 

Craft, Frank Alfred, B.Sc., ‘Kyla’, 24 Fourth Street, Ashbury. 

Crago, William Henry, M.D., 135 Macquarie Street, Sydney. 

Cunningham, Gordon Herriot, Ph.D., Department of Agriculture, Fields Division, 
Plant Research Station, P.O. Box 442, Palmerston North, N.Z. 


Dakin, Professor William John, D.Se., Department of Zoology, The University, 
Sydney. 

David, Sir Tannatt William Edgeworth, K.B.E., C.M.G:, D.S.0O., M.A., D.Se., F.R.8., 
Burdett Street, Hornsby. 

Davies, Professor Harold Whitridge, M.B., B.S., Department of Physiology, Sydney 
University. 

Deane, Cedric, A.M.I.E.Aust., “Cloyne”, 9 State Street, Malvern, Victoria. 

de Beuzeville, Wilfred Alexander Watt, J.P., ‘““Melamere,’’ Welham Street, Beecroft. 

Dickson, Bertram Thomas, B.A., Ph.D., Council for Scientific and Industrial 
Research, Division of Plant Industry, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. 

Dixson, Thomas Storie, M.B., Ch.M., 215 Macquarie Street, Sydney. 

*Dixson, William, ‘‘Merridong’’, Gordon Road, Killara. 

Dodd, Alan Parkhurst, Prickly Pear Laboratory, Sherwood, Brisbane, Q. 

Dumigan, Edward Jarrett, West End Boys’ School, West End, South Brisbane, 
Queensland. 

Dwyer, Rt. Rev. Joseph Wilfrid, Bishop of Wagga, Wagga Wagga, N.S.W. 


Edmonds, Miss Enid Mary, B.Sc., Department of Zoology, Sydney University. 
English, Miss Kathleen Mary Isabel, B.Sc., March Street, Yass, N.S.W. 
Enright, Walter John, B.A., West Maitland, N.S.W. 


Flynn, Professor Theodore Thomson, D.Se., Queen’s University, Belfast, Ireland. 

Francis, William Douglas, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, Queensland. 

Fraser, Miss Lilian Ross, B.Se., “Hopetoun,” Bellamy Street, Pennant Hills. 

Froggatt, John Lewis, B.Sc., Department of Agriculture, Rabaul, New Guinea. 

Froggatt, Walter Wilson, F.L.S., Young Street, Croydon. 

Fuller, Miss Mary Ellen, B.Se., Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 
Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. 


Goldfinch, Gilbert M., ‘Lyndhurst’, Salisbury Road, Rose Bay. 

Greenwood, William Frederick Neville, F.L.S., F.E.S., c/o Colonial Sugar Refining 
Co., Ltd., Lautoka, Fiji. 

Griffiths, Edward, B.Se., Department of Agriculture, Raphael Street, Sydney. 

Gurney, William Butler, B.Sc., F.H.S., Department of Agriculture, Raphael Street, 
Sydney. 


Hacker, Henry, F.E.S., Queensland Museum, Bowen Park, Brisbane, Q. 

Hale, Herbert Matthew, South Australian Museum, Adelaide, S.A. 

Hall, Leslie Lionel, ‘‘Haldor’’, Drumalbyn Road, Bellevue Hill. 

Halligan, Gerald H., F.G.S., ‘““Geraldine’, Culworth Avenue, Killara. 

Hamilton, Alexander Greenlaw, “Tanandra’’, Hercules Street, Chatswood. 

Hamilton, Edgar Alexander, 16 Hercules Street, Chatswood. 

Hamilton, Harold Wynne, 5 Eurella Street, Burwood. 

Hardwick, Frederick George, B.D.S., D.D.Sc., ‘““Wyoming’’, 175 Macquarie Street, 
Sydney. 

Hardy, G. H. Hurlstone, The University, Brisbane, Q. 

Haviland, The Venerable Archdeacon F. E., St. Stephen’s Rectory, Portland, N.S.W. 

Heydon, George Aloysius Makinson, M.B., Ch.M., School of Public Health and 
Tropical Medicine, The University, Sydney. 


* Life Member. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. lvii. 


1830 Holmes, Professor James Macdonald, B.Sc., F.R.G.S., Department of Geography, 
The University, Sydney. 

1907 Hull, Arthur Francis Basset, Box 704, G.P.O., Sydney. 

1892 Hynes, Miss Sarah, B.A., “Isis”, Soudan Street, Randwick. 


1912 Irby, Llewellyn George, Forestry Department, Hobart, Tasmania. 


1917 Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘“Cambria’’, 106 Bland Street, Ashfield. 

1930 Jensen, Hans Laurits, Department of Agriculture, The University, Sydney. 

1907 Johnston, Professor Thomas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., The University, Adelaide, 
S.A. 

1930 Joplin, Miss Germaine Anne, B.Se., ‘““Huyton’’, Wentworth Street, Eastwood. 

19380 Julius, Sir George Alfred, B.Sc., B.E., M.I.Mech.E., M.I.E.Aust., 67 Castlereagh 
Street, Sydney. 


1923 Kendall, Mrs. W. M., M.Sc. (née Williams), 5 Queen Victoria Street, Drummoyne. 
1924 Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 


1931 Lawrence, William James, B.Se., A.S.T.C., 56 Mill Street, Carlton. 

2892 Lea, Arthur M., F.E.S., 241 Young Street, Unley, Adelaide, S.A. 

1923 lLindergren, Gustaf Mauritz, Secretary, Swedish Chamber of Commerce, Pacific 
House, 249 George Street, Sydney. 

1893 Lucas, Arthur Henry Shakespeare, M.A., B.Se., ‘“‘Girrahween’’, William Street, 
Roseville. 


1922 Mackerras, Ian Murray, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc., Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. 

1911 Mackinnon, Ewen, B.Sc., Commonwealth Department of Health, Civic Centre, 
Canberra, F.C.T. 

1931 *Mair, Herbert Knowles Charles, “Playa Ancha’’, Collaroy Street, Collaroy Beach. 

1929 Mann, John, Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board, Field Station, Box 49, Post 
Office, Chinchilla, Queensland. 

1905 Mawson, Sir Douglas, D.Sc., B.E., F.R.S., The University, Adelaide, S.A. 

1919 McCarthy, Timothy, Department of Agriculture, Raphael Street, Sydney. 

1907 McDonnough, Thomas, L. S., “Iluka’’, Hamilton Street, Randwick. 

1927 McHugh, Miss Mary Virgilius, St. Vincent’s College, Potts Point, Sydney. 

1917 McKeown, Keith Collingwood, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

1927 McKie, Rev. Ernest Norman, B.A., The Manse, Guyra, N.S.W. 

1919 McLuckie, John, M.A., D.Sc., Botany Department, The University, Sydney. 

1925 McNeill, Francis Alexander, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

1925 Mitchell, Miss Dora Enid, B.Sc., ““Wilga’’, Bradley Street, Goulburn. 

1930 Munch-Petersen, Erik, Ph.B., M.Se. (Haunensis), M.I.F., 31 Lytton Street, North 
Sydney. 

1926 Mungomery, Reginald William, c/o Sugar Experiment Station, Bundaberg, ‘Queene: 
land. 

1922 Murray, Patrick Desmond Fitzgerald, D.Sc. 

1920 Musgrave, Anthony, F.E.S., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 


1925 Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., “Tip Tree’, Kingsland Road, Strathfield. 

1913 Newman, Leslie John William, F.E.S., ““Walthamstowe’’, 5 Bernard Street, Clare- 
mont, W.A. 

1922 Nicholson, Alexander John, D.Sc., F.E.S., Council for Scientific and Industrial 
Research, Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. 

1920 Noble, Robert Jackson, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Department of Agriculture, Raphael 
Street, Sydney. 

1912 North, David Sutherland, c/o Colonial Sugar Refining Co., Ltd., Broadwater Mill, 
Richmond River, N.S.W. 


1920 O’Dwyer, Margaret Helena, B.Se., Ph.D., Forest Products Research Laboratory, 
Princes Risborough, Bucks., England. 

1927 Oke, Charles George, 56 Chaucer Street, St. Kilda, Victoria. 

1910 Oliver, Walter Reginald Brook, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Dominion Museum, si ape ar 


ae 


* Life Member. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Osborn, Professor Theodore George Bentley, D.Sc., F.L.S., Department of Botany, 
The University, Sydney. 
Osborne, George Davenport, D.Sc., Geology Department, The University, Sydney. 


Perkins, Frederick Athol, B.Sc.Agr., Biology Department, University of Queensland, 
Brisbane, Q. 

Phillips, Montagu Austin, F.L.S., F.E.S., 57 St. George’s Square, London, S.W., 
England. ; 

Pincombe, Torrington Hawke, B.A., ‘““Mulyan’’, Beta Street, Lane Cove, Sydney. 

Priestley, Professor Henry, M.D., Ch.M., B.Sc., Medical School, The University, 
Sydney. 

Pritchard, Denis Adrian, M.B., Ch.M., B.Sec., Royal Australian Naval College, 
Jervis Bay, N.S.W. 

Pulleine, Robert Henry, M.B., Ch.M., 163 North Terrace, Adelaide, S.A. 


Raggatt, Harold George, B.Sc., Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Sydney. 

Roberts, Frederick Hugh Sherston, M.Se., Department of Agriculture and Stock, 
Brisbane, Queensland. 

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, Technological Museum, Harris Street, Sydney. 

Rupp, Rev. Herman Montagu Rucker, B.A., St. Mary’s Rectory, Weston, N.S.W. 


*Scammell, George Vance, B.Sc., ‘““Melrose’’, 28 Middle Head Road, Mosman. 
Selby, Miss Doris Adeline, M.Sc., ““Marley’’, Werona Avenue, Gordon. 
Sherrard, Mrs. Kathleen Margaret, M.Sc., 16 Shellecove Road, Neutral Bay. 
Sloane, Thomas G., F.E.S., Moorilla, Young, N.S.W. 

Smith, G. P. Darnell, D.Se., F.1.C., F.C.S., Botanic Gardens, Sydney. 

Smith, Jacob Harold, M.Sc., N.D.A., Court House, Cairns, N. Queensland. 

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

Smith, Miss Vera Irwin, B.Sc., F.L.S., 13 Upper Cliff Road, Northwood. 

Stanley, George Arthur Vickers, B.Sc., “Clelands’’, Battery Street, Randwick. 

Stead, David G., ‘‘Boongarre’’, Pacific Street, Watson’s Bay. 

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, M.B., Ch.M., Metropolitan Water, Sewerage and 
Drainage Board, 341 Pitt Street, Sydney. 

*Sulman, Miss Florence, ‘‘Burrangong”’, McMahon’s Point. 

Sussmilch, C. A., F.G.S., East Sydney Technical School, Darlinghurst, Sydney. 


Taylor, Frank Henry, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, The 
University, Sydney. 

Tillyard, Robin John, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., C.M.Z.S., Chief Common- 
wealth Entomologist, Canberra, F.C.T. 

*Troughton, Ellis Le Geyt, Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney. 

Turner, A. Jefferis, M.D., F.E.S., Wickham Terrace, Brisbane, Q. 

Turner, Rowland E., F.Z.S., F.E.S., c/o Standard Bank of South Africa, Adderley 
Street, Cape Town, South Africa. 


Veitch, Robert, B.Sc., F.E.S., Department of Agriculture, Brisbane, Queensland. 
Vickery, Miss Joyce Winifred, 6 Coventry Road, Homebush. 


Walker, Commander John James, M.A., F.L.S., F.E.S., R.N., ““Aorangi’’, Lonsdale 
Road, Summertown, Oxford, England. 

Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.Sc., Science House, Gloucester and Essex Streets, Sydney. 

Ward, Melbourne, “Bellevue Gardens’, Wylde Street, Potts Point, Sydney. 

Wardlaw, Henry Sloane Halcro, D.Sc., Physiology Department, The University, 
Sydney. 

Waterer, Arthur S., 2 Dickson Street, Haberfield. 

*Waterhouse, G. Athol, D.Sc., B.E., F.E.S., Science House, Gloucester and Essex 
Streets, Sydney. 

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E., ‘Rarotonga’, 42 Archer Street, Chatswood. 

Waterhouse, Walter Lawry, D.Sc.Agr., ““Hazelmere’”’, Chelmsford Avenue, Roseville. 

Watt, Professor Robert Dickie, M.A., B.Se., University of Sydney. 

Wearne, Walter Loutit, ‘“‘Telarah’’, Collingwood Street, Drummoyne. 

Webster, Miss Jessie Alice, B.Sc., “Chesterfield”, 49 Bruce Street, Stanmore. 


* Life Member. 


INDEX. lix. 


1926 
1922 


Weekes, Miss Hazel Claire, D.Sc., 30 Fairweather Street, Bellevue Hill. 
Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.Sc., A.I.C., Technological Museum, Harris Street, Sydney. 


1926 *Whitley, Gilbert Percy, Australian Museum, Coliege Street, Sydney. 


1926 Willings, Mrs. H., B.A. (née Wood), Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, 

Box 109, Canberra, F.C.T. 
1903 Woolnough, Walter George, D.Sc., F.G.S., Canberra, F.C.T. 
1925 Wright, Fred, c/o Messrs. Elliott Bros., Ltd., O’Connell Street, Sydney. 
1929 Wright, George Henry, H.D.A., Public School, Barellan, N.S.W. 
1910 Wymark, Frederick, 89 Castlereagh Street, Sydney. 

HONORARY MEMBERS. 

1923 MHili, Professor J. P., Institute of Anatomy, University of London, University 

College, Gower Street, London, W.C.1, England. 
1923 Wilson, Professor J. T., LL.D., M.B., Ch.M., F.R.S., Department of Anatomy, the 

New Museums, Cambridge, England. 

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 
1888 Bale, W. M., F.R.M.S., 63 Walpole Street, Kew, Melbourne, Victoria. 
1902 Broom, Robert, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., 38 Somerset Street, Grahamstown, South Africa. 
1902 McAlpine, D., c/o Bank of New South Wales, Leitchville, Victoria. 
1902 Meyrick, Edward, B.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Thornhanger, Marlborough, Wilts., England. 
es Life Member. 
INDEX. 
(1931.) 
(a) GENERAL INDEX. 

Actinomycetales, Contributions to our Australasia, the Gasteromycetes of, x. 
Knowledge of the, i, A Case of The Phallales. Pt. i, 1—xi. The 
Hereditary Variation in the Genus Phallales, Pt. ii, 182—xii. The Genus 
Actinomyces, 79—ii, The Definition and Scleroderma, 277—xiii. The Genus 


Subdivision of the Genus Actinomyces, 
with a Preliminary Account of Aus- 
tralian Soil Actinomycetes, 345. 

Address, Presidential, i. 

Agar, Prof. W. E., Fletcher Memorial 
Lecture, 1931. The Animal Mind and 
its Significance for Biology, 526. 

Algae, Australian Marine, Notes on, No. 
vi, 407. 

Anderson, C., see Exhibits. 

Angophoras, A Note on the Leaf Buds 
of, 455. 

Animal Mind and its Significance for 
Biology. Fletcher Memorial Lecture, 
1931, 526. 

Apiomorpha, A Classification of the Gall- 
making Coccids of the Genus, 431. 

Associates, Announcement of Special 
General Meeting to put forward pro- 
posal for admission of, xxxiii—New 
Rule xiia, Adoption of proposed, carried 
unanimously, xxxiv—Adoption of pro- 
posed New Rule xiia confirmed, xxxvi. 


Pisolithus, 288. 
Australasian Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, Twentieth Meeting, iii. 
Australian, Diptera, Notes on, xxvii, 60— 
xxviii, 273—xxix, 292—-Lepidoptera, 
Revision of, Supplementary, 325— 
Marine Algae, Notes on, No. vi, 407. 


Balance Sheets, 1930, xxviii-xxx. 

Ball’’s Head Reserve, Announcement 7é 
tree planting ceremony, xxxiii. 

Baridiinae (Curculionidae), mostly from 
New Guinea, 139. 

Bats, three new, of the Genera Pteropus, 
Nyctimene and Chaerephon, from 
Melanesia, 204. 

Bopyrid Parasite, On a new, from the 
Coast of New South Wales, 267. 

Brown, Ida A., Linnean Macleay Fellow 
in Geology, The Stratigraphical and 
Structural Geolegy of the Devonian 
Rocks of the South Coast of New South 
Wales, 461—Reappointed, 1931-32, vi; 


Ix. INDEX. 


1932-33, 
Work, v. 


Browne, W. R., elected a Vice-President, 
XXxXi. 


Burges, Alan, elected a Member, xxxviii. 


xxxix—Summary of Year’s 


Calliphora ochracea Schiner (Diptera, 
Calliphoridae), the Life History of, 172. 

Carey, Gladys, A Note on the Leaf Buds 
of Angophoras, 455. 


Carson, Duncan, Reference to death, v. 


Carter, H. J., elected a Vice-President, 
XXxi. 


Cheel, E., elected a Vice-President, xxxi 
—Presidential Address, i—see Exhibits. 


Classification of the Gall-making Coccids 
of the Genus Apiomorpha, 431. 


Coccids, Gall-making, A Classification of 
the, of the Genus Apiomorpha, 431. 

Colefax, A. N., see Exhibits. 

Contributions to our Knowledge of the 
Actinomyeetales. iL, A Case of 
Hereditary Variation in the Genus 
Actinomyces, 79—1ii. The Definition and 
Subdivision of the Genus Actinomyces, 
with a Preliminary Account of Aus- 
tralian Soil Actinomycetes, 345. 

Craft, Frank A., Linnean Macleay Fellow 
in Geography, The Physiography of the 
Shoalhaven River Valley. i. Tallong- 
Bungonia, 99—ii. Nerrimunga Creek, 
243—iii. Bulee Ridge, 261—iv. Nerriga, 
412—Reappointed, 1931-32, vi; 1932-33, 
xxxix—Summary of Year’s Work, v. 

Cunningham, G. H., The Gasteromycetes 
of Australasia. x. The Phallales. Pt. 
i, 1—xi. The Phallales. Pt. ii, 182— 
xii. The Genus Scleroderma, 277—xiii. 
The Genus Pisolithius, 288. 


Dakin, W. J., On a new Bopyrid Parasite 
from the Coast of New South Wales, 
267. 

Deane, C., Trichopterygidae of Australia 
and Adjacent Islands. Descriptions of 
five new Genera and twenty new 
Species, 227. 

Diptera, Notes on Australian, xxvii, 60— 
XXvVili, 273—xxix, 292. 

Donations and Exchanges, 
XXXV, XXXVii-xxxix, xli. 


XXXI-xXXXiii, 


Elections, 
XXXVIli. 

Eurymelinae (Cicadelloidea, Homoptera), 
Notes on the Biology and Morphology 
of the, 210. 

Evans, J. W., Notes on the Biology and 
Morphology of the Eurymelinae 
(Cicadelloidea, Homoptera), 210. 

Exchange Relations, iv. 


XXVii, xxxi, xXxxii,. xXxxvi, 


Exhibits: 

Anderson, C., Cast of the brain case of 
the Pekin Man, Sinanthropus pekin- 
Ensis, XXXV. 

Cheel, E., Essential oils from native 
plants, xxvi—Fresh specimens of the 
following species of Callistemon: 
C. Ulinearifolius, C. pallidus, (C. 
viminalis, C. lilacinus, C. lilacinus 
var. carmina, C. paludosus, C. palu- 
dosus var. roseus, C. lanceolatus x OC. 
acuminatus, and 0. acuminatus, xxxix 
—Specimens of Leptospermum micro- 
phyllum, raised from seeds received 
from Victoria, xxxix—Specimens of 
Telopea oreades F.v.M., collected at 
Bombala, xl—Fresh flowering speci- 
mens of Leptospermum microphyllum 
F.v.M., from seeds collected at Lower 
Gellibrand River, Victoria, xl— 
Specimens of L. lanigerum Sm., for 
comparison with L. microphyllum, xl 
—Specimens of a Eucalypt with buds, 
flowers and fully developed fruits 
from a tree cultivated at Ashfield, xl. 

Colefax, A. N., Specimen of Lophiomus 
laticeps, xxxvi—Specimen of Burrow- 
ing Crab (Ranina ranina), trawled 
in 35 fathoms, xxxvi. 

Froggatt, W. W., Normal male and 
female galls of Apiomorpha mali- 
formis from Western Australia, xxxii 
—Abnormal female galls from Western 
Australia, xxxii—Great coconut-palm 
longicorn, Xixuthus costatus from 
Solomon Islands, xxxii—Blooms of 
Acacia spectabilis, the seed of which 
was collected in the Pilliga Scrub, 
xxxv—A new Coccid belonging to the 
Lecanium group, found in the briga- 
low in Western Queensland, xxxviii. 

Lucas, A. H. S., Formalin specimens of 
Avrainvillea papuana from Low 
Island, xxxv—Formalin specimens of 
Trichodesmium scoboideum Lucas, 
obtained from the open sea between 
Townsville and Mackay, xxxv. 


Newman, J. V., Some twigs of Acacia 
Baileyana, bearing flowers that had 
been infected by an insect parasite, 
XXXViii. 

Osborn, T. G. B., Short account of the 
work carried on at the Koonamore 
Vegetation Reserve, xxxvi—Short 
account of some of the vegetation 
types shown on the new Vegetation 
Map of Australia, xxxviii. 

Stead, D. G., Reference to an extra- 
ordinary example of the effect of 
wind and current following the 
recent wreck of the M.S. Malabar at 
Long Bay, xxxii—Two immature 
examples of the Dart, Trachinotus 


INDEX. Ibeeitp 


botla, xxxiii—Remarks in connection 
with exhibit of Ranina or Frog Crab 
by Mr. Colefax, xxxvi. 

Vickery, Joyce W., Specimens of 
Drosera peltata Sm., which showed 
adventitious buds developing from 
the lamina of ordinary leaves, xl— 
Specimens of Drosera auriculata 
Backh., xl. 

Walkom, A. B., Specimens and slides 
of Clepsydropsis australis, from Mt. 
Tangorin and Lyndon, near Hccles- 
ton, described and figured by Prot. 
Sahni, xxxvii—Fertile specimens of 
the Mesozoic fern, Todites from 
Turrimetta Head, Narrabeen, xxxvili 
—A winged seed collected by Mr. 
G. H. Blakemore at Sichon, on the 
west coast of Siam, xxxviii. 


Waterhouse, G. A., Both sexes of 
Papilio dardanus cenea from Natal, 
South Africa, xxxii. 

Waterhouse, W. L., Plants resulting 
from crossing “Bunyip” wheat and 
“Rosen” rye, xxxiii—Specimens of 
Fil wheat plants showing the 
“dwarf” or “grass clump’ character, 
together with flag smut infection, 
xxxiv—Specimens: of “Nodak”, an 
American variety of Triticum durum, 
found growing in the Sydney Uni- 
versity plots infected by Tilletia 
tritici, xxxvi—Specimens of Thalic- 
trum flavum and T. dipterocarpon 
showing the aecidial stage of 
Puccinia triticina, xl. 

Whitley, G. P., Remarks upon an 
interesting eighteenth-century  sys- 
tematic work on the Australian 
fauna, xxxiv. 


Expedition to the Antarctic under the 
leadership of Sir Douglas Mawson, iii. 


Kletcher Memorial Lecture, first, 1930, 
delivered by A. H. S. Lucas, iii—1931, 
lecturer and date of delivery announced, 
Xxxii—1931, The Animal Mind and its 
Significance for Biology, 526. 


Flynn, Prof. T. T., congratulations to, 


0.0.00 0m 
iraser, Lilian R., appointed Linnean 
Macleay Fellow in Botany, 1932-33, 
xxxix—An Investigation of Lobelia 
gibbosa and Lobelia dentata. i. Mycor- 


rhiza, Latex System and General 
Biology, 497—The Reaction of 
Viminaria denudata to increased Water 
Content of the Soil, 391. 


Hroggatt, W. W., A Classification of the 
Gall-making Coccids of the Genus 
Apiomorpha, 431—see Hxhibits. 

D 


Fuller, Mary E., The Life History of 
Calliphora ochracea Schiner (Diptera, 
Calliphoridae), 172. 

Further Notes on the Orchids of the 
South Maitland Coalfields, with 
Description of a new Dendrobium from 
Bullahdelah, 133. 


Gasteromycetes of Australasia, x. The 
Phallales. Pt. i, 1—xi. The Phallales. 
Pt. ii, 182—xii. The Genus Scleroderma, 
277—xili. The Genus Pisolithus, 288. 


Hamilton, H. W., elected a Member, xxxil. 

Hartley District, Petrology of the, Pt. i. 
The Plutonic and Associated Rocks, 16. 

Harvard University Expedition, expected 
arrival of, xxxv—Welcome extended to 
members of, xxxvi. 

Hill, Prof. J. P., greetings from, 
congratulations to, iv. 

Hossfeld, P. S., elected a Member, xxxviii. 


iv— 


Investigation of Lobelia gibbosa and 
Lobelia dentata. i. Mycorrhiza, Latex 
System and General Biology, 497. 

Isoptera, Wing-venation of the Order, i. 
Introduction and the Family Masto- 
termitidae, 371. 


Jensen, H. L., Macleay Bacteriologist, A 
Note on the Systematic Position of 
Mycobacterium coeliacum, 201—Contri- 
butions to our Knowledge of the 
Actinomycetales. 12 A Case of 
Hereditary Variation in the Genus 
Actinomyces, 79—ii. The Definition and 
Subdivision of the Genus Actinomyces, 
with a Preliminary Account of Aus- 
tralian Soil Actinomycetes, 345—Sum- 
mary of Year’s Work, v. 

Joplin, Germaine A., Petrology of the 
Hartley District. i. The Plutonic and 
Associated Rocks, 16. 


Lawrence, W. J., elected a Member, xxxvi, 


Lawson, A. A., reference to death of, 
xxxvii—letter from Mrs. Lawson and 
family returning thanks for sympathy, 
XXXVili. 

Lea, A. M., On  Baridiinae (Cur- 
culionidae), mostly from New Guinea, 
139. 


Lepidoptera, Australian, 
Supplementary, 325. 


Life History of Calliphora ochracea 
Schiner (Diptera, Calliphoridae), 172. 


Revision of, 


Linnean Macleay Fellowships, 1931-32, 
reappointments, vi—1932-33, applica- 
tions invited, xxxvii, xxxviii—reap- 


pointments and appointments, 1932-33, 
YOORIO, 


lxii. 


Lobelia gibbosa and Lobelia dentata, an 
Investigation of, i. Mycorrhiza, Latex 
System and General Biology, 497. 


Lucas, A. H. S., Notes on Australian 
Marine Algae. vi. Descriptions of six 
new Species, 407—see Exhibits. 


Maiden Memorial Shelter Pavilion dedi- 
cated, iii. 

Mair, H. K. C., elected a Member, xxxviii. 

Malloch, J. R., Notes on Australian 
Diptera, xxvii, 60—xxviii, 273—xxix, 
292. 

Memorial Series No. 3, J. H. Maiden, by 
A. H. S. Lueas, issued, iii. 

Murray, Dr. P. D. F., congratulations to, 
iv. 


Mycobacterium coeliacum, a Note on the 
Systematic Position of, 201. 


Myrtle Family (Myrtaceae), Review of, 
vi. 


Native Flora of New South Wales, 
Account of Progress made in the 
Attempt to have an Area set aside in 
the National Park for the Cultivation 
and Exhibition of, iii. 

Newman, I. V., see Exhibits. 

Note on the Leaf Buds of Angophoras, 
455. 

Note on the Systematic Position of 
Mycobacterium coeliacum, 201. 

Notes on New South Wales Orchids, 458. 

Notes on the Biology and Morphology 
of the Eurymelinae (Cicadelloidea, 
Homoptera), 210. 


On the Autecology of Stipa nitida: a 
Study of a Fodder Grass in Arid Aus- 
tralia, 299. 

Orchids, Notes.on New South Wales, 458 
—of the South Maitland Coalfields, 
further Notes on the, with Description 
of a new Dendrobium from Bullah- 
delah, 133. 

Osborn, T. G. B., elected President, xxvii 
—see Exhibits. 

Osborn, T. G. B., J. G. Wood and T, B. 
Paltridge, On the Autecology of Stipa 
nitida: a Study of a Fodder Grass in 
Arid Australia, 299. 


Paltridge, T. B., see under Osborn, 
4h, (Gt 1Bbs) dio (G5 \WW@@Gl mind! 4b, 18, 
Paltridge. 


Petrology of the Hartley District. i. The 


Plutonic and Associated Rocks, 16. 

Physiography of the Shoalhaven River 
Valley. i. Tallong-Bungonia, 99—ii. 
Nerrimunga Creek, 243—iii. Bulee 
Ridge, 261—iv. Nerriga, 412. 


INDEX. 


Point Lookout, National Recreation 
Reserve at, Notification of the Gazettal 
of, XXXvi. 

Potts, late H. W., announcement re pro- 
posed Memorial to, xxxii. 

Presidential Address, i. 

Proposal that a large area of land on 
the Watershed of the Bellingen, Nam- 
buecca and Macleay Rivers and 
embracing Point Lookout, be set apart 
as a National Park, approved, iv. 


Questionnaire re Hour of 
Meeting, Result of, iv. 


Monthly 


Reaction of Viminaria denudata to in- 


creased Water Content of the Soil, 391. 

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. 
Supplementary, 325. 

Roughley, T. C., elected a Member of 
Council, xxxi. 

Rule xiia, proposed new, adoption carried 
unanimously, xxxiv—adoption con- 
firmed, xxxvi. 


Rupp, Rev. H. M. R., Further Notes on 
the Orchids of the South Maitland Coal- 
fields, with Description of a new 
Dendrobium from Bullahdelah, 133— 
Notes on New South Wales Orchids, 458. 


Science House, Announcement of official 
opening, xxxi—Reference to the com- 
pletion of, i. 

Shaw, Dr. A. Eland, Reference to death, 
xxxili—Letter of thanks for sympathy 
from Mrs. Shaw, xxxv. 

Shoalhaven River Valley, the Physio- 
graphy of the, i. Tallong-Bungonia, 99 
—ii. Nerrimunga Creek, 248—iii. 
Bulee Ridge, 261—ivy. Nerriga, 412. 

South Coast of New South Wales, Strati- 
graphical and Structural Geology of the 
Devonian Rocks of the, 461. 

Special General Meeting, xxxiv, xxxvi. 

Stead, D. G., see Exhibits. 

Stipa nitida, on the Autecology of, a 
Study of a Fodder Grass in Arid Aus- 
tralia, 299. é 

Stratigraphical and Structural Geology 
of the Devonian Rocks of the South 
Coast of New South Wales, 461. 


Three new Bats of the Genera Pteropus, 
Nyctimene and Chaerephon from 
Melanesia, 204. 

Tillyard, R. J., The Wing-venation of the 
Order Isoptera. i. Introduction and 
the Family Mastotermitidae, 371. 

Town Planning Association of New South 
Wales, attendance at a meeting of, iii. 


INDEX. 


Trichopterygidae of Australia and 
Adjacent Islands. Descriptions of five 
new Genera and twenty new Species, 
227. 

Troughton, E. Le G., Three new Bats of 
the Genera Pteropus, Nyctimene and 
Chaerephon from Melanesia, 204. 

Turner, A. J., Revision of Australian 
Lepidoptera. Supplementary, 325. 


Vickery, Joyce W., see Exhibits. 


Viminaria denudata, Reaction of, to in- 
creased Water Content of the Soil, 391. 


Walkom, A. B., see Exhibits. 

Waratah, postcards of, available for sale, 
RXR 

Wardlaw, H. S. H,, 
President, xxxi. 


elected a Vice- 


Waterhouse, W. L., congratulations to, iv 
—elected a Member of Council, ivy—see 
Exhibits. 

Weekes, Dr. H. Claire, congratulations to, 
iv—appointed Linnean Macleay Fellow 
in Zoology, 1932-33, xxxix. 

Whitley, G. P., see Hxhibits. 

Wild Flower Series, No. 1 (Hpacris longi- 
flora) issued, iii—No. 2 (the Waratah) 
to be issued in Part 1 of Proceedings 
for 1931, iii. 

Wild Flowers, Support given to Move- 
ment by Killara Community Service 
Club to have Proclamation for Protec- 
tion of, extended for another Year, xxxi. 

Wilson, Prof. J. T., Reference to visit of, 
iv. 

Wing-venation of the Order Isoptera. i. 
Introduction and the Family Masto- 
termitidae, 371. 


Waterhouse, G. A., elected Hon. Treasurer, 
xxxi—see Exhibits. 


Wood, J. G., see under Osborn, T. G. B., 
J. G. Wood and T. B. Paltridge. 


(b) BIOLOGICAL INDEX. 


New names are printed in SMALL CAPITALS. 


Acacia Sol ee ens ree x 


Ixiii. 


Actinomyces madurae .. 350 Alnus .. 404 
aneura Oi microflavus . 358,366 Alophora 50 AAD 
Baileyana pa SOORwilil parvus 358-9, 366 auriventris 24 296 
Burkittii 2 OG B43} pheochromogenus . 350 Anaperistommyia . 296 
mollissima ey SID polychromogenes §1, 85, OPTICA .. 296 
pycnantha aXe 92, 95,353,363 $Angophora xi, 455 
spectabilis 0.0.0) reticuli . 355, 359, 366 Bakeri . 456 

Acianthus reniformis 133, 137 roseochromogenus 359, 366 cordifolia .. 456 
Actinobacillus .. . 346 roseus Navstel LATHOOS, intermedia .. 456 
Actinobacterium eG rutgersensis .. . 360, 366 lanceolata 455-6 
Actinococcus , 354 salmonicolor be 00 BY subvelutina . 456 
cyaneus .. . 354 ue . 360,366 Anthurus 2826; 
“Agiieneaes 79, 81, viridochromogenus  .. 188-91, 194-5 
at 95, 201, 345-8, 355, 360, 366 Archeri 185-6, 191 
353, 355-6, 360-2, 366-8 “218” . 357, 366 aseroeformis 186-7 
actinomorphus . .. 363 Actinopteryx . 231, 233 australiensis 5 ales) 
Affanassiew . 352, 361 COLOSSUS 5 CIA borealis .. . 189 
agreste OP UMM OLS G4 HERCULES .. 233 Garciae . 186 
albus 354-5, 362,366 Acyphas aneliopa . 326 javanicus . 186 
asteroides } 352-4 pelodes Aes 325-6 MacOwani so IST 
aureus . 356,366 Acythopeus . 148, 160 Muellerianus 186-7 
pbobili . 356, 366 aterrimus ee eset Alay Muellerianus f. aseroe- 
bovis OLOIe fae sry bigeminatus . 161, 163 formis x 185-6 
ealifornicus .. 354, 356, 366 INSIGNIS .. 54 lil -Rothae 185-6, 188 
caprae ol ee 1253 LEUCOMELAS . 160 surinamensis 5 eit 
cloacae . 350 MELAS - 161° Antimima corysTES . 330 
corneae OMIT 369 RUDIS a . 162 Apilia . 298 
exfoliatus .. 357, 366 UNGUICULATUS - 162 Apiomorpha .. 431, 434 
farcinicus 347, 353-4 Adichosia .. 172 annulata .. 435, 454 
flavus . 357, 366 hyalipennis . 178 attenuata . 435, 449 
fulvissimus .. 357,366 Aegiceras . 393, 404 bauerleni . 435, 451 
griseus .. 357,366 Aerothrix .. 347 conica . 435, 440, 448 
hominis 350-1, 355 Agamopsyche . 215 cucurbita .. 434 
HYGROSCOPICUS 357, 366-7 Agonis ar XV dipsaciformis . 434, 446 
maculans . 350 Allorisma sp. . 474 dumosa . 435, 453 


Ixiv. 


Apiomorpha duplex 4382, 434-5 


excupula . 484, 447 
fletcheri .. 433-4, 446 
floralis . 434, 444 
frenchi . 435, 448 
fusiformis 434, 442-3 
globosa .. . 435, 449 
helmsi ; 432, 434, 444, 450 
hilli . 432, 485, 452 
Karschi .. Le! PERMA 3A! 
longmani . 435, 447 
macqueeni 433-4, 439 
maliformis xxxii, 435, 449 
miner . 435, 453 
munita 434-5, 451, 454 
ovicola 432, 434, 443-5 
pedunculata .. 435, 440, 447 
pharetrata 432, 434, 440, 442 
pileata 432, 434-5 
rosaeformis . 434, 442 
rugosa 435,453 
sessilis .. 435, 452 
Sloanei .. 434, 440 
spinifer .. 434, 442 
strombylosa .. . 435, 450 
thorntoni .. 434, 442 
umbellata . 434, 440 
urnalis 434, 438 
variabilis 432, 435, 450, 452 
WITHERSI . 434, 444 
ANDOMOONAVIIS oo, ao oo 4 
APOTHETA . d04 
TANYMITA ; wooo 
Archeopteris Howitti .. 
466, 484-5 
Areolaria strobolina . 286 
Aristeus PRES bio AU 
foliaceus , Ao 
Armillaria mellea ii 522 
Aseroe Pky Be 182-4, 190 
actinobola , wgal 
arachnoidea .. 5 Ie 
ceylanica » 19m! 
corrugata 191-2 
Hookeri .. 191-2 
Hookeri miniata .. ~ alt 
Hookeri viridis » U9at 
lysuroides 191-2 
Muelleriana 191-2 
pallida 191-2 
pentactina PeteOitk 
poculiforma .. .. 191-2 
rubra 1, 2, 185, 190-1 
a. typica or digi 
b. pentactina » alii 
ec. actinobola » ilgal 
d. Muelleriana .. 2 eal 
viridis 191-2 
Aseroephallus SPSS 
DNSSUEWOIE, 56 oe 68, 76 
fzal Fel ON GZ I NGM UohO Neneh chee gen es (KG) 
GRANULOSA 69, 76 
grossiseta 69, 76 
nigroscutellata 69, 76 


INDEX. 
Atherimorpha . 2a, 275 
occidens 5 PRS 
vernalis .. 275-6 
Atherix » 24 
pusilla 5 24 
Atriplex oie! 
stipitatum : eo09 
vesicarium 5 308, 314, 316 
Atrypa sp. (?) reticularis 467 
AULACOBARIS . 160 
PICTIPENNIS 50 ISO) 
Austroleptis so cade! 
. Austrophasia . 296 
rufiventris . 296 
Avicennia .. . 404 
Aviculopecten (2) 467 
Avrainvillea papuana XXXV 
Bacillus 350 
anthracis 93 
Berestnewii 95 
mycoides mee 93 
oligocarbophilus .. 354 
Backhousia Xxili 
angustifolia XXVi 
citriodora XV, XXIV, XXVi 
myrtifolia 5 Si SOOT 
Bacterium ; 346 
erysipetalos suum 80 
Baeckea ; XxXili 
eee 466 
Baris ~ ilaxe),, eas 
angophorae 148, 153-4 
ANTENNALIS eS abies Revyth IEC 19) 
ATROPOLITA 141, 143-4 
BASIPENNIS 153 
BIALBIVITTA aa JNO) 
BIMACULIBASIS 4 UR 
bituberculata aig dbase) 
CASTANEICORNIS .. 146 
CONVERGENS . 148 
CORDIPENNIS 143 
EDENTATA ae 5 
EURYSTERNA so 
FOVEATA .. s4 lay 
GIBBICOLLIS 55 eS) 
INUSITATA 55 WU 
LAEVISSIMA ett () 
latericollis . 140 
LIOSOMA .. 141 
MEGALOPS ae 9 
MESOSTERNALIS 149-50 
MONOBIA .. . 147 
MULTIM ACULATA 5 la 
NEMORHINA » 153 
OBSCURIPES . 145 
PARVIDENTIPES . 144,148 
porosa ., 148, 154 
POROSTERNA 2 40 
praemorsa . 163 
PUNCTIMEDIA4 .. epeltalG 
PUNCTIVARIA . 140 
SEMIPUNCTATA 148-9 
SIMPLICIPENNIS . 150 


Baris sororia 148, 153-4 
STICTOPTERA 5 sal 
TENUICORNIS .. 144 
TENUIPES 147-9 
TRICHOCNEMIS . 141 
VIGILANS .. 148 
VITIENSIS so UBS 
vulnerata . 148 


Bassia patenticuspis ; 
305, 311, 322-3 
Bathytricha PHAEOSTICHA 339 


Batrachomiyjial es eee 
atricornis Wile Soe pate HEN Ee 
flavicornis ick ee SE: 
major ep Aedes 
NLSTILATSIS: ic, ose ee 
quadrilineata Rpts (Cc 
strigipes ahah ee SR RR! 

Bellerophon sp. . 474 

lexevanpewonwalle, co oo on ‘M4 
albifacies ae oe i! 

Blumenavia 2, 183, 192 

IBOtANOD Ia eee 60, 75 

Brachycome Ee ae 323 

Brachyscelis .. 431 

Bulbophyllum Blisae . 458 
exiguum ao 1s 
Shepherdii Ae33 

Gadrema:’ 2 020 = SN eee a 
PMOMIRENAIBNIEY 55 oa cw 1 
atricornis Pe lies ite atk caste 164 
abrisetar cue e an) tee een: 
bancrofti POR A Me 1S tryin ho 
fergusoni ehict RS OME Same 
lonchopteroides .. .. 74 
MAUI ONCKORYSHENU, G5 55 bo U4! 
DhonwaneKewiehee) 55 6, a. 4 

CAIRNSIMYIA . 294 
CAVIFRONS LT MERA 4 

Caladenia alba .. 5 dbs3a}, 1183 
angustata eu er PASS 
caerulea 5 aR, L837 
carnea 5 13%, 118371 
carnea var. gigantea .. 459 
cucullata » 459 
dimorpha 1 eS Peaeete O 
testacea .. 133,137, 459-60 

Calandrinia volubilis 5 Bee 

Calanthe veratrifolia . 133 

Calathiscus . 190 

Caleana major .... 133,137 

Calliphora . 172,180 
hyalipennis 172-3 
nigrithorax ; 172-3 
ochracea 172-5, 180 
stygia . . 173,180 

Callistemon Pe 4 

viii, xv, xvii, xxxix 
acuminatus LOD 
lanceolatus x C. acu- 

minatus XXX1X 
lilacinus XXX1x 


lilacinus var. carmina xxxix 


Callistemon linearifolius xxxix 
pallidus XXX1X 
paludosus SSAC 
paludosus var. roseus xxxix 


viminalis sani XXXix 
Calochilus Saree tel PBA 
campestris .. .. .. 184 
campestris var. grandi- 
Monsiee Ma, a. Seiad 
cupreus 133-4 
paludosus 133-4 
Robertsonii re 133-4 
Calotis hispidula .. .. 323 
Calycothrix Xxili 
Calyptranthes .. vii, ix 
Calyihtix, j6) 2 .0)) 2G ox 
Camponotus’ testaceipes 214 
Cancer brachyurus .. XXXiv 


Caradrina ARGONEPHRA .. 339 


ASBOLAEA ee Mehakenines ae: 0) 
confinis on teneie ee aaa Ae) 
Careya australis Me thy (54 
Cassia eremophila .. .. 308 
SUG 2 eek tot g0s 
Casuarina lepidophloia .. 307 
SDM. othe 158 
Catascopus Sh Loken e227 
Catharosia .. 292, 295-6 
varicolor 295-6 
Caulerpa Abies-marina.. 411 
ANNULATA Pant ee eta iO 
articulata io Ahoh ates eee ale 
cactoides ah 410-1 
Gliftoni, 2. 9).0 es) ¢. 411 
Fergusonii 410-1 
Hodkinsoniae 410-1 
@aviceps Oni) age wlio 15 
Haves... epee wiieiey 15 
Cecidomyia 5 oo ORSON 
Cellfalcicula RAPS aren co46 
Cellulomonas .. ... .. 346 
Cellvibrion 4... <2) 346 
Cerynea ea) a ead 
Chaerephon . 204, 209 
luzonus ee 207-9 
plicatus .. + 20%, 209 
plicatus colonicus 207-9 
SOLOMONIS 207-9 
Chaetopiophila 292-3 
hyalipenniss .. 327. .8298 
SCUMBMUATA | Sa0 ie 1 298 
Chalchoscelis .. .. .. 334 
EULOPHA OE Sse ls34 
Chamaelaucium Sa eS PERV 
Champia INSIGNIS .. .. 409 
tasmanica pa eee ear SLO 
Chenopodium ecristatum 322 
Chiloglottis formicifera 
183}, ese 
Chloeres PpRASOCHROA so GOT 
Chloroclystis cELipoTa .. 336 
PLINTHOCHYTA 5 oh Bo ORO) 
DyuGholophia =. 9 228: 86 4350 
STENOPHRICA ie Eo OO 


{NDEX. 
Chloromerus 5 (otek, (al, 483, 75) 
gracilis ot 68, 75 
maculifemur ALES PRED. 
IMPS 55) o86 oo TD 
pallidior =Thivoacer AE NID 
purus Bek weenie eee eee Re IDY 
purus var. maculifera 75 
purus var. varians .. 175 
striatifrons 5 (He, (il, Cai, 1 
trimaculata .. .. .. 75 
Chloropella BSS EONS FP OTS 
bipartita TEU TE APRA 
Chloropisca Pine arnt are 
OCXSH ONS s apes UN Ael casentiaiedtig | OC) 
monticola Dey (Eee 
subnotata APA REENN'S TERT G 
Chlorops 67-8, 70, 78, 75 
albifrons (3. 15) 
canaliculata .. eles 
carinata .. : Td, U5 
Slabnan! Aa at tO TG 
GROSSA Re eee eg 70, 75 
laeta Aes latebelbsesbee ta ei 
NUBILIPALPIS 72, 76 
OORT WON, oo be oo UA 
PALLIDISETA 71, 76 
Pictipes 73, 75 
scutellaris 70, 72, 75 
stigmatella Waly US 
sulcata 73, 75 
versicolor DPE ATE TE tO 7G 
Chloropsina Tat aeh to tO 
nigrohalterata oh TO 
OCuUlatae wel) aos xe eG 
Ghonetesny:.)- kro Bsa 
Chrysopilus 274-6 
aequalis LO Mec CTO 
coeruleothorax Sig eh 2A ba PATA) 
Chrysopogon ae XxXiV 
Clathrella .. : 183, 194-5 
OUST aig ira be ASA ee cee el OF 
Clathrus 2, 3, 183-5, 192-6 
eullonolwis 56 66 ao od. LOO 
camerunensis 195-6 
cancellatus ec. colum- 
MATUS) aoc cca) Ree eal S 
cancellatus e. Fayodi.. 193 
chrysomycelinus .. 195-6 
cibarius 2, 195, 197-8 
COlOmneiebiIS 55 of of OR 
columnatus 192-3 
crispatus ie ed a e195) 
crispus t » 1195, 198 
delicatus oa) EE LSS 
gracilis 195-6 
Higginsii = ini Ft he bale) 
hirudinosus .. =... 194 
intermedius 196-7 
Preussii 195-6 
pusillus 194-5, 197-8 
ruber . 184,192, 195,198 
Mepperianus je) lee Lod 
‘areal ae oo) oe oo LOS 
trilobatus Se ae a OS 


Ixv. 


Clathrus triscapus .. .. 188 
Claustula 1-3, 198 
Fischeri 198-9 
Clautravia 4-6, 11 
Cleisostoma tridentaum 133 
Clepsydropsis australis xxxvii 
Clethria Dice ok aly A RELL 4 
Climacograptus sp. .. 468 
Clostridium Et Me hb 0) 
CLYTOSCOPA woe OU ES 40 
TORRHODA AGREE Are win y- 4] 
SESREUNPA tue) Usrevik eat OSL 
Cohnistreptothrix .. .. 347 
Colonnaria oad ORLY SRLS 
Colus 2, 183-4, 192-5 
fusiformis ine, Reted REPO MSE 
Garciaiesea ose eS 
hirudinosus 193-4, 198 
javanicus o. MATHS Rs 
Muelleri 194, 197-8 
Rothe... Aes eye s8 
Schellenbergiae .. .. 186 
Coptotermes flavus... .. 372 
JAGteUSa. oe  eeee ee mooie, 
Cordaites .. 465, 484 
australis . 466, 485 
% Hike Jia \ anc tee IEA SD 
Corditubera Bhs MEEPE AMES per DUT 
Corynebacterium 79, 203, 
345-8, 353, 355, 368 
diphtheriae 80, 95 
lymphogranulomatis .: 86 
murisepticum st eehe 80 
Corynitesy 25° «is el ee 7 
Corysanthes A oe slay, AUS) 
dilatatay se (eran 59 
fimbriata > 12333, UG 
pruinosa Pr AR LintceP JESS) 
undulata UL Spy AG 
Cosmodessa naa 
Cotaniawalcoa ne oe 
CRASSIONE 267-8, 272 
ARISTAEL 268-9, 272 
CREOBOTAS 22> :); me mote 
COCCOPHTHORA AAS 
(Qiao 55 25 oo aries 
Ctenodonta sp... .. .. 474 
CYCLOPRORA ee OE OOS 
IMBIDOSVAY NG. soba SR OOS 
Cymbidium a td SEL OA: 
canaliculatum 133-4 
suave Bis easy nt ROR RRS 
Cynodon Dactylon .. .. 2 
Cynophallus aeeMa st 7 
Cayleyd ase saves. BEE 
papuasius #An if 
Cyperus doe Cs RELI LIRA OA 
Cyrtoceras LO Pee eA SO 
Cytophaga sb Le BES 46 
Dacrydium XxXili 
Daphnia 2930 
Darwinia KEV ROR TT 
fascicularis XXvi 


grandiflora 


1xvi. 


Dasygaster ATRATA .. 338 
Dasyomma 274-5 
obscurus : 5 AUB) 
Daucus glochidiatus . o20 
Decaspermum .. Vili 
laxiflora .. vill 
Degis oo I 
COXALIS oo AAO) 
IMITATOR 5 Weal 
RESIDUUS F 171 
aes 158, 170- iL 
Delta 1 298 
Deltastoma 66, 74 
ATRICORNIS 66, 74 
unipuncta 66-7, 74 
DELTOMYZA . 298 
Dendrobium , 133-4 
aemulum . 1338, 459 
Becklerii . 133 
Fairfaxii en ee 60 
falcorostrum . 138, 459 
gracilicaule eelioe 
KESTEVENII » 137 
Kingianum 137-8 
linguiforme . 133 
pugioniforme f so JLB 
speciosum 133, 137-8 
speciosum var. gracilli- 
TOOUDODOWY Met || rcs Lae Gh aupdloxe) 
SAMO 56 so oo lass 
teretifolium 133, 459-60 
teretifolium var. Fair- 
faxii .. 460 
Deromyia ; so AUB) 
Destolmia ATALOPA 25 OAs) 
Dicellograptus sp. .. 468 
Diceratucha so COVA 
xenopis .. > oe) 
Dictyophallus 9 
aurantiacus ea A caer) 
Dictyophora . 2-7, 9-11 
bicampanulata 12 
braziliensis 12 
eallichroa an 12 
campanulata 12 
duplicata 5, 11 
Farlowii 11 
indusiata 11-13 
Lilloi 12 
merulina 5 Ie 
multicolor 2, 12-13 
nana : 5 le 
phalloidea. 12 
radicata .. 12 
rosea 13 
speciosa .. 12 
tahitiensis S aeele2 
Dictyota alternifida no Alla 
bifurcea : . 411 
Dillwynia er icifolia 5 Ol 
glabra Ep xexel 
spinescens XXi 
Dimorphella 228 


Dinoprora 


STALIDOSEMA 339 


INDEX. 


Diplograptus foliaceus .. 468 


Eucalyptus eugenioides .. 


Diplotoxay 2s... ASG 
tasmaniensis Nod aEpOt LAN) 
Dipodium punctatum .. 133 
Diuris ee ie 135-6 
aurea oo lidia}, 118%) 
brevifolia 5 113%}, IBS 
maculata 3, TREO 
punctata Biot hae Cals mala 
sulphurea . 133,135 
Dolichoderus secabridus .. 214 
Drosera auriculata rae p. 
peltata et exd 
Dura . 327 
nivea > Beall 
Dysdercus sidae. . 296 
EKoanthropus dawsoni XXXV 
Ephydroscinis .. 60, 74 
australis 60, 74 
raymenti 60, 74 
EIPIBAPTUS .. . 228 
SCUTELLARIS .  eeee22s 
Epipenaeon 267-8, 271 
Eremophila longifolia .. 308 
scoparia Uh ee vo 08 
StUInGIe ee | a2, eens O17 
Eriococcus ; oA 
Ernophthora MILICHA .. 342 
Hrodium cicutarium 5 BAe 
eygnorum Ste (el eee 23) 
Erysipelothrix .. .. 046 
ETRONIA 55 el 
CONVEXA .. 5 IL 
Eucalyptus 


Vali, 5% XG, SA VOKIb<, Ox, 
XXili-xxiv, 211, 442-3, 449 


acmenioides .. 


alba 
amplifolia 
amygdalina 
antipolitensis 
astringens 
bicolor 
bicostata 
Blakeleyi 
Bourlieri 
Bridgesiana 
Camfieldi 
capitata .. 
capitellata 
citriodora 
Cloeziana 
Cordieri 
corymbosa 
crebra 
dealbata 
Deanei 
deformis 


delegatensis 


diversicolor 
diversifolia 
dives 
dumosa 


435-6, 451 
Sey xa 

. 447 

. 442 
XXIV 


a xx 
. 448 

xiv, XxXiv 

, wala 

ad XXiv 
5 AIL, Ah! 
435-6, 451 
.. 442 

. 453 
XXiv, xXxvi 
. vili 

3 XXiv 
"440, 455-6 
. 443, 451 
. 449 


XXVi 


|. Xxv, 440, 448 


xl, 435, 453 
falcata var. ecostata .. xi 
fraxinoides Pisa: ol 
.fructorum . 443, 452 
fruticetorum XOGV 
Gardneri xi 
gigantea Oy Stil 
globulus Xiv, xxiv 
gracilis . xxv, 443 
grandis .  .. Xiv, 452 
Gunn: 9.) 0 eee es 
haemastoma .. xxi, 435, 453 
incrassata . 443, 450, 452 
largiflorens .. .. .. 443 
leptophylla . 447, 451 
Macarthuri .. .. XXvi 
macrorrhyncha xii, 442 
maculata stds LE Piven 
Maideni X, XiV 
marginata oo ete (EXELL; 
melliodora . 211, 443, 452 
micrantha MS aH 5.) Ol 
microtheca .. .. .. 4438 
MOUTON, 55) 46 ac oo “tne 
Mortoniana Xiv, XXiV 
Nicholi . 448 
numerosa Pe XXiv 
odorata .. eee 44.0) 
oleosa . xxv, 440, 448, 452 
oreades ... Sy ext 
paniculata xiv, 443, 450-1 
DAvensi eee xxxii, 449 
phieobophylla ak XXV1 
pilularis wat Mele 458 
pilligaensis . 439, 444, 446 
piperita xxi, 435-6, 442, 450-1 
polyanthema . 450, 453 
polybractea .. .. .. XXV 
pseudo-globulus XxXiv 
punctata . 447, 450 
redunca . 214, 444 
redunca var. elata 24 
regnans xii, xiii, 448 
resinifera Ha TP So Dahy 
robusta j _ 436, 448 
rostrata .. xX, Xiv, 443, 447-9 
saligna .. viii, xiv, 435, 
447, 450-1 
salubris .. .. pail al 
siderophloia . “443, 450-1 
sideroxylon . xiv, 451 
Sieberiana .. 435; 450 
Spelas 436, 444, 450-1, 453 
Spathnuilatayen are eee Se 
Staigeriana XXiV, XXVi 
St. Johnii . Xiv, XxXiv 
Toddiana ve, SSO aS 0. 
transcontinentalis .. 450 
umbra . 435, 451 
viminalis xiv, 447-8 
Vitsatal i. Ae eee ene soo 
Eugenia . vi, vii, ix, xv 
alba Sal AUR ax: 


Hugenia aquea ix 
eucalyptoides 1% 
grandis .. Tb 
jambos ix 
malaccensis .. ix 
myrtifolia ix 
Smithii .. ix 
suborbicularis ix 
uniflora .. vii, ix 

Huhippelates 74 
pallidiseta 4 A ANST A 
pallidiseta var. pallipes 74 

Euomphalus ? sp. . 474 

Euphorbia Drummondii . 323 

Euproctis EMPREPES . 326 
epaxia 326-7 
OCHRONEURA 5 ot 
pelodes : a6 OD 
pycnadelpha .. 326 

Huprora . .. 042 
CRYPSICHLORA . 841 

HKurymela f 213-4, 225 
distincta 211-5, 217, 220 
rubrovittata .. 211-4 

Hurymeloides & TPHEN225 
bicincta ; . 212, 220 
pulchra 211-4, 217, 225 

Euthyridula 74 

Hylais "528-9 

Favosites 5 TE 489 

Flavobacterium . 201, 203 

Floccomutinus .. 2,4 
nymenianus 5 5) 

Formosina 76 
australis > te 

Fraxinus .. 404 

Fusiformis . 346 

Gallaba . 330, 333 
BASINIPHA. > Sel 
DIPLOCYCLA > Saul 
duplicata 331-2 
DYSTHYMA 331-2 
eugraphes so Getl 
EUSCIERA 330-1 
ochropepla 5 Seal 

Gastrodia elata Hee 22 

Gaurax ; . 14-5 
apicipunctata 75 
festivus .. BAD) 

Gelidium . 407 
asperum . 407 
glandulaefolium 407-8 
RECTANGULARE ao AOR 

Geococcus pusillus .. eZe 

Gigantione . 268 

Glossodia major 5 1258, 1837 
minor =a . U3. LBA 

Goniophora sp. . 474 
2 - | oo Aira! 

Gymnobaris 145, 159-60 
LATERALIS 7/159 
politus . 159 


INDEX. 
Habrophylla euryzona .. 326 
Haematopota : . 24 
Halictus raymenti .. . 60 
Halidaya .. 296 

argentea .. 296 
luteicornis .. 296 
Halidayopsis .. 296 
Helipterum moschatum so BAS 
Heterodendron olea e- 
folium . 807 
Hippelates 74 
Homoranthus XXill 
flavescens XXVi 
Hyalomyia : 295-6 
Hymenophallus 9,11 
alboindusiatus 12 
indusiatus 12 
roseus ee Sle} 
Hypargyria whe 44343 
Hypoclinea scabridus oe) 24 
Hyposada aio . 3840 
Icta tanaopsis .. so BD 
Ileodictyon 194- 5 
cibarium ao Ls) 
giganteum ao dL) 
gracile .. 196 
Imaus niveus 50 BT 
Ipo el eee Le 
Ipsichora . 164, 166 
CARINICOLLIS .. . 167 
cupido so JGR 
LONGIPES . 166 
PILIVENTRIS . 168 
TIBIALIS 167-8 
Iridomyrmex Roa: 
detectus .. 2l4 
nitidus ao alla! 
rufoniger go ule! 
Isoetes 50 ANN) 
ISOLUMPIA .. -. PRO 
DIVINA 5 PBL 
Peja MVAH ai. US es ae 4 
Ithyphallus 5 Ee Oe WIL, ILS 
atrominiatus 10-11 
aurantiacus 10 
aurantiacus f. gracilis 11 
calyptratus 12 
? canariensis 10 
celebicus 10 
coralloides 10 
costatus . 10 
discolor .. 10 
glutinolens 10 
imperialis : 10 
impudicus B. ¢5; & 9, 10, 13 
Muellerianus 10, 11 
novae-hollandiae 11 
operculatus 10,11 
paucinervis 10 
quadricolor 12 
Ravenelii 5,10 
retusus oh 10,11 
rubicundus « 2 lid), a3 


Ixvii. 


Ithyphallus Se aa 10 
sanguineus 10 
tenuis 10 

Jansia 1 
annulata 7 
nymeniana ; 8 
rugosa 5 fi, 
truncata 50 ey 8) 

Jussiaea 404-5 

Kalchbrennera 1838-4 

Kirchbaumia at ) 

Kochia ; . dll 
planifolia 308 
sedifolia  308- 9, 316 

Kunzea XXiii 

Laelia FURVA . 328 
obsoleta .. 50. BAS 

Larentia TENUIS 5 alt 

Larix decidua .. SEE ZS! 

Laternea 2, 3, 183, 192, 193, 195 
bicolumnata .. » 188 
columnata > IDB 
pusilla til bo ound 6 )B3 
triscapa . 188, 192 

Lavatera plebeja 5 BR 

Lecanium XXXVili 

Leiophallus 
rubicundus : an VO 

Leiophyllum buxifolium vi 

Lepidodendron # 473-4 
australe 473-4, 484, 486, 491 
(?) Clarkei .. 474 
Mansfieldense . 486 
nothum ae e486 

Leptis . 273, 276 
praefica .. > ALG 

Leptodomus sp. . 474 

Leptophloeum rhombicum 486 

Leptospermum .: viii, xii, 

XV, XVii, xxi, xxiii 
citratum XXiv, xxvi 
flavescens Xxvi 
flavescens var. citrio- 
dora XXiV 
laevigata XV 
lanigerum XxXvi, XxXxix, xl 
Liversidgei xxiv 
microphyllum Xxxix, xl 
odoratum XXVi 
scoparium 5 NIG, FOG VOU 

Leptothricia MNGEET O46 

Leptothrix bucealis 5 BAS 

Lessonia so GUL) 
CORRUGATA .. 410 
variegata . 410 

TTD E RIGA ws) Aan t. euaree nie 

2, 183-5, 188, 192-3, 195 
Dicolumnataye eee oS 
columnata 2,185, 192-3, 198 
pusilla 192-3 

Liparis reflexa lice 


Lobelia 


lxviii. 


497-9, 502, 
504, 509, 511, 520-3, 525 


dentata 497-500, 502-3, 

510, 512-3, 516, 
518-20, 522-3, 525 

gibbosa 497-9, 502-3, 
512, 516, 518, 520, 522-5 

gibbosa var. micro- 
sperma 5 Cd 
microsperma . 497 
Lophiomus laticeps XXXVi 
Lycium australe . 308 

Lyperanthus suaveolens 
83, ILSI7 
Lysurus. 2, 182-4, 186, 188-9 
Archeri 186-7 
aseroeformis 191-2 
australiensis LS 
Beauvaisii oo, alse) 
borealis .. 189-90 
borealis var. Klitzingii 189 
cruciatus .. 189 
Gardneri Beton, lksy4 
mokusin 183, 188-9 
pentactinus 186-7 
Sinensis Ae eat ue) 
sulcatus 183, 189-90 
tenuis > WLS!) 
texensis .. oo Ls) 
Woodii 189-90 
Macropia . 296 
Macropsis lanio , PaR 
Marlena 40. B88) elas oie LX 

Mastotermes .., .. .. 
372-4, 383-6, 388-90 
darwiniensis 5 BIA 

Melaleuca .. viii, xii, 
XV, XVii, xxi, xxiii 
alternifolia XXili, Xxvi 
bracteata XXvVi 
coriacea iets eRe TEX 
linariifolia XXvi 
Melanogaster .. .. .. 277 
Metanthia 145, 150, 156, 163-4 
APINA so. ILS 
GAGATINA 165-6 
GRANULIPES Se liG4: 
pyritosa 164-6 
REGULARIS . 164 
SCUTELLARIS Bod 
Metrosideros Vil, XV 

Micrococcus pyogenes 
EVN ONUIS eae nto. ecpard aera pares 
pyogenes aureus... .. 88 
pyogenes citreus .. .. 88 

Micromonospora Petes 
91, 347-8, 355, 367-8 
Microtis . 136 
oblonga 133 
parviflora 133 
porrifolia af 5 133 
Milichiella HO So, eG 


argentea SPE Meee O 


INDEX. 

Milichiella lacteipennis .. 76-7 
LAGTEIVENTRIS Aaya. Aer eee Wd 
INIGRIPES) cites ath a se PEEA Une 

Mormolyce . 227 

Mourlonea ? . 474 

Mucrocystis . 410 

Musa eee 04: 

. Mutinus ico 7, 9,185, 189 
annulatus 8 
bambusinus 7-9 
boninensis 8-9 
borneensis > ty 
caninus 3) Wy. 2 
curtus fd EUS 
? discolor 10, 11 
elegans ‘ 7 
Fleischeri 0 
Hardyi 189 
Muellerii: 2... “ekswerss 9 
papuasius Lose) bard DOM es 
pentagonus 189 
pentagonus var, Hardyi 189 
Penzigii Ps mi 
proximus on 7 
sulcatus . 189 
Watsoni POPaT reste ak toes 8 
xylogenus Ze fe Pee a 

Mycenastrum 5 ANY) 
corium . 286 

Mycobacterium 79, 201, 

203, 345-8, 353-5, 368 
actinomorphum 354, 363-4 
agreste 3538-4, 364 
chelonei .... es.) 
coeliacum ; 201, 203, 354 
COSi ates in teen 81 
EN OMTCASOAGA oo oo oo wh 
lacticola 79-80 
lacticola var. 

Bh JOUATOIEN 65 oo oo SO 
b. perrugosum .. .. 80 
leprae 80-1, 95 
phlei 79, 81, 202-3, 353 

tuberculosis 80-1, 85, 
95, 202-3, 353 

Mycopharus 2, 182-3, 194 
Gardneri . 190 

Mycoplana . 346, 355 

Myctides . 140,163 
barbatus . 163 
FILIROSTRIS 55 LGR 

Myoporum ple a 307 

Myrcia Rat : ix 

Myriogramme ( ?) " PEr- 
RINAB Son alate . 408 

Myrmecotrichis AcUTAN- 

GULA 5 BB 
aequatorialis 5 

Myrtus a vi-viill 
acmenioides .... .. Vii 
angustifolia Sy dea SSN 
brasiliensis, ..  o2)) 5. aval 
communis cu se PN Eee aval 


Myrtus fragrantissima .. vii 
leucadendra .. vii 
Nanosella . 227, 229 
Naticopsis ? sp. . 474 
Nellitris : . vill 
var. laxiflora . viii 
Neocalliphora a6 abe 
Neophryxe e298 
NEOTRICHOPTERYX 5 ABils ZasT 
GRANDELYTRA °. . . 238 
Neptunia oleracea .. . 405 
Nervicompressa aroa . 328 
Nitophyllum PrrriInaz.. 408 
Nocardia 345-7 
Nothofagus Cunninghamii vi 
Notonomus Av ORB oe 
Nyctimene .. 204 
geminus . 206 
SANCTACRUCIS .. 206 
scitulus 206-7 
Ochromyia hyalipennis .. 172 
Oenone xenopis 5 Bae 
Oidium lactis oan 
Omphalophallus 9 
calvescens sa 1) 
Muellerianus 10, 11 
retusus akest LO 
Onycodes 5 as 
Oospora . 3847 
Orbiomorphus .. 268 
Orbione 267-71 
halipora . 270 
Orgyia aneliopa w26 
retinopepla 325-6 
Oscinella 65, 75 
Oscinis 75 
cincta 74 
pulchrifrons f Bass ets) 
Oscinosoma 60, 1B, U5 
dilata aS 
impura 75 
formosa . 65 
lutea «+ Aah) eNOS 
LUTEICORNIS .. 4.. 64-5, 75 
LUTEOHIRTA a -5, 75, 215 
mesopleuralis 75 
NIGROANNULATA 61, 75 
NIGROHIRTA 64-5, 75 
NIGROVIOLACEA 61, 638, 75 
pruinosa 75 
punctulata ee to) 
quadristriata 63-5, 75 
selachopina 5 US 
similifrons yo 
similis 66, 75 
similis APICTA 66, 75 
similis FUSCIBASIS 66, 75 
similis vera .. 66 
subpilosa TD 
TASMANIENSIS 61-3, 75 
tibiella 5 75 
TINCTIPES Bil, 63, 105) 


Oscinosoma TONNoIRI 61-2, 75 
vitripennis .. .. 75 
Pachylophus “5. s.07.. 05 
BMCRUSH ac. «deg walt iceie FD 
INTECINE 7 Ge eA Reem AT 2) 
lutea Meas aw, ss 05 
secundus LRIGAR 75 
Palpostoma Ae 292, 296 
ARMICEPS 296-7 
SUBSESSIEIS’ 2. 22° 22 297 
Papilio dardanus cenea xxxii 
Papyrus... Hee eet 4: 


Parachaeraps picarinatus 530 


Parahippelates 60, 73 
aequalis 2. 9... ... 74. 
Mpisctare. | ft eee 
amomalaec.. 25 I. TE 
brunneicosta Refi Ck Eg 
costomaculata peta is ATTA 
@asypleura ~..°°..  .. T4 
duplicata RH Aart GLa PUTA! 
HUSCIPCS se) a. ss we TA 
nudiseta sik re 74 
ornatipennis 60, 74 
parva es, Mee Oe Te 
seticauda eh met etter! 

Paramecium =>. ..,. .. 528 

Parapenaeon 267-9, 271 

Parasa DNOPHERA ... .. 393 

PARATUPOSA ie) anes ade eter A 8) 
PLACENTIS oe er) 

Parnara mathias .. .. 296 

Pecopteris. (?) obscura . 466 

Pemphigouotus ohm tana lO 
mirabilis ed byamare cae lO 

Pfeifferella mee bts 1346 

hallariauehiat tis) o.)las (835 

Phallus : Us Gp ial 
annulatus oS en ee a 
aunrantiaeus .. 20.6600 
aurantiacus var. discolor 10 
Draziliensis; .: ..- .. 22 
callichrous .. .. . 112) 
calyptratis .... 12- 13 
Ganariensis: 3... 4. 10 
‘celebicus Beer ew LO 
Collarisvaee cen ay AS 
(CUPBIE 9 Ga 7 
diplopora Mra esa 
Giscolotme ee 10 
gracilis ne RE 10-11 
indusiatus ..0) 2.) 28° 12 
libidinosus .. 2:5 :5. 010 
Moelleri AREY ORE PDE TLD 
multicolor es LBS SO 
novae-hollandiae .. .. 10 
papuasius BIOS Aa Ripe 3 Be 7 
quadricolor a 12-13 
radicatus AS MET TL FET 2 
rochesterensis oe 12-13 
sanguineus .. .. .. 10 


speciosus Seta, eit td ly 
E 4 


INDEX. 


Phallus tahitiensis .. .. 12 
TAM ONEMIACIIIS 56 ae oo IO 
rubicundus var. gracilis 11 
vitellinus Ae PORE SES 
Watson. ateise: on oe e859) 

Pharus ak OS US 

Phebalium montanum fv I 

Phellorina strobolina .. 286 

Pheraspis EPIOCOSMA so Be) 

Philagarica Rn) Nettie RE Bil 
agilis . 227, 241 
PARVA : . 227, 241 

Philagra sp. a A ZA 

PHILIPPOLEPTIS Ses B26 

Phlyctospora fuscum .. 278 

IPateNOMIEy 356  6o an oo, Zoe 

IP eas) BON 55 45 45 hl 
officinalis Suh Se RVD 
officinalis var. longi- 

folias Pk ols. Dee evil 

Pinus radiatay se ae eee oil 

Pionnothrix ASE aT 

Piophila 292-3 
cassei We coud EAR Oa 
contecta) 25 ia. alee 292 
lAtIPES! ae,” sauvage 

Pisocarpium Pe set Reiss 
clavatum SP uh oon eer ce) 

Pisolithus .. 5 AUT, BSS 
arenarius 289-90 
australis Ait REY ee EO) 
Boudieri . 288, 290 
crassipes ine aarelecLeo eg 
Kisslingi Tie’ utiles Wei kee. OO 
IMOENMOTOMENEIS oo oo oo Ze) 
microcarpus .. .. 288, 290 
tinctorius 286, 288-91 

Pisonia . fee teue lta 

Pithecanthropus ‘erectus XXXV 

Platyinar cas Ceet usc 
nebulifera 1g Regs te PA: 

Plutorectis PANTOSEMNA 342 

Poecilasthena PHAEODRYAS 335 
sthenommata od oo OND 

Pogonoscopus myrmex .. 214 

Polysaccum ie ee OS 
ACAI CH ea ee, ee OO 
album 289-9 () 
Bese oo 6a con Zed 
australe Se eoo-ok 
DOTeAle ee ers Oe Oo 
Boudieri Sot Re ee OOS 
confusum “dh 290-1 
conglomeratum .. .. 289 
crassipes .. 289-90 
? degenerans parte eee ONL 
herculeum .. 289-90 
leptothecum .. .. .. 289 
marmoratum .. 289-90 
microcarpum 290-1 
olivaceum HR PTSD at PEDRO 
Pisocarpium .. 289-90 
Pisocarpium var. novo- 

zelandica (. 4... 209 


Ibi bee, 
Polysaccum pusillum .. 289 
tinctorium 289-90 
tuberosum 289-90 
turgidum eh ee 289 
(hoalonyhoybton 955° 250 2 AAeh) 
Polyzoa Sa hota) 1 ee OER A OIL 
Pompholyx a) ROT, 
Pompilus scelestus no 8%} 
Porthesia aliena EN Sue ABAS) 
MELANORRHANTA .. 325 
Prasophyllum brevilabre 458 
elathunal 50 1.) eS 
Proactinomyces : 

355-6, 361- 3, 366- 8 
actinomorphus . 363, 366 
agrestis 353-4, 364-7 
BT AVES CENGH teal eel 

352-3, 361, 366, 368 
MINIMUS 365-6, 368 
PARAFFIN AE 352, 362, 366-8 
polychromogenes 363, 366-7 
Prosena Sie fil ts ek ee OR 
varia ROVE ae 9.98 
variegata aE eine Bea S 
Protolepidodendron a 
465, 482, 484 
lineares 22) ee2 0 Meera! 
Yalwalense .. .. .. 474 
Protopiophila .. .. .. 292 
LatipeSs: 4.8 0 wake | RRAO2 
Pseudocholus 167-8 
cinctus! asset ae aiG9 
FIMBRITARSIS Beret we o:- alate! 
querulus Sy ee ae tO) 
viridimicans SeliGid 
Pseudocolus "185- 6, 195 
Archeri 186-7 
mauritianus SI SUS i 
Rothaer Meee Pass 
Psidium vii, viii 
guajava s. 5 Van 


guajava var. pomiferum Vili 
guajava var. pyriferum viii 


Ptenidium PREY eae ae eens ce rr 
HUGHESAE 241-2 
lA 6s 66) oo) ee ZEAL 
OTFORDENSIS .. ... .. 242 

Rterinedwe cml occu eOS 
SDa i cok Mie aey Vise Unmet lee nee ch 4! 

Pterocladia LMA RLY Mulls TAO Ti 
lucida se es er 408 
PECTINATA we . 408 

Pterolocera amplicor nis. . 328 
ISOGAMA Se hecd ER OAS 

Pteronites 2 NOME STAG S 

Pteropus .. ay) 204 
admiralitatum 3 " 204- 6 
colonus . 204, 206 
HOWENSIS . 204, 206 
hypomelanus 204-6 
hypomelanus canus .. 206 
hypomelanus enganus 206 
hypomelanus lepidus .. 206 
MMH EAMES ao oo ao CANS 


Ixx. 


Pterostylis . 186, 458 
concinna a Uses, LRG 
curta Ce ES eta (S38 
longifolia a4 ao URS 
Mitchellii } 133, 136, 458 
mutica . 138, 459 
mutansn “eh ee: Sess 
ophioglossa . 1338, 130° 


ophioglossa x concinna 136 
pedunculata .. .. .. 138 
pusilla 133, 136-7, 459 
pusilla var. PROMINENS 
133, 137, 458-9 


rufa as 458-9 
Ptilium 227-8, 239 
FLAVOTERMINUM .. .. 2389 
foveolatum . 239 
LATUM : a0 BY) 
myrmecophilum 6 a) 
simsoni . 239 
TORRESENSIS : 238-9 
trisuleatum .. .. .. 239 
Pucecinia triticina .. .. xl 
Quercus robus .. .. .. 281 
Ranina XXXVI 
PEHUEAE, 55 oo XXXvVi 
Receptaculites . 489 
Regelia Rane Ft a Ia 
Rhagio 2a, 206 
Rhagium .. 273 
Rhynchonella 2 “cuboides 467 
pleurodon ae 
467-8, 472, 474, 484- 5 
primipilaris .. . 467 
IRGC, s5  o5 on oo 404 
Rodwayia .. . BR eh eA 
Ruscus aculeatus my ee ories al 
Rutilia iifee gts: pane aoe dtd ES: 
GOnROna. 25, 4a eae 
formosa tye a A IEC 
formosina SSegepo ew AS ETES 
pallens ysl ely cere AAS 
Salsola Kali ti bon CAC) 
Sarcochilus falcatus so LSS} 
Hillii ait! ee Sea peal 
olivaceus : 0. oo Les 
Satyrus rubicundus arpeli® 
Schizosaccharomyces fil- 
trans a Pile Nous 4 eae) 
Scirpus nodosus . 404 
Sclerangium : 277-9 
Scleroderma 277-9, 288 
areolatum ae sauaeoS 
aurantium ; 279- 80, 284-6 
auneim: BS Vee Saeeeie2S5 
australe .. 280-2 
australe var. IMBRI- 
CATUM Se a CRD PREG 
Bovista .. 278-81, 284, 286 
Bresadolacw) awe co 
caespitosum .. 283-4 


INDEX. 


Scleroderma cepa .. 
279-80, 282, 284- 6 


columnare .. .. 286 
flavidum 278- 286, 291 
flavidum forma macro- 
sporum atch ROS 
flavidum var.  fenes- 
tratum . 283, 285 
Geaster . 278, 280, 
282, 284, 286, 291 
herculaneum . 289-90 
lycoperdoides . 278, 283 
olivaceum Sie a ASSO 
pandanaceum . 283, 286 
phaeotrichum 5 PRS) 
radicans 4 277, 280, 285 
strobolina ate 286 
texense "280-1 
tinctorium 288-90 
Torrendii 283 
umbrina 286, 289- 90 
verrucosum .. 280, 283, 286 
vulgare . 281, 284, 286 
Scoliophthalmus 67, 75 
albipilus 67, 75 
(CEN OSAOICIES 55 oo a TD 
vicarius eR ale tyh dal Mes die (5) 
Scoparis EUTACTA OLS 
NIPHETODES sa Byles 
ochrophara Pern AG: 
plagiotis Ry. .. 344 
Scotocyma TR ANSFIXA AN oo Bay 
Scytrophanes AMBLYIODES 330 
Securingea nitida .. .. vi 
Senostomiane ei eens 
hirticeps eh DEINE EERE SS 
Sesbania 5 . 405 
aculeata 4 . 405 
Silphamorpha .... .. 227 
Simblum 2, 183-4 
Muelleri 197-8 
Sinanthropus pekinensis xxxv 
Shiolawangwliing, 25 os of U4 
brevinervis .. .. .. 74 
breviseta PIPE peo PLC 
Solenobaris Pee Yi cs uo) 
CASIOONEOINS 65 oo oo JS 
CRYPTODON oo dng 
decipiens Re Bra) ato) 
DENTICULATA .. .. 155 
edentata “a 8 
EVAUMUATIAL 02 | ton oy ee eeLOIG 
inermis 157-9 
INSIGNIROSTRIS so oe LSS 
MINOR SiO AE LOS 
NITIDIVENTRIS ad WeDo 
ORTHORRHIN A ae beroeedlib6 
PARVIPUNCTATA o5 ibe 
SPATHULIROSTRIS =o IBY) 
Sonchus oleracea =. o2o 
Sonneratia ey Ans RAO 
Sophronia epee nian 
lOMBVAUIGIMIEMS 55 os ‘no IA 


Spaniopsis 28) WOO NT2he 
clelandi .. 274-5 
longicornis .. .. .. 275 

Sphenopteris Carnei . 466 

Sphenotus sp. . .. 474 

Spirifer disjuncta .. 468, 


470, 472, 474, 484-5, 488 


Spondyliaspis eels 
Squalus Portus Jacksoni xxxiy 
Staheliomyces .. .. .. 4 
Staphylococcus albus .. 88 
AUTEUS: oacn ee eee 
citreus) 5.0 2.0 Vic eee ss 
Sire sa oc a 278-9 
Stipa 299, 301, 304-5, 
307-12, 314, 316, 318, 320-4 
Drummondii . 800 
horrifolia . 300 
Luehmannii .. . 300 
nitida . 299-302, 308-9, 
311-2, 314, 316, 322-4 
scabra . 299, 300 
scabra var. auriculata 
299, 300 
variabilis eeo00 
Streptothrix shel: | aus oO: 
buccalis . , co BA 
polychromogenes .. 363 
Syncarpia xi, XV, Xxili 
Hillii son ve 54) GL 
Syntypistis ARISEMN A 50 BES 
Taxodium distichum 404 
Telopea oreades Se | oe 
speciosissima gat a bc. a | 
truncata ED LATED ES A Reem 
Terraereginia .. .. 74 
Tetragonia eremaea " 329- 3 
Tetratheca, ericifolia Pe>.o.0 
thymifolia H 0.4) 
Thalictrum dipterocarpon xl 
AAVUI | cg ex 
Thelymitra a ang tem ltos 
carnea . 133, 135 
ixioides . 133, 1385, 458 
longifolia . 133, 135 
media .. 458 
nuda .. 183-4 
pauciflora . 133, 135 
SD us ON van, eke: aS 
Thosea THRENOPIS . 334 
Phynidwlaws: > | s.5.- soe: 
atroapicatay | .\aanlaemetnnente: 
breviventris .... .. 74 
brunneifrons Pte e ene? (cs 
centralis oo DST: 
TUISOS,  o4 oo 00 74 
Tilletia tritici “xxxvi 
Todites 5 XXXVIli 
Trachinotus ‘potla an XXX1il 
Triticum durum XXXV1 
Trichodesmium scoboi- 
deum XXKV 


INDEX. Dex 


-Trichopalpomyia .. .. 275 ‘Tricimba carinifacies .. 74 Viminaria .. 391-2, 400, 403-5 
Trichopalpus .. .. .. 275 GONVEKdi ne. ast See ee. 4 denudata ion ole Ce CE 
Trichopteryx .. 227-8, polinosa .... .. .. 74 °&Voriella Mache ae wien 7-3 tc 

231, 233, 236, 238 scutellata Se hae oA UAT K- RECEDENS aie Boe) ee eS 
atomaria 5 eantee prac hie) Similaitay.).1 | bcts i. shies, sata, 104 UNISCA says, fae.) boyy es 
australica .. .. 234-6 ‘Trisetum pumilo .. .. 323 : 4 
pee ae . a Michiana xv Xixuthus costatus .. XXXii 
FLAVIPENNIS . 234 (SEUSS) elit Pio. ay SE ASAa AIS. 225 Hoe. eA Oe a0 
focosa) 5) oe .. «5. 236. «6 ypha latifolia -. +. 404 Zena cynethioides .. .. 154 
NORFOLKENSIS aeo4 250 MEGAPHOLA .. .. .. 154 
serricans .. .. .. 228 Vaccinium spp. Seobietnrawaie. S:< VITTIPENNIS .. .. .. 154 
SYDNEYENSIS .... .. 234 Verticordia .. oo... XV Zygophyllum ammophilum 
WALKOMI han ad) ee eegOr- oWebiviertla: 22 yes sk Xxiv 322-3 

Mricimbay 5. =>. .. -.. 04-5 © Vibrio Ee TAY eee OAG OVablIN Woe ee Se oce 
Caminata 6. as 25 wos CA cholerae .. .. .. 98 Zygorhynchus Moelleri.. 93 


FAMILY, GENERA AND SUBGENUS DESCRIBED AS NEW IN 
: THIS VOLUME (1931). 


Page. Page. 
Apotheta (Oenochromidae) .... 334 Deltomyza (Tachinidae) Ren route tte) 
Aulacobaris (Baridiinae) .. .. 160 Epibaptus (Trichopterygidae) .. 228 
Cairnsimyia (Helomyzidae) me ) 204 Etronia (Trichopterygidae) ao pill 
Claustulaceae (Phallales) .. .. 198 Isolumpia (Trichopterygidae) .. 230 
Clytoscopa (Noctuidae) Bh tie GOLO Linderia (Clathraceae) Say di LLOZ 

Crassione (Bopyrina) .. .. .. 267 Neotrichopteryxz (Trichoptery- 
Creobota (Phycitidae) .. .. .. 342 gidae) SO ca Matsa mee tra5 yi) 
Cycloprora (Noctuidae) Bde Gur, OKs Paratuposa (Trichopterygidae) .. 229 
Philippoleptis (Atherimorpha) .. 276 

CORRIGENDA. 


Page 65, line 23, for luteocornis read luteicornis 

Page 133, line 13, for P. ophioglossa read Pterostylis ophioglossa 

Page 296, line 7, for varicornis read varicolor 

Page 497, line 3, after Lilian Fraser, B.Sc. add Science Research Scholar in 
Botany, University of Sydney. 


Ixxii. LIST OF PLATES. 


LIST OF PLATES. 
PROCEEDINGS, 1931. — 


i-ii—Gasteromycetes of Australasia—Phallales. 

liiStrains of ? Actinomyces polychromogenes. 
iv-vii—Physiography of Shoalhaven River Valley (Tallong-Bungonia). 
viii-x.— Australasian Clathraceae. 

xiimHurymelinae. 

xii-xiii—Physiography of Shoalhaven River Valley (Nerrimunga Creek). 
xiv.—Crassione aristaei, n. gen. et sp. 

XV-xvi.—Scleroderma spp. 

Xvii.—Pisolithus spp. 

xviii —Growth at Koonamore Vegetation Reserve. 

xix.—Actinomyces spp. 

xx.—Proactinomyces spp. 

xxii—Mastotermes darwiniensis Frogg. 

xxii —Viminaria denudata—pneumatophores and horizontal roots. 
xxlii—Gelidium rectangulare; Pterocladia pectinata. 
xxiv.—Nitophyllum Perrinae. 

xxv.—Champia insignis; Caulerpa Cliftoni. 

xxvi.—Dictyota bifurca; Dictyota alternifida. 

xxvii.—Caulerpa annulata; Caulerpa articulata. 
xxvili-xxix—Physiography of Shoalhaven River Valley (Nerriga). 
XXxX-xxxii—Devonian Rocks of the South Coast of New South Wales. 
xxxiii—Geological Sketch Map of Eden District, N.S.W. 
xxxivy.—Gcological Sketch Map of South Coast District of N.S.W. 


(Issued 15th April, 1931.) 


No. 233. 


THE 


PrReoceE DINGS 


OF THE 


PIREEAN SOCIETY + 


oF 


New SoutH WALES 


FOR THE YEAR 


Ser 1931. 


Part I (Pages i-xx2x). 


CONTAINING THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING, 
=| With One Coloured Plate. 


SYDNEY: 
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_° E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S. 

~  W. R. Browne, D.Sc. 

. Professor A. N. Burkitt, M.B., B.Sc. 
any H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. 

EB. Cheel. - ; 
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= ~§ €.M.G., D.S.O., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. 
T. Storie Dixson, M.B., Ch.M. 


CONTENTS. 5 = eS 
os Presidential Dainese delivered at the Fitty-sixth Annual MEINE 
i 25th March, 1931, by E. Cheel ORR REEL gee Tea Ms 


Elections Seinen Gute sae iomee nlc 


LIST OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1931-32, °° 


President: | eae be eigateh cr 


cS vas pegresaae WD (Gh ey Osborn, Sean OR ; 
Y Vite Wice-Presidents (4) and Hon. Treasurer to be elected at Council Meeting, ‘ 
Wad a. . 22nd April, 1931. no a ean aa eee 
Pas Be . Secretary: A. B. Walkom, D. Se. 


Council: oh ae ote ee 
W. W. Froggatt, F.LS. — Wigan 
A. G. Hamilton. - . Red reek Wane ics 


Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D. Se. ee 


Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., 
W. LL. Waterhouse, D. Sc. Agr. pti 


Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.P.A. 


PROCEEDINGS, 


c> i e Ay 


A. F. Basset Hull. — Sheds sete 
A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Se. Meee, 


A. B. Walkom,) D:Se.747 3050 8 mt ae 
H. S. H. Wardlaw, DiSe. + ie (is 
G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sce., B.E., RES. 


1931, PART 1. 


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es 


(Issued 15th May, 1931.) 


: : o Fe PROCEE DINGS | 
|| LINNEAN SOCIETY 


New SoutH WaALEs 


1931. 


Part II (Pages 1-138.) 


CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN MARCH-APRIL. 
With seven plates. 
[Plates i-vii.] 


SYDNEY: 
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J Vol. LVI. Be ee es, ae No. 234. ! 
a a Part 2. j 


The Lannea Society of New South Wales — 


LIST OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1931-32. ee eet 

: ee 

; President: ae 

2 Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Se. Wit sp ash 
; ‘Vice-Presidents: Ss ; es A op 

W. R. Browne, D.Sc. bE Cheelt Peie : ~e 

Hy ve. Carter a BsAct SHES! j H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Se. SN gs 


Hon. Treasurer: G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.H., F.E.S. 
Secretary: A. B. Walkom, D.Sc. ' 2 


Council: 2 ; Fes PaN SRL AN vie 

C. Anderson, M.A., D.Sc. — : W. W. Froggatt, F.L.S. ah! Seg 

BE. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S. A. G. Hamilton. aN sr ee 
W. R. Browne, D.Sc. A. F. Basset Hull. Bs 
Professor A. N. Burkitt, M.B., B.Sc. A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. ei, Vea 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. xe 

E. Cheel. *T. C, Roughley. : % hy 

» Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Se. A. B. Walkom, D.Sc. 4 tes nN: 
Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Se. DTN sel ya aed Ne 

C.M.G., D.S.0., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. G. A. Waterhouse, D. Se., B.E., F.E.S. 
T. Storie Dixson, M.B., Ch.M. W. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc. ‘Agr. # ; 
Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.P.A. = oR Nts re 


* Blected 22nd April, 1931, in place of Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, resigned” ~ ean 


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_ Notes on Agieeratian: Diptera. * xxvii. 


By J oe Nato 
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| Rha pee et 7 M. R. Rue BA “(Pour Text: sigures.) 


a 


ETE won ya % hie: 
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PROCEEDINGS 


LINNEAN SOCIETY 


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in te re. 21931, 


Je, ‘ = i . 


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LIST OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1931-32. 


\) a 
i President: f : > 
Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. 


Wice-Presidents: 


W. R. Browne, D.Se. | E. Cheel. 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Se. 
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EK. Cheel. *T, C. Roughley. 
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* Elected 22nd April, 1931, in place of Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, resigned. 


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\ 


2857S Pale 28S se eartson tse 


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By William Macleay, F.L.8. [1881]. 


The TRANSACTIONS OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF NEw SouTH WALES, 2 vols., 8vo. 
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PROCEEDINGS, 1931, PART 3. 


CONTENTS. 


On Baridiinae (Curculionidae), mostly from New Guinea. By A. M. Lea, 
F.E.S., (Thirty-seven Text-figures.) 


The Life-history of Calliphora ochracea Schiner (Diptera, Calliphoridae). 
By Mary E. Fuller, B. Sc. (Two Text-figures.) . 


The Gasteromycetes of a \Gciene xi. The Phallales, Part ii. "By 
G. H. Cunningham. (Plates viii-x.) 


* 


A Note on the Systematic Position of Mycobacterium coeliacum. By H. L. 
Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. (One Text-figure.) 


Three new Bats of the Genera Pteropus, Nyctimene, and Chaerephon, from 


Melanesia. By Ellis Le G. Troughton 


Notes on the Biology and Morphology of the Hurymelinae (Cicadelloidea, 
Homoptera). By J. W. Evans, M.A., F.E.S. (Communicated by Dr. 
R. J. Tillyard.) (Plate xi and nineteen Text-figures.) . 


Trichopterygidae of Australia and Adjacent Islands. Descriptions of five 
new Genera and twenty new Species. By Cedric Deane, A.M.I.H.Aust. 
(Twenty-three Text-figures.) ; 


The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. ii. Nerrimunga 


Creek. By Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the — 


Society in Geography. -(Plates xii-xiii and four Text-figures.) .. 


The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. iii. Bulee Ridge. By 
Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in 


Geography. (One Text-figure.) 


. Pages. 


ao ae 


172181. 


— 182-200 


201-208 


204-209 
210-226 
227-242 


243-260 


261-265 


PROCEEDINGS 
LINNEAN SOCIETY ("4 


New SoutH WALES 


1931. 


Part IV (Pages 267-390.) 


CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN JULY-SEPTEMBER. 
: With eight plates. 
[Plates xiv-xxi.] 


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LIST OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1931-32. : 
President: Pah ieee vite Ss se ie 
Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. — sae ae Lie eet 
ee : WVice-Presidents: Rape Bee 5 
“W. R. Browne, D.Se. : E. Cheel. — _ 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. ; H. 8S. H. Wardlaw, D.Sc. 


Hon. Treasurer: G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.E.S. 
Secretary: A. B. Walkom, D.Sc. 


Council: 5 

C. Anderson, M.A., D.Sc. WwW. W. Pros cart E.L.S. 
E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S. A. G. Hamilton. 
W. R. Browne, D.Sc. A. F. Basset Hull. ; Le oh 
Professor A. N. Burkitt, M.B., B.Sc. A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Se. | : 3 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E. a Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. 
E. Cheel. x *T, C. Roughley. 
‘Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc. : A. B. Walkom, D.Se. - 5 
Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Sc. — 

C.M.G., D.S.O., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S. G. A. Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.ES. 
T. Storie re Sei M.B., Ch.M. Ww. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc.Agr. 3 


Auditor: F. H. Rayment, HC RAG: 
* Hlected 22nd April, 1931, in place of Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, Bes Ea 


NOTICE. 


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4 ie i Bae sola 


Ca 


PROCEEDINGS, 1931, PART 4. 


CONTENTS. ; ae Age : 


On a new Bopyrid Parasite from the Coast of New South Wales.. By 
William J. Dakin, D.Sc., F.Z.S., F.L.S. (Plate xiv and nine _'Text- 
figures.) SHOPLET SNe THESE MBDA ENC gooey TC EAN Mca a ayy seas ee 


Pa 
vy 


Notes on Australian Diptera. XXvili. By J. R. Malloch: (Communicated 
by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) vk) 2 ak SAI TAN alls ce anaes air na 


The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xii. The Genus Scleroderma. By 
G. H. Cunningham. (Plates xv-xvi and six Text-figures.) | 


The Gasteromycetes of Australasia. xiii. The Genus Pisolithus. By 


G. H..Cunningham, (Plate xvil.) | -. 0.6 1. 2. 1%e 22. ee. 


= 


Notes on Australian Diptera. xxix. By J. R. Malloch. “(Communicated 


by Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.) (Two Text-figures. ) RO PEN URS Te ata wie 


“ 


On the Autecology of Stipa nitida: a Study of a Fodder Grasee in n Arid: 


Australia. By T. G. B. Osborn, J. G. Wood and T. B- Paltridge. 
(Plate xviii and fourteen Text-figures.) .. .. .. .. .. «. 


299-324 


Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Supplementary. By A. Jefferis 


Turner, M.D., F.E.S. SU) haseapaeer casei es ea itira ies 


Contributions to our Knowledge of the Actinomycetales. ii. The 
Definition and Subdivision of the Genus Actinomyces, with a Pre- 
liminary Account of Australian Soil Actinomycetes. By H. L. J ensen, 
Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society. (Plates X1X—-Xx. ) 


The Wing-Venation of the Order Isoptera. i. Introduction and the 


Family Mastotermitidae. By R. J. Tl aes M. A., Se.D., D.Sc., F\R.S. 
(Plate xxi and eight Ae ) SPI Rican at iey eat ty 


ee 


288-291 


Pages. Ba 
267-272 
273-276 


277-287 | 


é 


292-298 


325-344 


“Bap S70). ook 


(Issued 15th December, 1931.) 


{jo 


! Vol. LVI. | No. 237. | 
Part 5. 
THE 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


LINNEAN SOCIETY 


or ¢ 


New SoutuH WALES is S 


] 
FOR THE YEAR bs, Barge 


1931. 


Part V (Pages 391-534.) 


CONTAINING PAPERS READ IN OCTOBER-NOVEMBER. 
With thirteen plates. 
[Plates XX1i-XXX1v. ] 


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LIST OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1931-32. 


President: : iS 
Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. oy 
: See Vice-Presidents - $ - 
W. R. Browne, D.Sc. ty . .. #. Cheel. a 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. H. 8S. H: Wardlaw, D.Sc. — { ; ee 


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Secretary: A. B. Walkom, D.Sc. ; 


aia Council: 5 
Cc. Anderson, M.A., D.Sc. ee - W. W. Froggatt, F.LS. s 
EB. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S. A, G. Hamilton, SP 
W. R. Browne, D.Se. ~ A. F. Basset Hull. - ’ 
Professor A. N. Burkitt, M.B., B.Sce._ A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. - Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. 
EK. Cheel, *T. C..Roughley. ; 
Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc. é A. B. Walkom, D.Sc. é 
Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., H. S. H. Wardlaw, D.Se. - ae: 

C.M.G., D.S.O., M.A., D.Se., FOR.S. G. A. Waterhouse, D.Se., B.E., F.E.S. © 

T. Storie Dixson, M.B., Ch.M. W. L. Waterhouse, D.Sc.Agr. 


Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.P.A. Se he 
* Blected 22nd April, 1931, in place of Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, resigned. 


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INDEX TO VOLUMES I-L OF THE PROCEEDINGS [Issued 15th February, 1929]. pp. 108. 


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‘g Royal 4to. LI. and 308 
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a, DESCRIPTIVH CATALOGUE OF AUSTRALIAN FISHES. 


By William Macleay, F.L.S. [1881]. 
A few copies only. Price £1 net. 


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PROCEEDINGS, 1951, PART 5, — 


SF ih ZL 


LCONTENTS = oP 


Pages 


sitet 


The Reaction of Viminaria denudata to increased Water Content of the _ te, 
Soil. By Lilian Fraser, B.Sc. (Plate xxii and eighteen Text-figures. ) 391-406 ea 


Notes on Australian Marine Algae. vi. Descriptions of Six New Species. 
By A. H. S. Lucas, M.A., B.Se. (Plates xxiii-xxvii.) .. .. ..... 407-411 


The Physiography of the Shoalhaven River Valley. iv. Nerriga. By 
Frank A. Craft, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in ~ ep eo 
Geography. (Plates XXVili-xxix and four Text-figures, ) Sahar co “ 412-430 Pa 


A Classification of the Gall-making Coccids of the Genus Apnea: By 5 
Walter W. Froggatt, F.L.S. (Thirty Text-figures.) ep 431-454 


A Note on the Leaf Buds of Angophoras. By Gladys Carey, B.Sc. (Four — apis 
Text-figures. ) a ae See ee ee ER rier Ae a Suet nc go x eee aS 


Notes on New South Wales Orchids. By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. 
(One Tex t-h Sere sche Seas Panel ener clea ears ee ee eee Saaeenmee 458-460 


The Stratigraphical and Structural Geology of the Devonian Rocks of the 
South Coast of New South Wales. By Ida A. Brown, B. sc., Linnean, - 
Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology. (Plates XXX-XXxiv and 
seven Text-feures. ) © 46305 jrvce <p ne ake cae ew cee -461- 496 


An (evechieanad of Lobelia gibbosa and Lobelia dentata. i. Mycorrhiza, ; 
Latex System and General Biology. By Lilian Fraser, B.Sc. (Forty- ae 
four Textfigures 00 pl Sin Ga a ee eee 


Fletcher Memorial Totes: 1931. The Animal Mind and its ea oh Sag 
for Biology:: By W: H. Agar, PRIS. 0) 20a ats es ne oe 


(Issued 15th February, 1932.) 


Vol. LVL OY No. 238, I 
Part 6. : 


THE 


PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


~ LINNEAN SOCIETY 


or 


New Sout WaLeEs 


| FOR THE YEAR aS 
s 3 Las, \ 


1931. _ \ee 


Part VI (Pages xxix-lrxii.) 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS, DONATIONS AND EXCHANGES, 
LIST OF MEMBERS, AND INDEX. 


SYDNEY: 


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LIST OF OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, TOST-BI pike 


President: 
3 Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. 
Vice-Presilentss 
Mist. sBrowne, WOiSeo aa: E. Cheel,.: 
Hid Carter, BeAls BERS ; oH S. H. Wardlaw, D.Sc. re 
Hon. Treasurer: (CN: Waterhouse, D.Sc., B.E., F.E.S. 


Seceriee: A. B. Walkom, D. Se. Janes te be Paes See 


: 4 , Council: ; 
Cc. Anderson, M.A., D.Sc. ~ W. W.=-Propeatt, BLS!) 0 30) 4 z 
EH. €. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S. : VA Go Hamilton. 06) Shae 
W. R. Browne, D.Sc. “i A. F. Basset Hull. © 
Professor A. N. Burkitt, M.B., B.Se. A. H. S, Lucas, M.A., B.Sc. 
H. J. Carter, B.A., F.E.S. Professor T. G. B. Osborn, D.Sc. — hg oe 
H. Cheel. *T_ C. Rougnhley. ‘eee e 
Professor W. J. Dakin, D.Sc. \AC Ba Walkzom, iD. Seo eee ae ‘ a ee a 
Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, K.B.E., HH. 8S. El Wardlaw, D.Sc. 

C.M.G., D.S.0., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S, GA, Waterhouse, D.Se., B.E., F.E.S. 

T. Storie ae SOn, M.B., Ch.M. WwW. L. Wier erro. D.Se. Fae 


Auditor: F. H. Rayment, F.C.P.A. 
* Blected 22nd April, 1931, in place of Mr. G. M. Goldfinch, resigned. 


NOTICE. 


\ 


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v ~ { ‘ Z ‘ 


: PROCEEDINGS, 


. FY 2 eal 
— = - ‘ : \- 


CONTENTS. 


Abstract of Proceedings .. .. ». ... Eek 


Donations and Exchanges Late vt onan eee 


List of Members ata acbe SAP eS ee ape oe 


Bribes IA oy 28 Le NN CER amg 2a oe 


‘ : 


Family, Genera and Subgenus described as new 


’ 


Corrigenda .. .. 1. .. eee. a NE ee NC ane 


Hast: of Plates hese oe es Si x ey 


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